INTERACTIONSINTERACTIONS1914 - Present1914 - Present

WARWAR

DIPLOMACYDIPLOMACY

DRIFT TOWARDS WARDRIFT TOWARDS WAR Slavic Nationalism Slavic Nationalism

• Pan-Slavism stressed unity of Slavs under RussiaPan-Slavism stressed unity of Slavs under Russia• In Turkey: Bulgars, Macedonians sought independence In Turkey: Bulgars, Macedonians sought independence • Austrian Slavs: independence or rights within AustriaAustrian Slavs: independence or rights within Austria• Hungarian Slavs: unification with independent Serbia Hungarian Slavs: unification with independent Serbia • Germany backed Austria-HungaryGermany backed Austria-Hungary

Anglo-German RivalryAnglo-German Rivalry• Naval race between Germany, Britain increased tensions Naval race between Germany, Britain increased tensions • German industrialization threatened British lead German industrialization threatened British lead

Colonial disputes of the late nineteenth century Colonial disputes of the late nineteenth century • Germany sought colonies at others expenseGermany sought colonies at others expense• France, Germany nearly fought over Morocco in 1905 France, Germany nearly fought over Morocco in 1905 • Balkan wars (1912-13) strained diplomatic relationsBalkan wars (1912-13) strained diplomatic relations• France, UKGB, Russia came together to oppose GermanyFrance, UKGB, Russia came together to oppose Germany

Public opinion supported national rivalries Public opinion supported national rivalries • Attitudes of patriotism among European citizens Attitudes of patriotism among European citizens • Leaders under pressure to be aggressive, to take risksLeaders under pressure to be aggressive, to take risks

COLONIAL EMPIRES, c. 1914COLONIAL EMPIRES, c. 1914

ALLIANCES & WAR PLANSALLIANCES & WAR PLANS Rival systems of alliance Rival systems of alliance

• Obligated allies to come to one another's defenseObligated allies to come to one another's defense• Included all great powers and many lesser powersIncluded all great powers and many lesser powers• Even included Japan Even included Japan

The Central Powers The Central Powers • Germany, Austria-Hungary formed a Dual Alliance 1879 Germany, Austria-Hungary formed a Dual Alliance 1879 • In fear of France, Italy joined, now Triple Alliance In fear of France, Italy joined, now Triple Alliance • Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Rumania affiliated with GermanyOttoman Empire, Bulgaria, Rumania affiliated with Germany

The Allies The Allies • Britain, France, Russia formed the Triple Entente, or Allies Britain, France, Russia formed the Triple Entente, or Allies • Shifting series of treaties ended with a military pact, 1914Shifting series of treaties ended with a military pact, 1914• Belgium, Serbia linked to AlliesBelgium, Serbia linked to Allies

War plans: each power poised and prepared for war War plans: each power poised and prepared for war • Military leaders devised inflexible military plansMilitary leaders devised inflexible military plans• France's Plan focused on offensive maneuvers and attacks France's Plan focused on offensive maneuvers and attacks • Germany's plan: swiftly defeat France, then RussiaGermany's plan: swiftly defeat France, then Russia

Neutrals were not to be respectedNeutrals were not to be respected Wars were to be swift and over by ChristmasWars were to be swift and over by Christmas

WORLD WAR I BEGINSWORLD WAR I BEGINS The guns of August - June 1914: Countries race towards war The guns of August - June 1914: Countries race towards war The Western front The Western front

• Stalemate caused by new weaponsStalemate caused by new weapons• Bloodletting: long, costly battles Bloodletting: long, costly battles • New technologies favored defensive tactics over offensive tactics New technologies favored defensive tactics over offensive tactics • Armored tanks used to break down trenches toward end of the war Armored tanks used to break down trenches toward end of the war • Airplanes used mainly for reconnaissance Airplanes used mainly for reconnaissance

SubmarinesSubmarines• Used especially by Germans against Allied shippingUsed especially by Germans against Allied shipping• Unrestricted warfare against all vessels to isolate Great BritainUnrestricted warfare against all vessels to isolate Great Britain

