Introduction to Motivation Instinct Theory Drive-Reduction
Theory Arousal Theory Hierarchy of Motives
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Motivation Motivation is a need or desire that energizes
behavior and directs it towards a goal. Aron Ralston was motivated
to cut his arm to free himself from a rock that pinned him down.
Aron Ralston AP Photo/ Rocky Mountain News, Judy Walgren
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Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology Instincts are complex
behaviors that have fixed action patterns throughout species and
unlearned (Tinbergen, 1951). Where the woman can build different
kinds of houses the bird builds only one kind of nest. Ariel
Skelley/ Masterfile Tony Brandenburg/ Bruce Coleman, Inc.
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Drive-Reduction Theory When the instinct theory of motivation
failed it was replaced by drive-reduction theory. Physiological
need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an
organism to satisfy the need (Hull, 1951).
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Drive Reduction Food Drive Reduction Organism Physiological aim
of drive reduction is homeostasis maintenance of steady internal
state, e.g., maintenance of steady body temperature. Stomach Full
Empty Stomach (Food Deprived)
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Incentive Theory Where our needs (drives) push, incentives
(positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives. A
food-deprived person who smells baking bread (incentive) feels
strong hunger drive. Incentives can also be negative, we may behave
in a certain way in order to avoid an unpleasant outcome You should
see the connection between this theory and Behaviorist principles
of learning (conditioning, Law of Effect, and the Premack
Principle)
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Cognitive Theory Motivation results from individuals attempting
to maintain order or balance and an understanding of the world.
Believes that individual behavior is influenced by the way people
perceive themselves and their environment. People seek to maintain
order and understanding. Students are motivated to engage in
learning tasks to the extent that they expect to succeed and the
degree to which they value the achievement of the task. 7
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Optimum levels of Arousal Human motivation aims not to
eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of arousal We each
have our own sense of appropriate arousal and we act in ways to
remain at a comfortable level. Yerkes-Dodson Law predicts that
there is a relationship between the difficulty of a task, our level
of arousal, and the eventual outcome For easy tasks=higher levels
of arousal For difficult tasks= moderate levels work best
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9 The Zone
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Hierarchy of Motives Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested some needs
have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing,
thirst and hunger come before psychological needs like achievement,
self-esteem and need for recognition. (1908-1970)
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Hierarchy of Needs Physical Needs Psychological Needs
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Hunger Physiology of hunger Parts of the hypothalamus Set Point
theory Eating Disorders
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Hunger When are we hungry? When do we eat? When there is no
food in our stomach. When we are hungry. How do we know when our
stomach is empty? Stomach growls. Also called hunger pangs.
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The Physiology of Hunger Stomach contractions (pangs) send
signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger.
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Glucose: C 6 H 12 O 6 Glucose level in the blood is maintained.
Insulin decreases glucose in blood making us feel hungry. Glucose
Molecule
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Glucose & Brain Levels of glucose in the blood are
monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, intestines,
they send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain. Rat
Hypothalamus
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Hypothalamic Centers Lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on hunger
(stimulation). Destroy it and the animal has no interest in eating.
Reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in LH which leads to
ravenous eating in rats.
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Hypothalamic Centers Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses
hunger (stimulation). Destroy it and the animal eats
excessively.
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Hypothalamus & Hormones Hypothalamus monitors a number of
hormones that are related to hunger. HormoneTissueResponse Orexin
increaseHypothalamusIncreases hunger Ghrelin
increaseStomachIncreases hunger Insulin increasePancreasIncreases
hunger Leptin increaseFat cellsDecreases hunger PPY
increaseDigestive tractDecreases hunger
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Set-Point Theory Manipulating lateral and ventromedial
hypothalamus alters the bodys weight thermostat. If weight is lost
food intake increases and energy expenditure decreases. If weight
is gained the opposite takes place.
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The Psychology of Hunger Memory plays an important role in
hunger. Due to difficulties with retention, amnesia patients eat
frequently, if given food (Rozin et al., 1998). On the other hand,
Alzheimers patients may forget to eat.
