Introduction to power systems technology

017

10 12

.

, ( ) ( )

;

230-400 V

11 to 15.75 kV

66 132 kV

11 kV

(66 132 kV). .

I2R, .

() (11 kV) () (230/400 V) .

.

( ) => .

.

:

, , .

( -1)

.

60680260 (2010 )

0.110.78.201665 (2001)

171732630-25 (2002)

012.714.111.613.648.2 (1979)

1.915.919.415.86.940.1 (2003)

0.72313.32.120.940 (1971)

87.19.4201.353.6 (2000)

0.4109.420.64.255.5 (1990)

2.300097.70 (2011)

(%)

: 1100 W (2012) : 1144 MW ( 2010) : 4423 GWh (2005), 4987 GWh (2011)

: 15 /kWh

(Conventional)

(Nuclear)

U235

(Gas turbines)

(Combined cycle)

(Internal combustion)

(Steam turbines)

(Gas turbines): diesel . . ( 25-35%, , , ).

(Steam turbines): (, , ) , . ( 30-45%, ( ), ).

(Combined cycle): . . (50%).

(Internal combustion): () . diesel . . ( 50%). .

(pumped storage)

()Renewable Energy Sources (RES)

(wind energy) (solar energy) (geothermal energy) (hydroelectric energy) (biomass) (tidal energy)

Conventional Energy Sources

() (heavy fuel oil) (coal) (natural gas) (nuclear energy)

: http://www.tva.gov/power/coalart.htm

, .

: ~11-15.75 kV 66 132 kV .

132 kV

/ (OPGW)

() (11 kV) () (230/400 V) .

.

(D-fuse)

230/400 V

11 kV

(R, Y, B)

. :-- ( )-- (circuit breakers) ( )-- (disconnect switches)-- (voltage and current transformers) ( )-- (surge arresters)( )

:

,

, ,

. , , .

( ).

( , , (.. ).

.

, 4 . .

(FUEL CELLS)

( 40-60%). .

Alcaline Fuel Cells (AFC)Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC)Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

750-1000 C650-700 C190-210 C90-260 C65-85 C

45-65%60-80%40-80%70%40-50%

(reforming)

,

O2- H+ H- H+

SOFCMCFCPAFCAFCPEMFC2

3CO

http://fuelcellsworks.com/Typesoffuelcells.html

, .

.

, .

.

.

vs(t)

Ri(t)

L

a

b

Z R j L= +

(impedance)

X L= (reactance)

,

Tf

VV

tVtv

prms

p

222

)cos()(

===+=

,

2

)cos()(

prms

p

II

tIti

=+=

[ ]{ } [ ])(2sinsin)(2cos1cos...

)cos()cos()()()(

++++=

++==

tIVtIV

tItVtitvtp

rmsrmsrmsrms

pp

[ ]{ } [ ])(2sinsin)(2cos1cos)( ++++= tIVtIVtp rmsrmsrmsrms

:

P: , real power, active power

: W (kW, MW)

: V I

cosrmsrmsIVP = : 0

Q: , imaginary power, reactive power

: VAr (kVAr, MVAr)

sinrmsrmsIVQ = :

, > 0 => Q > 0 , < 0 => Q < 0 , = 0 => Q = 0

jQPS +=S: (apparent power) : VA (kVA, MVA)

Kirchhoff, .

sincos VjVVeVV j +===

rmsVV = , : (phase angle)

= II

22

sincos

)(

QPS

jQPIVjIV

IVIVIVVIS

+=+=+=

====

P

Q S

: power factor

cosp.f. ===SP

IVP

rmsrms

. (leading) (lagging) .

:

=+=+=

=

3030Z126Z060Z

V01200

3

2

1

jjj

V

Z1 Z2 Z3

I1 I2 I3

I

V

.

()

Z1 Z2 Z3

I1 I2 I3

I

V

kVA87.36120kVAr72kW96S

kVA941.33kVA24243030

1200

kVA331.107kVA9648126

1200

kW2460

1200

321TOTAL

3

2

*3

2*33

2

2

*2

2*22

2

*1

2

*1

**

1

*11

=+=++===+===

=+====

====

==

jSSS

SjjZ

VVIS

SjjZ

VVIS

Z

V

ZVV

ZVVVIS

;-- (.. ).-- .-- .-- .

( ).

240)240sin(2)(

120)120sin(2)(

0)sin(2)(

====

==

VVtVtv

VVtVtv

VVtVtv

cc

bb

aa

-- 120 -- : a-b-c

( , positive sequence)

Va

Vb

Vc

= ZZ

ZVI =

)240()120(

0

==

===

IIII

IZV

ZVI

c

b

aa

, . , .

: (Y) (star wye) () (delta).

(neutral).

van

vbnvcnn

Z

nZ Z

ia

ibn

in

ib

ic

icn

ian

, .

cban IIII ++=

cnc

bnb

ana

IIIIII

===

phaseline II =

303 = pLL VV 30.

Z

ia

ibc

ib

ic

icaiabZ

Z

pLL VV =

303 = pL II

: [ ][ ][ ])4802cos(cos)(

)2402cos(cos)()2cos(cos)(

==

=

tIVtptIVtptIVtp

rmsrmsc

rmsrmsb

rmsrmsa

:cos3)()()()( rmsrmscbatotal IVtptptptp =++=

, .

cos33 pp IVP =

:

sin33 pp IVQ = :

*333 3sin3cos3 pppppp IVIVjIVQPS =+=+=

. :

cos33 LLL IVP = sin33 LLL IVQ =

.

