Introduction to Nigeria. A New Democracy? – the 2006 and 2007 elections

Introduction to NigeriaIntroduction to Nigeria

A New Democracy? – the 2006 and 2007 elections

Thinking about NigeriaThinking about Nigeria

– Huge populationHuge population– Fertile soilFertile soil– Well-educated eliteWell-educated elite– Vast oil and gas reservesVast oil and gas reserves


– PovertyPoverty In In lowest quarterlowest quarter of poor of poor

countriescountries Dependence on Dependence on oiloil Low Low life expectancylife expectancy UrbanUrban population growth population growth Total population growthTotal population growth


– EthnicityEthnicity 400 ethnic groups400 ethnic groups *Hausa-Fulani*Hausa-Fulani **YorubaYoruba **IgboIgbo Multiplicity of languages.Multiplicity of languages.


– High stakes politicsHigh stakes politics High High unmet expectationsunmet expectations of of

governmentgovernment Alternation of Alternation of militarymilitary and and

civiliancivilian regimes regimes SpoilsSpoils of office are high of office are high

(prebendalism)(prebendalism) Few established Few established institutionsinstitutions

Thinking about NigeriaThinking about Nigeria– Key questionsKey questions

How is the legacy of colonialism reflected How is the legacy of colonialism reflected in Nigerian politics?in Nigerian politics?

What role does ethnicity play in What role does ethnicity play in reinforcing the country’s difficulties?reinforcing the country’s difficulties?

Why does Nigeria remain one of the Why does Nigeria remain one of the poorest countries in the world despite its poorest countries in the world despite its massive oil and natural gas reserves?massive oil and natural gas reserves?

How have frequent shifts from civilian to How have frequent shifts from civilian to military rule and back again exacerbated military rule and back again exacerbated the country’s many social and economic the country’s many social and economic problems?problems?

The Evolution of the Nigerian The Evolution of the Nigerian StateState

– Before the BritishBefore the British Numerous well-developed Numerous well-developed politicalpolitical, ,

culturalcultural, and , and economiceconomic systems systems Hausa states in Hausa states in northnorth Yoruba kingdoms in Yoruba kingdoms in westwest and and

southwestsouthwest (and neighboring Benin) (and neighboring Benin) IgboIgbo villages in southeast and Niger villages in southeast and Niger

DeltaDelta Portuguese slave trade of late 15th Portuguese slave trade of late 15th

centurycentury


IndependenceIndependence– First drive for independence came with WWIFirst drive for independence came with WWI– WWIIWWII made independence inevitable made independence inevitable– British promulgated constitution (1946)British promulgated constitution (1946)– October 1960 elections and independenceOctober 1960 elections and independence


Burden of problems inherited from colonial Burden of problems inherited from colonial timestimes

1.1. Inhibits Inhibits national identifynational identify formation: formation: colonial rule (direct in the south/indirect in the colonial rule (direct in the south/indirect in the

north) created regional identities and rearranged north) created regional identities and rearranged boundaries.boundaries.

2.2. EthnicEthnic and and religiousreligious division and tensions division and tensions indigenous and Christian religions in the south, indigenous and Christian religions in the south,

Islam in the north; underlying ethnic identities Islam in the north; underlying ethnic identities rearranged boundaries.rearranged boundaries.

3.3. ResidualResidual colonial institutional and cultural colonial institutional and cultural featuresfeatures

bureaucracy, language, colonial boundariesbureaucracy, language, colonial boundaries

4.4. DependencyDependency extractive economic relations with the West and extractive economic relations with the West and

former colonial power; neocolonialism (continued former colonial power; neocolonialism (continued exploitation)exploitation)

5.5. System of governmentSystem of government Westminster and procedural features Westminster and procedural features

of western democracyof western democracy

6.6. Ineffective Ineffective civil societycivil society and weak and weak democratic consolidationdemocratic consolidation

7.7. Imposed Imposed nationalnational boundariesboundaries


The First – Third Republic interrupted The First – Third Republic interrupted by numerous junta/military rulersby numerous junta/military rulers

– Traditional parliamentary systemTraditional parliamentary system– Federal system Federal system – Nigerian political culture unsuited to Nigerian political culture unsuited to

adversarial system (not everyone adversarial system (not everyone represented)represented)

– High stakes politics and corrupted High stakes politics and corrupted elections led to overthrow of regimeelections led to overthrow of regime


Military Rule IIIMilitary Rule III– More authoritarian than previous More authoritarian than previous

military regimesmilitary regimes– As corrupt as any governmentAs corrupt as any government

Fourth RepublicFourth Republic– 1999 election of Obasanjo1999 election of Obasanjo– 2007 election of Yar’Adua2007 election of Yar’Adua

The Fragile Nigerian StateThe Fragile Nigerian State

The Fourth RepublicThe Fourth Republic– American-styleAmerican-style presidency presidency– National Assembly similar to U.S. National Assembly similar to U.S.