On the eastern frontOn the eastern front• Battle lines more fluid Battle lines more fluid • Russians gradually overrun by Germans, AustriaRussians gradually overrun by Germans, Austria

New rules of engagement New rules of engagement • Civilians became targets of enemy military operations Civilians became targets of enemy military operations • Air raids against civilians; naval blockades commonAir raids against civilians; naval blockades common

Total war: the home front Total war: the home front • On the home front: the economy mobilized to the war effort On the home front: the economy mobilized to the war effort • Women served the war by entering the workforce Women served the war by entering the workforce • Propaganda campaigns to maintain national support for the war Propaganda campaigns to maintain national support for the war

WORLD WAR I OUTSIDE OF EUROPEWORLD WAR I OUTSIDE OF EUROPE British, French forces used colonials as troops, bearersBritish, French forces used colonials as troops, bearers

• FR: Senegalese troops at Marne, Vietnamese bearers usedFR: Senegalese troops at Marne, Vietnamese bearers used• UK: Indian troops in SW Asia, African bearersUK: Indian troops in SW Asia, African bearers• Australia, New Zealand, Canada heavily involved Australia, New Zealand, Canada heavily involved

Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific • Japan entered war with Allies to get German holdings in areaJapan entered war with Allies to get German holdings in area• The Twenty-One Demands The Twenty-One Demands

Japan advanced its imperial interests in China Japan advanced its imperial interests in China 21 Demands were designed to reduce China to Japanese protectorate 21 Demands were designed to reduce China to Japanese protectorate Britain intervened, prevented total capitulation of China to JapanBritain intervened, prevented total capitulation of China to Japan

Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa • Allies targeted the four German colonies in Africa Allies targeted the four German colonies in Africa • Togoland fell quickly, but not the others: long, protracted warfare Togoland fell quickly, but not the others: long, protracted warfare • Many Allied soldiers and workers died from tropical diseasesMany Allied soldiers and workers died from tropical diseases

The Ottoman Empire and SW AsiaThe Ottoman Empire and SW Asia• Battle of Gallipoli, 1915, in Ottoman Turkey Battle of Gallipoli, 1915, in Ottoman Turkey

British decided to strike at the weakest Central Power, the Ottomans British decided to strike at the weakest Central Power, the Ottomans Battle of Gallipoli a disaster, with 250,000 casualties on each side Battle of Gallipoli a disaster, with 250,000 casualties on each side

• The Ottoman empire lost ground after Gallipoli The Ottoman empire lost ground after Gallipoli Lost Caucasus to Russians Lost Caucasus to Russians Armenian Holocaust: Turks killed more than 1 million, relocated manyArmenian Holocaust: Turks killed more than 1 million, relocated many Successful Arab revolt aided by BritishSuccessful Arab revolt aided by British By 1918, British occupied Fertile CrescentBy 1918, British occupied Fertile Crescent

• Allies had secretly agreed to partition OttomanAllies had secretly agreed to partition Ottoman

END OF THE WAREND OF THE WAR Russia Russia

• 1917 February or Democratic Revolution in Russia 1917 February or Democratic Revolution in Russia Uprising against shortages, mounting deaths in the war Uprising against shortages, mounting deaths in the war Facing mutinies, Nicholas II abdicatedFacing mutinies, Nicholas II abdicated

• Struggle for power between provisional government, soviets Struggle for power between provisional government, soviets New government passed many liberal reforms New government passed many liberal reforms Did not undertake land reform, did not withdraw from the warDid not undertake land reform, did not withdraw from the war

• V. I. Lenin (1870-1924) stepped into unstable situation V. I. Lenin (1870-1924) stepped into unstable situation A revolutionary Marxist, exiled in Switzerland A revolutionary Marxist, exiled in Switzerland Saw importance of a well-organized, disciplined party for revolution Saw importance of a well-organized, disciplined party for revolution

• 1917 October or Communist Revolution 1917 October or Communist Revolution Minority Bolsheviks gained control of Petrograd soviet Minority Bolsheviks gained control of Petrograd soviet Bolsheviks' slogan "Peace, Land, and Bread" appealed to workers, peasants Bolsheviks' slogan "Peace, Land, and Bread" appealed to workers, peasants Russia withdrew from war, made a separate peace with Germany Russia withdrew from war, made a separate peace with Germany

