Intercultural Development

Considering the Growth of

Self and Students

Chapter Four

Developmental Models

What does it mean to change over time, to see the world from a new and different perspective, often as a result of direct experience and maturation?

Developmental models provide a schema within which to consider such changes.

Developmental Models in the Study of Culture

Have recently begun to emerge, particularly with respect to

Ethnic identity: generally defined on the basis of cultural criteria (customs, language)

Racial identity: generally defined on the basis of physical criteria (skin color, facial features)

One may identify oneself using one, the other, or both identities.

Models of Racial/Immigrant Identity Development

Cross/Spring five-stage model:Pre-encounter: internalization of negative

stereotypes by mainstream society

Encounter: confrontation by a incident that forces questioning, e.g., racial profiling

Immersion/Emersion: assumption of a new ethnic identity, loss of self-hatred

Continued…

Immersion: total involvement in the ethnic culture—active in discussion, organizations; highly enthnocentric

Internalization: recognition of and comfort in living in two worlds; becoming bicultural, or multicultural; can be both accepting and critical of mainstream culture

James Banks’s Model of Ethnic Development

Ethnic psychological captivity

Ethnic encapsulation

Ethnic identify clarification

Biethnicity: individuals have a strong sense of their own ethnic identity as well as a healthy understanding and respect for others

Similar to Cross’s model

Continued…

Multiethnicity: individuals have a healthy understanding and appreciation of many groups; the ideal for an ethnically pluralistic society like the United States

Globalism and Global Competency: individuals reflect positive ethnic, national, and global identities while demonstrating the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and abilities to function effectively in ethnic cultures from a variety of contexts

Progress Toward This Ideal in the United States

If we are to become culturally competent on a national and a global scale, there is much to be done.

Schools are important places where this work can proceed.

Over time we have become more inclusive, but we are not “there” yet.

Historical Perspectives on Multicultural Education: Two

Approaches Anglo-Conformity, or

the Assimilationist Ideology:

The role of the school is to assimilate all immigrants into the dominant society; ethnic identity should be short-lived; the “melting pot”

Multiculturalism, or the Pluralist Ideology:

Since the “melting pot” didn’t work, the role of the school is to assist students in becoming bi- or multicultural; society is considered richer for its diversity; the “salad bowl”

Contemporary Multicultural Education Programs: They Are

Not All the Same Sleeter and Grant’s Typology categorizes five

kinds of multicultural education programs:

Teaching the Culturally Different

Human Relations

Single-Group Studies

Inclusive Multicultural Education

Education That is Multicultural and Socially Reconstructionist

Continued…

Teaching the Culturally Different: these programs attempt to help individuals develop competence in the dominant culture while maintaining their own cultural identity; focus tends to be on culture and language of target groups

Human Relations: programs that focus on communication and self-esteem

Single-Group Studies: programs that focus on a specific group—its heritage, contributions, and perspectives

Continued…

Inclusive Multicultural Education: programs that focus on linking the experiences of ethnic groups while developing a conceptual core

Education That is Multicultural and Socially Reconstructionist: programs that focus on the power relations among cultural groups and enable students to shape their own destinies while reconstructing society in more equitable patterns

The Mitchell Typology categorizes programs by purposes and practices in three ways:

Models of Cultural Understanding

Models of Cultural Competence

Models of Cultural Emancipation and Social Reconstruction

Continued…

Models of Cultural Understanding

Focus on improving communication

Assume that all social and ethnic groups be perceived as “equal”

Posit that ethnic identity is a matter of individual choice

Continued…

Models of Cultural Competence

Promote appreciation of other cultural groups

Focus on understanding one’s own cultural identity

Assert that all students should be “at home” in more than one cultural system

Insist that members of minority groups become fluent in the dominant culture Continued…

Models of Cultural Emancipation and Social Reconstruction

Believe that cultural diversity in the U.S. is a positive force

Focus on attitudes and behavior of teachers as central to redressing past patterns of discrimination and increasing educational and job opportunities for minority students

Intercultural Competence

Early studies of people who work effectively across cultures suggest that:

They are able to manage psychological stress.

They are able to communicate effectively, both verbally and non-verbally.

They are able to develop and maintain new and essential interpersonal relationships.

Interculturally Competent Skills The ability to respond to others non-judgmentally

The ability to propose more than one cultural interpretation of behavior

The ability to mediate conflicts and solve problems in culturally appropriate ways

The ability to motivate others in the context of their cultural values

The ability to promote effective intercultural interaction

The ability to model culturally sensitive behaviors and attitudes

The ability to seek out new learning about cultural differences

The ability to institutionalize an intercultural perspective in personal and professional practice

Developing Intercultural Sensitivity

Milton Bennett’s Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) provides a framework for understanding individual development and awareness along a continuum, from a highly ethnocentric perspective to a highly ethnorelative perspective.

Stages in Bennett’s Model

Ethnocentric side Denial: inability to see

cultural differences

Defense: recognition of cultural differences, but negative evaluations of most

Minimization: acceptance of superficial cultural differences, but belief that all human beings are essentially the same

Ethnorelative side Acceptance: ability to

recognize and appreciate cultural differences on their own terms

Adaptation: ability to see cultural categories as more flexible, become more competent in ability to communicate

Integration: (rarely achieved) ability to move easily among multiple perspectives

Something to Think About

One of the higher callings for young people in the coming century will be working to increase intercultural understanding. Such people will be the missionaries of the age, spreading light among groups. . .by giving them a modern vision of the new global community.

--Carl Coon