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Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by a normal-
weight person (usually adolescent women) losing weight continuously
and yet feeling overweight. Reprinted by permission of The New
England Journal of Medicine, 207, (Oct 5, 1932), 613-617. Lisa
OConnor/ Zuma/ Corbis
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Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa: A disorder characterized by
episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by
vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.
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Obesity http://www.cyberdiet.com A disorder characterized by
excessive overweight. Obesity increases risk and health issues like
cardiovascular diseases, diabetes hypertension, arthritis, and back
problems.
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Summary
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Motivation at Work The healthy life, said Sigmund Freud, is
filled by love and work. -Motivation at work and school
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Attitudes Towards Work 1.Job: Necessary way to make money.
2.Career: Opportunity to advance from one position to another.
3.Calling: fulfilling a socially useful activity. People have
different attitudes towards work. Some take it as a:
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Flow & Rewards Flow is experience between no work and a lot
of work. Flow marks immersion into ones work. People who flow in
their work (artists, dancers, composers etc.) are driven less by
extrinsic rewards (money, praise, promotion) and more by intrinsic
rewards.
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Work and Satisfaction In industrialized countries work and
satisfaction go hand-in-hand.
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Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology Applies
psychological principles to workplace. 1.Personnel Psychology:
Principles of selecting and evaluating workers. 2.Organizational
Psychology: Studies how work environments and management styles
influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.
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Harnessing Strengths Identifying peoples strengths (analytical,
disciplined, eager to learn etc.) and matching them to work is the
first step toward workplace effectiveness.
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Organizational Psychology: Motivating Achievement Achievement
motivation is defined as desire for significant accomplishment.
Skinner devised a daily discipline schedule which led him to become
20 th century most influential psychologist. Ken Heyman/ Woodfin
Camp & Associates
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Satisfaction & Engagement Harter et al., (2002) observed
that employee engagement meant that the worker knows: 1.What is
expected of him. 2.Feels the need to work. 3.Feels fulfilled at
work. 4.Gets opportunities to do the best. 5.Thinks himself to be a
part of something significant. 6.Has opportunities to learn and
develop. Engaged workers are more productive than non-engaged at
different stores of the same chain. Capital-Journal/ David Eulitt/
AP/ Wide World Photos
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AP Info Drive-reduction theory (give an example) Which part of
the hypothalamus does what? Know your hormones (where does the
signal come frombefore that?)
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More AP info Maslow-hierarchy of needs Drive-reduction theory
of motivation Instinct theory LH starts feeding, VMH stops feeding
Feel good-do good phenomenon Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation,
remember the overjustification effect?
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Introduction to Emotion 1.James Lange Theory 2.Cannon-Bard
Theory 3.Schacter-Singer Theory (2 factor) 4.Autonomic Nervous
System
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Theories of Emotion Emotions are our bodys adaptive response.
Emotions are a mix of 1) physiological activation, 2) expressive
behaviors, and 3) conscious experience.
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Controversy 1)Does physiological arousal precede or follow your
emotional experience? 2)Does cognition (thinking) precede emotion
(feeling)?
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James-Lange Theory William James and Carl Lange proposed an
idea that was diametrically opposed to the common- sense view.
James-Lange theory proposes that physiological activity precedes
the emotional experience. (We react to the changes in our body that
we feel)
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Cannon-Bard Theory Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard questioned
James-Lange theory and proposed emotion- triggering stimulus and
body's arousal take place simultaneously.
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Two-Factor Theory Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed
yet another theory which suggested that our physiology and our
cognitions create emotions. Emotions have two factors physical
arousal and cognitive label.
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Embodied Emotion We know that emotions involve bodily response.
Some of these response are easy to notice (butterflies in stomach
when fear arises) but others are more difficult discern (neurons
activated in the brain).
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Emotions and Autonomic Nervous System During an emotional
experience our autonomic nervous system mobilizes energy in the
body and arouses us. 43
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Arousal and Performance (remember Yerkes-Dodson??) Arousal in
short spurts is adaptive. We perform better under moderate arousal,
however optimal performance varies with task difficulty.
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Physiological Similarities Physiological responses are pretty
much similar across the emotions of fear, anger, love and boredom.