U.S. intervention U.S. intervention • United States under President Woodrow Wilson officially neutral United States under President Woodrow Wilson officially neutral

American public opposed to participation but U.S. sold supplies, gave loansAmerican public opposed to participation but U.S. sold supplies, gave loans By 1917, Allied ability to repay loans depended on Allied victoryBy 1917, Allied ability to repay loans depended on Allied victory

• The submarine warfare helped sway American public opinion The submarine warfare helped sway American public opinion German blockade sank merchant ships, intended to strangle Britain German blockade sank merchant ships, intended to strangle Britain 1915, Germans sank 1915, Germans sank LusitaniaLusitania, a British passenger liner, killing 1,198 , a British passenger liner, killing 1,198

• United States declared war on Germany, 6 April 1917 United States declared war on Germany, 6 April 1917 Collapse of the Central Powers Collapse of the Central Powers

• US produces food, engines, aircraft for allies; US troops halt GermansUS produces food, engines, aircraft for allies; US troops halt Germans• Allied troops on offensive in West, Balkans, Middle East, ItalyAllied troops on offensive in West, Balkans, Middle East, Italy• Germany was the last of Central Powers to seek armisticeGermany was the last of Central Powers to seek armistice

PARIS PEACE COFERENCE, 1919PARIS PEACE COFERENCE, 1919 Wilson's 14 Points: proposal for a just and lasting peace Wilson's 14 Points: proposal for a just and lasting peace

• Free trade, rights for colonials, self-determination, association of nations Free trade, rights for colonials, self-determination, association of nations • Most rejected by Allies; Central Powers surrendered based on themMost rejected by Allies; Central Powers surrendered based on them

Results of WarResults of War• Great War killed fifteen million people, wounded twenty million Great War killed fifteen million people, wounded twenty million • Set stage for decolonization after World War II Set stage for decolonization after World War II • Economic crises: inflation, debt, loss of investments, foreign markets Economic crises: inflation, debt, loss of investments, foreign markets • Economic relationship between Europe, US; United States now creditor Economic relationship between Europe, US; United States now creditor • Loss of prestige overseas weakened European grip on coloniesLoss of prestige overseas weakened European grip on colonies

Paris settlement was dominated by Britain, France, United States Paris settlement was dominated by Britain, France, United States • Twenty-seven nations with conflicting aims participated; Peace dictatedTwenty-seven nations with conflicting aims participated; Peace dictated• Leaders of Central Powers and Soviet Union not includedLeaders of Central Powers and Soviet Union not included

The Peace Treaties, 1919 The Peace Treaties, 1919 • French insisted on destroying German military French insisted on destroying German military • Central Powers forced to accept war guilt and pay reparations for cost of war Central Powers forced to accept war guilt and pay reparations for cost of war • Austria, Hungary separated, reduced; new states added to eastern Europe Austria, Hungary separated, reduced; new states added to eastern Europe • Overall, the peace settlement was a failure; left a bitter legacyOverall, the peace settlement was a failure; left a bitter legacy

Self-determination for ethnic nationalitiesSelf-determination for ethnic nationalities• Basis for redrawing map of Eastern Europe: Difficult to draw lines Basis for redrawing map of Eastern Europe: Difficult to draw lines • Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Rumania were all multi-nationalYugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Rumania were all multi-national• German, Italian, Hungarian minorities not granted self-determinationGerman, Italian, Hungarian minorities not granted self-determination• Colonial issues never discussed; self-determination not granted for coloniesColonial issues never discussed; self-determination not granted for colonies

Revolutionary Ideas: Arabs, Asians, Africans Outraged Revolutionary Ideas: Arabs, Asians, Africans Outraged • The war helped spread concept of self-determination The war helped spread concept of self-determination • Nationalist movements also sought inspiration from the Soviet UnionNationalist movements also sought inspiration from the Soviet Union• Felt betrayed, ignored by their alliesFelt betrayed, ignored by their allies• Wanted independence from Ottomans, end of foreign concessionsWanted independence from Ottomans, end of foreign concessions