CongressCongress– Anglo-American style judiciaryAnglo-American style judiciary

Network of local and state courts Network of local and state courts with a Supreme Courtwith a Supreme Court

Sharia appellate court option for Sharia appellate court option for statesstates

Institutions of National GovernmentInstitutions of National Government

Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory)Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory)

Three branches of government (Legislative, Executive, Three branches of government (Legislative, Executive, Judicial)Judicial)

Executive has been most dominant traditionallyExecutive has been most dominant traditionally

Each of the 36 states and 774 local governments has an Each of the 36 states and 774 local governments has an executive, legislative, and judicial branchexecutive, legislative, and judicial branch

22ndnd, 3, 3rdrd, & 4, & 4thth Republics (all since 1979) had presidential Republics (all since 1979) had presidential system, with a strong executive theoretically checked by system, with a strong executive theoretically checked by bicameral legislature and independent judiciarybicameral legislature and independent judiciary

Currently neither federalism or checks & balances Currently neither federalism or checks & balances operate, and state & local governments are completely operate, and state & local governments are completely dependent on the central governmentdependent on the central government

Selecting an executiveSelecting an executive

Direct popular electionDirect popular election Variety of candidatesVariety of candidates Fixed election cycleFixed election cycle President cannot run for a third President cannot run for a third

consecutive termconsecutive term

Nigerian ExecutiveNigerian ExecutiveUnique FeaturesUnique Features Military coups.Military coups. The Nigerian Parliament is The Nigerian Parliament is

more compliant.more compliant. Parties play a more Parties play a more

significant role in significant role in empowering the Nigerian empowering the Nigerian president because his president because his party controls the party controls the legislature and helps get legislature and helps get his agenda passed.his agenda passed.

The Nigerian President The Nigerian President receives more receives more international support.international support.

Presidential StructurePresidential Structure Acting President: Goodluck Jonathan Acting President: Goodluck Jonathan Serves as Head of State and Head of Serves as Head of State and Head of

GovernmentGovernment Independently elected according to Independently elected according to

the 1999 Constitution.the 1999 Constitution. President must be a citizen of Nigeria, President must be a citizen of Nigeria,

at least 40 years of age, and be at least 40 years of age, and be sponsored by his political party. sponsored by his political party.

Limited to two terms of office, four Limited to two terms of office, four years each. years each.

Goodluck JonathanGoodluck Jonathan Controls:Controls: Military and PoliceMilitary and Police Federal Ministries (the Cabinet)Federal Ministries (the Cabinet) Federal Civil Service Federal Civil Service Revenue Allocation System Revenue Allocation System Federal CommissionsFederal Commissions Signs bills and refers back to Signs bills and refers back to

AssemblyAssembly Appoints ambassadors, etc. Appoints ambassadors, etc.


– The The PersonalizationPersonalization of of PowerPower Person in position more important Person in position more important

than formal responsibilities and than formal responsibilities and powers of officepowers of office

– Corruption (chop-chop) - Corruption (chop-chop) - massivemassive and and ubiquitousubiquitous


FederalismFederalism– Blunted ethnic conflictBlunted ethnic conflict– Uncertainty about powers of Uncertainty about powers of

statesstates– Duplication of services and Duplication of services and

bureaucraciesbureaucracies– Preserved Preserved ethnicethnic divisions divisions

BureaucracyBureaucracy

British installed elaborate civil service system British installed elaborate civil service system during colonial periodduring colonial period

Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs within bureaucracywithin bureaucracy

Civil service sector continued to grow after Civil service sector continued to grow after independenceindependence

Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and inefficient. Bribery is common.inefficient. Bribery is common.

Jobs in civil service are often awarded through the Jobs in civil service are often awarded through the patron-client system, patron-client system, PrebendalismPrebendalism..