Excitement and fear involve similar physiological arousal. This can
be an issue when you study stress, which in our lives has physical
consequences to psychological triggers. Your body only has one
response to stress and it involves activating your sympathetic
nervous system. This is not always healthy
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Cognition and Emotion What is the connection between how we
think (cognition) and how we feel (emotion)? Can we change our
emotions by changing our thinking?
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Cognition Can Define Emotion Arousal response to one event
spills over into our response to the next event. Arousal from a
soccer match can fuel anger, which can descend into rioting. AP
Photo/ Nati Harnik Reuters/ Corbis
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Two Routes to Emotion Zajonc and LeDoux (1984) emphasize some
emotions are immediate without conscious appraisal. Lazarus,
Schachter and Singer (1998) emphasize that appraisal also
determines emotions.
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Nonverbal Communication Most of us are good at deciphering
emotions thorough non-verbal communication. In a crowd of faces a
single angry face will pop out faster than a single happy face (Fox
et al. 2000).
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Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior Women are much better
at discerning nonverbal emotions then men. When shown sad, happy
and scary film clips women expressed emotions more than men.
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Culture and Emotional Expression When culturally diverse people
were shown basic facial expressions, they did pretty well at
recognizing them (Ekman & Matsumoto, 1989). Elkman &
Matsumoto, Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expression of Emotion
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Emotions are Adaptive Darwin speculated that our ancestors
communicated with facial expression in the absence of language.
Nonverbal facial expression led to their survival. Charles Darwin
(1809-1882)
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Analyzing Emotion Analysis of emotions is carried out on
different levels.
Experienced Emotion Izard (1977) has isolated 10 emotions. And
most of them are present in infancy, excluding contempt, shame and
guilt. Nancy Brown/ The Image Bank Tom McCarthy/ Rainbow
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Dimensions of Emotion People generally divide emotions into two
dimensions
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Fear Fear can torment us, rob us of sleep and preoccupy our
thinking. But fear can be adaptive it makes us run away from
danger, brings us closer as groups, protects us from injury and
harm.
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Learning Fear We learn fear in two ways through conditioning
and/or through observation. Watson Bandura
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The Biology of Fear Some fears are easier to learn than others.
The amygdala in the brain associates emotions like fear with
certain situations and its proximity to the hippocampus allows for
the easy encoding of these memories.
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Causes of Anger 1.People generally get angry with friends and
loved ones about misdeeds, especially if they are willful,
unjustified, and avoidable. 2.People also get angry about foul
odors, high temperatures, traffic jams, aches and pains.
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Catharsis Hypothesis Venting anger through action or fantasy
achieves emotional release or catharsis. Some believe that we are
drawn to displays of violence (football, etc) because it is
cathartic and allows us an outlet for aggression. Expressing anger
breeds more anger, and through reinforcement, is habit
forming.
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Emotional Ups and Downs Our positive moods rise to a maximum
within 6-7 hours after waking up. Negative moods stay more or less
the same over the day.
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Feel-Good, Do-Good phenomenon When we feel happy we are more
willing to help others. This is a good example of the spill over
effect
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Happiness & Satisfaction Subjective well-being (happiness +
satisfaction) measured in 82 countries show Puerto Rico and Mexico
(poorer countries) at the top of the list.
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Happiness & Prior Experience Adaptation-Level Phenomenon:
Like sensory adaptation to brightness, volume, and touch, people
adapt to new situations until that situation becomes the norm. Then
people need a new experience. This constantly raises the level for
what is considered new and exciting In baseball, the Cardinals are
used to being a successful team, and we are used to rooting for a
winner. What would happen if they started having really bad
seasons?
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Happiness & Others Attainments Happiness is not relative to
our past but also to our comparisons with others. Relative
Deprivation is the perception that one is worse off relative to
those with whom one compares oneself with. They realize that they
have less of what they believe themselves to be entitled than those
around them. Can lead to social movements, deviance, rioting, civil
wars, etc
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AP Info Know the theories of how we experience emotion. Which
one involves a cognitive label? What role does conditioning play in
our emotions? Schemas? Yerkes-Dodson-optimum level of arousal
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More AP info James-Lange (arousal leads to emotion) Cannon-Bard
(simultaneous experience) Schacter-Singer (2 factor, cognitive
label) Sternberg triangle theory of love (passion-
commitment-intimacy)