LEAGUE OF NATIONSLEAGUE OF NATIONS The League of Nations created to maintain world peace The League of Nations created to maintain world peace

• Forty-two members, twenty-six of them outside EuropeForty-two members, twenty-six of them outside Europe• Dominated by UK, France and used as force against GermanyDominated by UK, France and used as force against Germany• The league had no power to enforce its decisionsThe league had no power to enforce its decisions• League could only League could only

Make suggestionsMake suggestions Impose sanctionsImpose sanctions Blockades Blockades

• Collective security depended on all major powersCollective security depended on all major powers• Powers Left OutPowers Left Out

United States never joinedUnited States never joined USSR ignoredUSSR ignored Germany not invited for some timeGermany not invited for some time

The mandate system The mandate system • United States opposed direct colonizationUnited States opposed direct colonization• Allies proposed system of trusteeships Allies proposed system of trusteeships • France, United Kingdom benefited mostFrance, United Kingdom benefited most• Created from German colonies, Ottoman territories in S.W. AsiaCreated from German colonies, Ottoman territories in S.W. Asia

Idealistic Attempts Idealistic Attempts • Attempts to disarm nations led to naval reduction treatiesAttempts to disarm nations led to naval reduction treaties• Attempt to outlaw war led to Kellogg-Briand treatyAttempt to outlaw war led to Kellogg-Briand treaty• Many nations reduced their militaries to minimal levels Many nations reduced their militaries to minimal levels

LEAGUE LEAGUE OF NATIONSOF NATIONS

INTERWAR DIPLOMACYINTERWAR DIPLOMACY JapanJapan

• Global conflict began with Japanese invasion of Manchuria, 1931 Global conflict began with Japanese invasion of Manchuria, 1931 League of Nations condemned action; Japan simply withdrew from league League of Nations condemned action; Japan simply withdrew from league 1937, Japan launched full-scale invasion of China1937, Japan launched full-scale invasion of China

• 1937 War In China Resumed1937 War In China Resumed Nationalists and communists formed "united front" against Japanese Nationalists and communists formed "united front" against Japanese Unable to effectively work together, they conducted guerilla attacks Unable to effectively work together, they conducted guerilla attacks

• Japan, Germany, Italy ally 1940; neutrality pact with USSR, 1941Japan, Germany, Italy ally 1940; neutrality pact with USSR, 1941 European aggression European aggression

• Italy after the Great War Italy after the Great War Italians felt slighted at the Paris Peace Conference Italians felt slighted at the Paris Peace Conference Mussolini promised national glory, empire Mussolini promised national glory, empire Invaded Ethiopia (1935-1936), killed 250,000 Ethiopians; annexed AlbaniaInvaded Ethiopia (1935-1936), killed 250,000 Ethiopians; annexed Albania

• Germany: deep resentment at Treaty of Versailles Germany: deep resentment at Treaty of Versailles Harsh terms: reparations, economic restrictions, depression helped Nazis Harsh terms: reparations, economic restrictions, depression helped Nazis Hitler blamed Jews, communists, liberals for losing war, Versailles TreatyHitler blamed Jews, communists, liberals for losing war, Versailles Treaty

• After 1933, Hitler moved to ignore terms of peace settlement After 1933, Hitler moved to ignore terms of peace settlement Withdrew from League, 1933; Rebuilt military, air force; reinstated draft Withdrew from League, 1933; Rebuilt military, air force; reinstated draft Militarized Rhineland, 1936; Austria, 1938; France and Britain did nothingMilitarized Rhineland, 1936; Austria, 1938; France and Britain did nothing

• Spanish Civil War 1936 - 1939Spanish Civil War 1936 - 1939 Spanish fascists stage coup against republic; socialists, communists fightSpanish fascists stage coup against republic; socialists, communists fight Italians, Germans, Russians helped each side but fascists wonItalians, Germans, Russians helped each side but fascists won

• The Munich Conference: Peace for our time? The Munich Conference: Peace for our time? In 1938, Germany "appeased" by taking Sudetenland In 1938, Germany "appeased" by taking Sudetenland Britain and France desperate to avoid war, appeased Hitler Britain and France desperate to avoid war, appeased Hitler