Bureaucracy IIBureaucracy II

ParastatalsParastatals– Most government agencies are Most government agencies are

parastatals, or corporations parastatals, or corporations owned by the state. (Similar to owned by the state. (Similar to Mexico)Mexico)

– Provide commercial and social Provide commercial and social welfare serviceswelfare services

– Board members are appointed Board members are appointed by government ministers, and by government ministers, and corporate executives are part of corporate executives are part of the president’s patronage the president’s patronage systemsystem

– Parastatals provide public Parastatals provide public utilities such as water, utilities such as water, electricity, public transportation, electricity, public transportation, and agricultural subsidiesand agricultural subsidies

– Control major industries such as Control major industries such as steel, defense industry, and steel, defense industry, and petroleumpetroleum

State CorporatismState Corporatism– Corporatism – authoritarian Corporatism – authoritarian

political system that allows for political system that allows for political input from selected political input from selected interest groups outside the interest groups outside the government structuregovernment structure

– In Nigeria, this input is provided In Nigeria, this input is provided by parastatals, because they are by parastatals, because they are controlled by the government it controlled by the government it is referred to as is referred to as State State CorporatismCorporatism

– Parastatals insure that the state Parastatals insure that the state controls private interest as well controls private interest as well as fulfills social & economic as fulfills social & economic functionsfunctions

– Parastatals serve as contact Parastatals serve as contact point between government & point between government & business interests, but state business interests, but state ultimately controls these ultimately controls these interactions (Corrupt & inept) interactions (Corrupt & inept)

Nigeria and the Plight of the Third Nigeria and the Plight of the Third WorldWorld

Should there be a Nigeria?Should there be a Nigeria? Prospects for national Prospects for national

reorganization in Africa very reorganization in Africa very unlikelyunlikely

Solutions will have to come Solutions will have to come within current national within current national boundaries.boundaries.

Legislature IILegislature II

SenateSenate 109 Senators109 Senators 3 from each of the 36 3 from each of the 36

statesstates 1 from Abuja district1 from Abuja district Directly elected by Directly elected by

popular votepopular vote Senators are ethnically Senators are ethnically

and religiously diverseand religiously diverse Only 4 of 109 Senators Only 4 of 109 Senators

were women as of 2003 were women as of 2003 electionselections

National AssemblyNational Assembly Formerly called House of Formerly called House of

RepresentativesRepresentatives 360 member 360 member

representativesrepresentatives Single-member districts, Single-member districts,

elected by plurality voteelected by plurality vote Only 23 of the 360 Only 23 of the 360

representatives are representatives are women (2003)women (2003)

JudiciaryJudiciary

Early years of after independence judiciary had great deal of Early years of after independence judiciary had great deal of autonomyautonomy

Autonomy stripped by military decrees that nullified court Autonomy stripped by military decrees that nullified court decisions and setup quasi-judicial tribunals outside regular decisions and setup quasi-judicial tribunals outside regular systemsystem

Judicial review was suspendedJudicial review was suspended Presidential cronies appointed as justicesPresidential cronies appointed as justices Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws in Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws in

accordance with the Constitution, so judicial review exist in accordance with the Constitution, so judicial review exist in theorytheory

Court structure at state & federal level, highest court is the Court structure at state & federal level, highest court is the Supreme CourtSupreme Court

Shari’a courts exist in parallel existence with courts developed Shari’a courts exist in parallel existence with courts developed on British modelon British model

Cases:Cases: In 1993, Mshood Abiolao, winner of annulled 1993 election was detained and In 1993, Mshood Abiolao, winner of annulled 1993 election was detained and

died in custody. Presiding judges changed often and critics attacked the died in custody. Presiding judges changed often and critics attacked the military cronyism of the judicial systemmilitary cronyism of the judicial system

In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other activists were detained and In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other activists were detained and executed under court orders arranged by the military and presided over by executed under court orders arranged by the military and presided over by military officersmilitary officers

Participation in NigeriaParticipation in Nigeria Identify areas in which Identify areas in which discussions of political discussions of political

policypolicy take place in some of the countries studied take place in some of the countries studied so far….so far….