120 V rms 10 A rms 60 (lagging).,

W6005.010120cos === rmsrmsavg IVP,

VA120010120 === rmsrmsIVS

, 0 ( 600 W).

.

.

P1

Q1S1

1

1. Q1.

, .

VAr75W,100 11 kQkP ==VA1251

21

211 kSQPS =+=

lagging8.0cosp.f.125100cos 1

1

11 ==== S

P

0.95 lagging. ;

P1

Q1S1

1

Q1 Q2.

P1 = P2

Q1S1

12

Q2S2

Qc

2

22

22

tan

19.18cos95.0p.f.

PQ=

===

VAr87.322 kQ =, Qc = Q1 - Q2 => Qc = 42.13 kVAr.

VA26.105cos 2

22 k

PS == , 125 kVA.

,

, .

( ).

.

-- , ( ).

-- .

(, , )

+

-e1v1(t)

N1

i1(t)

+++

--

-

i2(t)

e2 v2(t)

N2

:-- .-- -- .

-- , .

, V = E

2211

1

2

2

1

2

1

2

1

1

IEIENN

II

NN

EE

===

==

-- R1 R2: -- X1 X2: -- Xm: , .-- Rc: ( , core losses) (hysteresis) Eddy(eddy currents).

+

-E1V1

N1

I1

++

+

-

-

-

I2

E2 V2

N2

R1 R2X1

Rc

X2

XmIc

IeIm

: .

e, i T, n

(generators)

(motors)

(alternating current) (ac)

(direct current) (dc)

Rotating magnetic field

;

, , . .

ac.

acAc motor

: (stator) (rotor)

:

, .

120, .


: http://www.powerditto.de/Schemaengl.html

120 .

(2, 4, ).

; :

A)240sin()(A)120sin()(

Asin)(

==

=

tItitItitIti

Mcc

Mbb

Maa

=> H

AT/m0sin)( = tHtH Maa:sin tHM:0

: , .


AT/m240)240sin()(AT/m120)120sin()(

==

tHtHtHtH

Mcc

Mbb

:

HB = :

,

T240)240sin()(T120)120sin()(

T0sin)(

==

=

tBtBtBtBtBtB

Mcc

Mbb

Maa


:

]cos[sin51240)240sin(120)120sin(0sin

)()()()(

tjtB.tBtBtB

tBtBtBtB

M

MMM

ccbbaatotal

=++=

++=

: 1.5BM

(induced voltage) ac

: Vsin tNe cind =Nc: : :

:

V)240sin()(V)120sin()(

Vsin)(

==

=

tNtetNtetNte

ccc

cbb

caa

(induced voltage) ac

:

max cNE =

f2 = fNE c2max =

(rms) :

fNEfNE crmscrms 222 ==

%100=in

out

PP

%100+= lossesoutout

PPP

ac() (copper losses, I2R losses)

.

(stator copper losses):

(rotor copper losses):

1213 RIPSCL =

2223 RIPRCL =

() (core losses)

eddy .

ac() (friction losses)

(bearings) (brushes)

() (windage losses)

() (stray losses, miscellaneous losses)

Voltage regulation and speed regulation

: .

: (shaft) .

%100=FL

FLNL

VVVVR

%100=FL

FLNL

nnnSR %100

=FL

FLNLSR

(n: rpm, : rad/s)

acAc machines

Synchronous machines

Induction machines

.

.

: (stator) (rotor) : (slots) .

: , ( )

: , (field current).

. (.. ), .

, ( Faraday) (induced voltage).

( ) 120 ( 120 ).

DC (DC MACHINES)

dc

dc dc.

dc: - dc

(, , )- .

- (,, ).

- dc ac, ac .

- ( ) dc. ac/dc (commutator).

: (rotor) (stator)

()

(slots) .

dc [2]

dc [2]

ac: dc (armature) .

- (dc )

- .

- .

lBve = )(

sinBvBv =

v: B: l:

.

,

. (commutator) (brushes).

. .

: P. C. Sen, Principles of electric machines and power electronics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997.

, ( ).

Vdc30NS

Bv

v

a

b

1

2

Ir_dc

dc => : (N) (S) .

brushes

commutator

dc. . Lorentz . . ., , .

30 NS Vdc

a

b

1

2

B

v v

Ir_dc

, . , (commutator).

, .

, .

DC

%100=in

out

PP

%100+= lossesoutout

PPP

%100=in

lossesin

PPP

DC() (copper losses, I2R losses)

.

copper

FFAAcu RIRIP22 +=

() (core losses)

eddy .

armature field

() (brush losses) .

Abb IVP =brush

V2bV ( )

DC()

(friction) (windage). .

() (stray losses, miscellaneous losses) ( 1% ).

DC

1. (separately excited)2. (shunt)3. (series)4. (compounded)5. Dc (permanent-magnet dc motor)

S. J. Chapman, Electric machinery and power system fundamentals, New York: McGraw Hill, 2002.

T. Wildi, Electrical machines, drives, and power systems, 5th ed., Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2002.

G. G. Karady and K. Holbert, Electrical energy conversion and transport: an interactive computer-based approach, Piscataway: IEEE Press, 2005.

Z. A. Yamayee and J. L. Bala Jr., Electromechanical energy devices and power systems John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1994.

J. D. Glover and M. S. Sarma, Power System Analysis and Design, 3rd ed., Pacific Grove: Thomson Learning, 2002.

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Introduction to power systems technology