Russian-German Non-Aggression Treaty, 1939, shocked worldRussian-German Non-Aggression Treaty, 1939, shocked world

WORLD WAR II: AXIS 1939 - 1942WORLD WAR II: AXIS 1939 - 1942 Blitzkreig: Germany conquers Europe Blitzkreig: Germany conquers Europe

• Strategy of a "lightening war": unannounced, surprise attacks Strategy of a "lightening war": unannounced, surprise attacks • Conquests: 1939 - Poland; 1940 - France, Norway, Denmark, Low Countries Conquests: 1939 - Poland; 1940 - France, Norway, Denmark, Low Countries • Battle of the Atlantic pitted German submarines against British convoysBattle of the Atlantic pitted German submarines against British convoys• The battle of Britain was a British victory against the German airforceThe battle of Britain was a British victory against the German airforce• Germans, British, Italians fight see-saw war in the deserts of North AfricaGermans, British, Italians fight see-saw war in the deserts of North Africa

The German invasion of the Soviet Union The German invasion of the Soviet Union • 1941: Germany conquers the Balkans, invades USSR in June 19411941: Germany conquers the Balkans, invades USSR in June 1941• Blitzkrieg strategies less effective in Russia Blitzkrieg strategies less effective in Russia • Hitler underestimated Soviet industrial capacity Hitler underestimated Soviet industrial capacity • Russian winter caught German troops ill-preparedRussian winter caught German troops ill-prepared• Germans stalled at Battle of StalingradGermans stalled at Battle of Stalingrad

U.S. support of the Allies before Pearl Harbor U.S. support of the Allies before Pearl Harbor • Roosevelt sold and then "loaned" arms and war material to the British Roosevelt sold and then "loaned" arms and war material to the British • Later supplied the Soviets and the ChineseLater supplied the Soviets and the Chinese

Japanese expansion Japanese expansion • Continued into southeast Asia: Indochina, 1940-1941 Continued into southeast Asia: Indochina, 1940-1941 • United States responded by freezing Japanese assets, implementing oil United States responded by freezing Japanese assets, implementing oil

embargo embargo • Demanded withdrawal from China and southeast Asia Demanded withdrawal from China and southeast Asia • Prime minister Tojo developed plan of attackPrime minister Tojo developed plan of attack

7 December 19417 December 1941• US navy at Pearl Harbor attacked US navy at Pearl Harbor attacked • US declared war on Japan; Germany and Italy declared war on United StatesUS declared war on Japan; Germany and Italy declared war on United States

Japanese victories after Pearl Harbor Japanese victories after Pearl Harbor • Conquered Philippines, Dutch East Indies, Indochina, Burma, Singapore Conquered Philippines, Dutch East Indies, Indochina, Burma, Singapore • Slogan "Asia for Asia" masked Japanese imperialism against fellow AsiansSlogan "Asia for Asia" masked Japanese imperialism against fellow Asians

WORLD WAR II: 1942 - 1945WORLD WAR II: 1942 - 1945 Impact of Soviet Union and U.S. entry in 1941 Impact of Soviet Union and U.S. entry in 1941

• USSR brought vital personnel and USA industry to Allies USSR brought vital personnel and USA industry to Allies • Russia fielded 350 divisions against the German 130Russia fielded 350 divisions against the German 130• Germany forced to fight a two front warGermany forced to fight a two front war• German subs sank 2,452 merchants ships, but U.S. shipyards built moreGerman subs sank 2,452 merchants ships, but U.S. shipyards built more

Allied victories came after 1943 Allied victories came after 1943 • Russians defeated the Germans at Stalingrad, pushed them back Russians defeated the Germans at Stalingrad, pushed them back • 1944, British-U.S. troops invaded North Africa and then Italy 1944, British-U.S. troops invaded North Africa and then Italy • June 1944, British-U.S. forces invaded northern France at Normandy June 1944, British-U.S. forces invaded northern France at Normandy • Overwhelmed Germans on coast of Normandy, 6 June 1944 Overwhelmed Germans on coast of Normandy, 6 June 1944 • Round-the-clock strategic bombing by Allies leveled German cities Round-the-clock strategic bombing by Allies leveled German cities • Germans surrendered unconditionally 8 May 1945; Hitler committed suicideGermans surrendered unconditionally 8 May 1945; Hitler committed suicide