Possible Answers:Possible Answers:– Informal family discussionsInformal family discussions– News mediaNews media– Advertising mediaAdvertising media– Civic groupsCivic groups– Formal Political Settings (Political parties, campaigns, Formal Political Settings (Political parties, campaigns,

interestinterest

Identity Politics in Identity Politics in NigeriaNigeria

prebendalismprebendalism

Background to Background to prebendalismprebendalism

Traditional Nigerian societies were Traditional Nigerian societies were village village societiessocieties::– Nearly everyone was related to everyone elseNearly everyone was related to everyone else– Survival and well-being depended on Survival and well-being depended on

cooperationcooperation and and sharingsharing..– There was NOT a great difference in wealth There was NOT a great difference in wealth

and income. EVERYONE TOOK CARE OF and income. EVERYONE TOOK CARE OF EVERYONE ELSE IN THE VILLAGE!EVERYONE ELSE IN THE VILLAGE!

This mindset spread throughout Nigeria This mindset spread throughout Nigeria even after British colonial occupation.even after British colonial occupation.

This concept is foreign to many AmericansThis concept is foreign to many Americans– Example: Hillary Clinton, Example: Hillary Clinton, It Takes a VillageIt Takes a Village

DefinitionDefinition PrebendalismPrebendalism is the version of identify politics is the version of identify politics

practiced in Nigeriapracticed in Nigeria– Prebend Prebend = salary paid to a clergymen from a special fund = salary paid to a clergymen from a special fund

administered by his church or cathedral.administered by his church or cathedral. In Nigeria, In Nigeria, prebendalismprebendalism describes the common describes the common

notion that a person elected to or employed by the notion that a person elected to or employed by the government is government is ENTITLEDENTITLED to benefit from the to benefit from the position. position. – Those who are elected or hired are also entitled to a share Those who are elected or hired are also entitled to a share

of the benefits that come with power and control of of the benefits that come with power and control of government spending. government spending.

It is the disbursement of It is the disbursement of public officespublic offices and and state state rentsrents to one’s ethnic-based clients. to one’s ethnic-based clients.

An extreme form of An extreme form of clientalismclientalism that refers to the that refers to the practice of mobilizing cultural and other sectional practice of mobilizing cultural and other sectional identities by political aspirants and officeholders for identities by political aspirants and officeholders for the purpose of corruptly appropriating the purpose of corruptly appropriating statestate resourcesresources..

Further Discussion of Further Discussion of Nigeria…Nigeria…

FeedbackFeedback

– Relatively Relatively free pressfree press (even under (even under military regimes)military regimes)

– Low Low literacyliteracy rate rate– Government-controlled broadcast Government-controlled broadcast

media key to feedbackmedia key to feedback– State broadcastState broadcast stations now compete stations now compete

with national networkwith national network

Public PolicyPublic Policy

Economic development and Economic development and structural adjustmentstructural adjustment

– Export-basedExport-based economy vulnerable economy vulnerable– Oil prices have created Oil prices have created crisescrises and and

opportunitiesopportunities– ImportImport substitutionsubstitution has not worked has not worked

wellwell– StructuralStructural adjustmentadjustment results mixed results mixed

REVIEW: What are patron-REVIEW: What are patron-client networks?client networks?

Relationships between higher-up individuals Relationships between higher-up individuals ((patronspatrons) and a subordinate individual ) and a subordinate individual ((clientclient). Each benefits from the relationship ). Each benefits from the relationship as as politicalpolitical favorsfavors are given by the patron in are given by the patron in return for support from the client. return for support from the client.

What is the name for the system in Nigeria? What is the name for the system in Nigeria? Mexico?Mexico?– In Nigeria such relationships are called In Nigeria such relationships are called

prebendalismprebendalism and in Mexico it is called the and in Mexico it is called the camarillacamarilla system. system.

REVIEW: What is an Ethnic REVIEW: What is an Ethnic Cleavage? And what are the Cleavage? And what are the

three major cleavages in three major cleavages in Nigeria?Nigeria?

DifferencesDifferences or or divisiondivision in the in the characteristics of a population. characteristics of a population.

Ausa-Fulani, Igbo, and YorubaAusa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba

Ethnic conflict in Nigeria….Ethnic conflict in Nigeria….

There are hundred of There are hundred of ethnicethnic groupsgroups and and conflictsconflicts occur over occur over religionreligion, , economiceconomic statusstatus and and traditionstraditions. . – Hausa-Muslim group who dominates North Hausa-Muslim group who dominates North

while the rest of the country is largely while the rest of the country is largely Christianity or indigenous religions.Christianity or indigenous religions.

