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Cross-cultural Communication and Metaphorical Competence

Abstract

This article examines the aspects of similarity and diversity between different cultures through

the cognitive theory of metaphor. The aim is to show that both aspects need to be intertwined for

the development of intercultural communication and for solving problems of understanding that

can arise in cross-cultural communication. The author used the cognitive theory of metaphor

developed by Lakoff and Johnson and applied it to a cross-cultural analysis of a randomly

selected set of metaphors in Persian and English. The results of the study revealed that there is a

certain degree of similarity between the two languages, but several aspects of such metaphors are

culture-specific. This underlines the importance of intercultural studies for foreign language

teachers.

Introduction

In Metaphors We Live By (1980) by George Lakoff, a linguist, and Mark Johnson, a

philosopher, showed how metaphors shape our life. Metaphors are very common in our daily

communication from electronic media to print media, both in spoken and written varieties. The

purpose of using metaphors is to enhance our communications and our lives. Metaphoric

competence is used to refer to the ability of second language learners to interpret novel

metaphors in the target language (Littlemore, 1998).From a view of psychological point, the useof metaphor is to encourage the phenomenon of semantic creativity and emphasize the capacity

of language users to create and understand novel linguistic combinations that may be literal

nonsense. Metaphor is very common in daily communication, not just in language but in thought

and action. It is easily used for jargon and secret codes and also can be described as a method for

cultures to express their certain identity and ideas. Most of our ordinary conceptual system, in

terms of what we think and what we act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature (Metaphors We

Live By, 1980). Metaphoric competence is believed to consist of metaphor awareness, and

strategies for comprehending and creating metaphors (Deignan, Gabrys, & Solska, 1997).

Elaboration of the Issue

The purpose of this study is to highlight the importance of intercultural studies for foreign

language teachers, there is an experiment conducted by using cognitive theory of metaphor


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developed by Lakoff and Johnson. The theory was applied to a cross-cultural analysis of a

randomly selected set of metaphors in Persian and English.

In this study, animal metaphors were chosen for comparison in two different languages

which are English and Persian. The rationale for choosing animal metaphors for comparison isthat although there has been extensive research on metaphor across cultures, in general, on

animal metaphors, in particular, there is still paucity of research (Talebinejad & Dasjerdi, 2005).

Two groups of teachers of the Persian and the English languages were assigned to

complete the task by providing correspondences for the animal names and their metaphorical

equivalents. A table of correspondences between the source and target domains was developed to

serve as a model in the form of A (target animal metaphor) and B (source domain). The

relationship between these two domains is represented as A is B. In other words, target is source.

Theory Application - Conceptual Theory of Metaphor

Conceptual metaphor theory also known as cognitive theory of metaphor, it was first

provided in Metaphors We Live By (1980) by Lakoff and Johnson. Metaphor is explained as a

matter of words rather than thought or action. However, in literary contexts, metaphor is used for

ornament with literal language. According to Lakoff & Turner (1989), metaphor is not only

described a matter of words, but also a matter of thought. The human conceptual system is

structured and defined in a metaphorical way as there is a largely metaphorical in human thoughtprocesses. Based on this, it shows that metaphor plays an important role in peoples

communication and thinking.

Different researchers divided conceptual metaphors into different groups. Boers (2003)

suggest that there are two broad categories which are primary and complex metaphors. Primary

theory is a basic which means we understood the metaphor intuitively, and most metaphors are

clearly grounded in aspects of our experience, such as up-down and in-out. For instance, Happy

is up and Sad is down (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) while complicated metaphors developedfrom a larger structures of primary metaphors. A complicated metaphor is used to identify with

some other entity by layering over a simple metaphor is base on a secondary metaphoric element.

For example, Let me throw some light on this subject of philosophy. Throw some light is

used as metaphor to further explain some point. In literary sense, there is actually no light.

(Metaphor examples in literature, 2010)


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Evaluation / Analysis of the Issue

From the result analyzed, the study found that 40 animal terms used in this study, 30%

proved to conjure up different images while 20% of the animal terms are the idea that only

partial mappings exist between the same source and target domains across cultures. There is 50%of the animal terms were used in English and Persian in both similar and different ways, it means

that in certain contexts they highlighted similar aspects of a concept in both languages and in

some other contexts they highlighted different aspects. The examples in Table 1 classified the

highlighted aspects into identical, similar, or different in English and Persian. Highlighted

aspects of a metaphor in one language were identical with other language were classified as

identical while if the highlighted aspects were not identical but similar, then the metaphors were

classified as similar accordingly.

Based on the result collected, we know that when the images or the highlighted aspects

were different, the metaphor would still can be recognized in both languages, but it would be

understood somehow differently in different cultures. On the other hand, even though animal

metaphors can be used in different ways, but actually they are ubiquitous in world languages.

In addition, well interaction between cultures is important because we can learn different

norms and things from different cultures. Therefore, a basic understanding of metaphor in

different cultures should be learned to avoid any misunderstanding.

Conclusion

As a conclusion, metaphors used to light some attributes of an event, object or situation

and then transmit new information about it. Metaphors considered as a wonderful jumping off

point to describe something and it is a vehicle for escaping common language, reaching out and

redefining concepts in terms of other things. Moreover, it plays an important role in

communication, it let us interpret the language into a new meaning, stretching and enhancing its

usage. Apart from this, a better understanding of metaphor in another language will lead to bettercomprehension and translations. This study would highlight the importance of intercultural

studies for foreign language teachers as it is a very functional way that could combine language

and culture knowledge together.


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Reference

Taki, S. (2011). Cross-cultural communication and metaphorical competence.International

journal of language studies, 5(1), 47-62, Retrieved from

http://www.ijls.net/volumes/volume5issue1/taki.pdf

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