Turning the tide in the Pacific Turning the tide in the Pacific • The Battle of Midway, June 1942; United States broke Japanese code The Battle of Midway, June 1942; United States broke Japanese code • Island-hopping strategy: moving to islands close to Japan for air attacksIsland-hopping strategy: moving to islands close to Japan for air attacks• US launched unrestricted submarine warfare against Japanese empireUS launched unrestricted submarine warfare against Japanese empire• British invade Japanese empire through Burma, SE AsiaBritish invade Japanese empire through Burma, SE Asia• Chinese nationalists, communists tie down 2 million Japanese troopsChinese nationalists, communists tie down 2 million Japanese troops

Savage fighting on islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa Savage fighting on islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa • US launches round the clock air raids against JapanUS launches round the clock air raids against Japan• Japanese used Japanese used kamikazeskamikazes; Okinawan civilians refused to surrender ; Okinawan civilians refused to surrender • U.S. military was convinced that Japan would not surrenderU.S. military was convinced that Japan would not surrender

Japanese surrender after devastating assault Japanese surrender after devastating assault • U.S. firebombing raids devastated Japanese cities: in Tokyo, 100,000 killed U.S. firebombing raids devastated Japanese cities: in Tokyo, 100,000 killed • August 1945: atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki killed 200,000 August 1945: atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki killed 200,000 • Japanese emperor surrendered unconditionally 15 August, ending WWIIJapanese emperor surrendered unconditionally 15 August, ending WWII

WORLD WAR II ALLIANCESWORLD WAR II ALLIANCES

HOME FRONTSHOME FRONTS Occupation, collaboration, and resistanceOccupation, collaboration, and resistance

• Patterns of occupation varied Patterns of occupation varied Japanese conquests: puppet governments, independent allies, or military control Japanese conquests: puppet governments, independent allies, or military control German conquests: racially "superior" people given greater autonomy German conquests: racially "superior" people given greater autonomy

• Both Japan, Germany exploited conquered states, peoples Both Japan, Germany exploited conquered states, peoples Slave labor conscripted from conquered populations to work in factories Slave labor conscripted from conquered populations to work in factories Labor conscripted from Poles, Soviets, Balkans, also Chinese and KoreansLabor conscripted from Poles, Soviets, Balkans, also Chinese and Koreans

• Many local people accepted, collaborated with occupying forces Many local people accepted, collaborated with occupying forces In Asia, Japanese domination not much different from European domination In Asia, Japanese domination not much different from European domination Others aided conquerors to gain power in new administration Others aided conquerors to gain power in new administration Anticommunism led some in western Europe to join the Nazi SS troopsAnticommunism led some in western Europe to join the Nazi SS troops

• Resistance to occupation took many forms Resistance to occupation took many forms Active resistance: sabotage, assaults, assassination Active resistance: sabotage, assaults, assassination Passive resistance as well: intelligence gathering, refusing to submit Passive resistance as well: intelligence gathering, refusing to submit Resistance in Japan and Germany was dangerous and rareResistance in Japan and Germany was dangerous and rare

• Occupation forces responded to resistance with atrocities Occupation forces responded to resistance with atrocities Brutal reprisals to acts of resistance by both Germans and Japanese Brutal reprisals to acts of resistance by both Germans and Japanese Despite retaliation, resistance movements grew throughout the warDespite retaliation, resistance movements grew throughout the war

Women and the warWomen and the war

• "It's a Woman's War, Too!" "It's a Woman's War, Too!" Over half a million British, 350,000 American women joined auxiliary services Over half a million British, 350,000 American women joined auxiliary services Soviet and Chinese women took up arms and joined resistance groups Soviet and Chinese women took up arms and joined resistance groups Jewish women and girls suffered as much as men and boys Jewish women and girls suffered as much as men and boys

• Women's social roles changed dramatically Women's social roles changed dramatically By taking jobs or heading families, women gained independence and confidence By taking jobs or heading families, women gained independence and confidence Changes expected to be temporary, would return to traditional role after warChanges expected to be temporary, would return to traditional role after war