What has Nigeria done to What has Nigeria done to reduce ethnic conflict?reduce ethnic conflict?

Require that political parties have Require that political parties have broad broad popular support.popular support.– This is done by the National Election Commission This is done by the National Election Commission

(NEC), a commission that requires presidential (NEC), a commission that requires presidential candidates have support from a variety of regions. candidates have support from a variety of regions.

– It also establishes guidelines for party formation. It also establishes guidelines for party formation. Obasanjo’s contributions:Obasanjo’s contributions:

– Attempting to create a more Attempting to create a more stablestable and and openopen societysociety..

– Nigeria has Nigeria has divideddivided fundsfunds more more equitablyequitably among among the states. the states.

– One member from each One member from each statestate in his cabinet. in his cabinet.

How has Nigeria democratized How has Nigeria democratized its political process?its political process?

Implementation of new Implementation of new constitutionconstitution eliminating eliminating military rule.military rule.

FreerFreer presspress.. Reappearance of regular Reappearance of regular electionselections; elections have ; elections have

continued since 1999)continued since 1999) Protections for Protections for ethnicethnic and and religiousreligious groups groups Redrawing of Redrawing of statestate boundariesboundaries to increase to increase

representation (including increasing the number representation (including increasing the number of states).of states).

Direct electionDirect election of president to increase legitimacy. of president to increase legitimacy. Creation of Creation of IndependentIndependent NationalNational ElectoralElectoral

CommissionCommission (INEC) (INEC)

However…However…

There has been some resistance to There has been some resistance to Nigeria’s democratization:Nigeria’s democratization:– Coups d’étatCoups d’état– Introduction of Introduction of Shari’ahShari’ah law into some law into some

states (Zamfara) has states (Zamfara) has underminedundermined democratization.democratization.

– IllegitimateIllegitimate elections. elections.– Military resorting to Military resorting to violenceviolence..– Poor Poor humanhuman rightsrights record (Odi). record (Odi).

XXII. Economic IssuesXXII. Economic Issues

Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a squandering of Nigeria’s wealthsquandering of Nigeria’s wealth

Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the population lives in povertypopulation lives in poverty

Large oil revenues have been pocketed by government Large oil revenues have been pocketed by government officialsofficials

Economic situation complicated by ethnic & regional Economic situation complicated by ethnic & regional conflictconflict

In February 2001, federal government asked the In February 2001, federal government asked the Supreme Court to all the government to collect oil Supreme Court to all the government to collect oil revenue and put it in a “federal account” (Revenue revenue and put it in a “federal account” (Revenue Sharing)Sharing)

Areas in the south along Niger River Delta protested this idea, Areas in the south along Niger River Delta protested this idea, they believed the policy was a way for northerners to take profits they believed the policy was a way for northerners to take profits and revenue away from the southand revenue away from the south

Economic Issues IIEconomic Issues II

OilOil Oil wealth during the 1970s Oil wealth during the 1970s

gave Nigeria international gave Nigeria international leverageleverage

OPEC memberOPEC member

Conflicts in Middle East have Conflicts in Middle East have made Nigeria more made Nigeria more important as a trade partner important as a trade partner for other countries since for other countries since 1970s1970s

Lack of economic Lack of economic diversification hurts Nigeria diversification hurts Nigeria when oil prices dropwhen oil prices drop

DEBT – as a result of drop in DEBT – as a result of drop in oil prices and lack of oil prices and lack of revenue surplusrevenue surplus

Structural AdjustmentStructural Adjustment 1980s, Nigeria seeks 1980s, Nigeria seeks

assistance from assistance from international international organizations to deal organizations to deal with debt crisiswith debt crisis

World Bank & IMF World Bank & IMF involvementinvolvement

– Restructure & Restructure & diversification of diversification of Nigerian economyNigerian economy

– Privatize parastatalsPrivatize parastatals– Cut government Cut government

spendingspending

““Shock Treatment” not Shock Treatment” not very successfulvery successful

– Parastatals still under Parastatals still under government controlgovernment control

– Debt repayment had to Debt repayment had to be restructuredbe restructured

Documents

Introduction to Nigeria. A New Democracy? – the 2006 and 2007 elections