• "Comfort women" "Comfort women" Japanese armies forcibly recruited 300,000 women to serve in military brothels Japanese armies forcibly recruited 300,000 women to serve in military brothels 80 percent of comfort women came from Korea 80 percent of comfort women came from Korea Many were massacred by Japanese soldiers; survivors experienced deep shameMany were massacred by Japanese soldiers; survivors experienced deep shame

SETTLEMENTS & COLD WARSETTLEMENTS & COLD WAR Soviet Union and United States vied for nonaligned nations Soviet Union and United States vied for nonaligned nations War left millions of casualties and refugees War left millions of casualties and refugees

• At least sixty million people died in WWII, highest in Soviet Union and China At least sixty million people died in WWII, highest in Soviet Union and China • Eight million Germans fled west to British, U.S. territories to escape Soviet army Eight million Germans fled west to British, U.S. territories to escape Soviet army • Twelve million Germans and Soviet prisoners of war made their way home Twelve million Germans and Soviet prisoners of war made their way home • Survivors of camps and three million refugees from the Balkans returned homeSurvivors of camps and three million refugees from the Balkans returned home

The origins of the cold war (1947-1990) The origins of the cold war (1947-1990) • Unlikely alliance between Britain, USSR, USA held up for duration of war Unlikely alliance between Britain, USSR, USA held up for duration of war • Not without tensions: Soviet resented U.S.-British delays in European invasionNot without tensions: Soviet resented U.S.-British delays in European invasion

Postwar settlement established at Yalta and Potsdam Postwar settlement established at Yalta and Potsdam • Each Allied power to occupy and control territories liberated by its armed forces Each Allied power to occupy and control territories liberated by its armed forces • Stalin agreed to support United States against Japan Stalin agreed to support United States against Japan • Stalin's plans prevailed; Poland and east Europe became communist allies Stalin's plans prevailed; Poland and east Europe became communist allies • President Truman took hard line at Potsdam, widened differencesPresident Truman took hard line at Potsdam, widened differences

Postwar territorial divisions reflected growing schism between USA, USSRPostwar territorial divisions reflected growing schism between USA, USSR• Soviets took east Germany, while United States, Britain, and France took west Germany Soviets took east Germany, while United States, Britain, and France took west Germany • Berlin also divided four ways; by 1950 division seemed permanent Berlin also divided four ways; by 1950 division seemed permanent • Churchill spoke of an "iron curtain" across Europe, separating east and west Churchill spoke of an "iron curtain" across Europe, separating east and west • Similar division in Korea: Soviets occupied north and United States the southSimilar division in Korea: Soviets occupied north and United States the south

Truman doctrine, 1947: USA would support "free peoples resisting subjugation" Truman doctrine, 1947: USA would support "free peoples resisting subjugation" • Perception of world divided between so-called free and enslaved peoples Perception of world divided between so-called free and enslaved peoples • Interventionist policy, dedicated to "containment" of communismInterventionist policy, dedicated to "containment" of communism

The Marshall Plan, 1948: U.S. aid for the recovery of Europe The Marshall Plan, 1948: U.S. aid for the recovery of Europe • Idea to rebuild European economies and strengthen capitalism Idea to rebuild European economies and strengthen capitalism • Soviet response: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) for its satellitesSoviet response: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) for its satellites

NATO and the Warsaw Pact: militarization of the cold war NATO and the Warsaw Pact: militarization of the cold war • 1949, United States created NATO, a regional military alliance against Soviet aggression 1949, United States created NATO, a regional military alliance against Soviet aggression • 1955, Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact in response 1955, Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact in response • Two global superpowers protecting hegemony with alliances Two global superpowers protecting hegemony with alliances • United Nations, established 1945 to maintain international peace and securityUnited Nations, established 1945 to maintain international peace and security

COLD WAR IN EUROPECOLD WAR IN EUROPE Postwar Europe Postwar Europe

• Divided into competing political, military, economic blocsDivided into competing political, military, economic blocs NATO, European Economic CommunitiesNATO, European Economic Communities Warsaw Pact, COMECONWarsaw Pact, COMECON Neutral: European Free Trade Association; YugoslaviaNeutral: European Free Trade Association; Yugoslavia

• Western Europe Western Europe U.S. allies supported by permanent presence of American armyU.S. allies supported by permanent presence of American army Parliamentary governments, capitalist economies Parliamentary governments, capitalist economies

• Eastern Europe Eastern Europe Dominated by Soviet Union, Red Army, secret policeDominated by Soviet Union, Red Army, secret police Communist governments modeled after USSR dominate countriesCommunist governments modeled after USSR dominate countries

Germany divided east and west in 1949 Germany divided east and west in 1949 • Soviets refused to withdraw from eastern Germany after World War II Soviets refused to withdraw from eastern Germany after World War II • Allied sectors reunited 1947-1948, Berlin remained divided as wellAllied sectors reunited 1947-1948, Berlin remained divided as well• Berlin blockade and airlift, 1948-1949 Berlin blockade and airlift, 1948-1949

Soviet closed roads, trains, tried to strangle West Berlin into submission Soviet closed roads, trains, tried to strangle West Berlin into submission Britain and United States kept city supplied with round-the-clock airlift Britain and United States kept city supplied with round-the-clock airlift Soviets backed down and ended blockadeSoviets backed down and ended blockade

• The Berlin Wall, 1961 The Berlin Wall, 1961 1949-1961, refugees from East to West Germany, East to West Berlin 1949-1961, refugees from East to West Germany, East to West Berlin Soviet solution: a wall of barbed wire through the city fortified the border Soviet solution: a wall of barbed wire through the city fortified the border Former Allied nations objected but did not risk a full conflict over the wall Former Allied nations objected but did not risk a full conflict over the wall

Nuclear arms raceNuclear arms race• Terrifying proliferation of nuclear weapons by both sides Terrifying proliferation of nuclear weapons by both sides • NATO and Warsaw Treaty Organization amassed huge weapons stockpiles NATO and Warsaw Treaty Organization amassed huge weapons stockpiles • By 1960s USSR reached military parity with United States By 1960s USSR reached military parity with United States • By 1970 both superpowers acquired MAD, "mutually assured destruction"By 1970 both superpowers acquired MAD, "mutually assured destruction"

UNITED NATIONS, 1945UNITED NATIONS, 1945

COLD WAR ALLIANCESCOLD WAR ALLIANCES

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION

ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES

S.E. ASIAN TREATYORGANIZATION

CENTRAL TREATYORGANIZATION

WARSAW PACT ORGANIZATIONCOMECON

THE COLD WAR WORLD, c. 1982THE COLD WAR WORLD, c. 1982

COLD WAR CONFLICTCOLD WAR CONFLICT The Korea War, 1951-1953 The Korea War, 1951-1953

• Korea divided at 38th parallel; U.S. ally in south, Soviet ally in north Korea divided at 38th parallel; U.S. ally in south, Soviet ally in north • North Korean troops crossed 38th parallel and captured Seoul, June 1950 North Korean troops crossed 38th parallel and captured Seoul, June 1950 • U.S. and UN troops pushed back North Korean troops to Chinese border U.S. and UN troops pushed back North Korean troops to Chinese border • Chinese troops came in, pushed U.S. forces, allies back in the south Chinese troops came in, pushed U.S. forces, allies back in the south • Both sides agreed to a cease-fire in July 1953, again at 38th parallelBoth sides agreed to a cease-fire in July 1953, again at 38th parallel

Globalization of containment Globalization of containment • Western fears of international communism must be contained Western fears of international communism must be contained • Creation of SEATO, an Asian counterpart of NATO Creation of SEATO, an Asian counterpart of NATO • ““Domino theory": if one country falls to communism, others will followDomino theory": if one country falls to communism, others will follow

Cuba: nuclear flashpoint Cuba: nuclear flashpoint • Fidel Castro establishes guerrilla force in mountains, 1953Fidel Castro establishes guerrilla force in mountains, 1953

Overthrew dictator Batista in 1959 Overthrew dictator Batista in 1959 Castro declared that his government would be socialist, angers USA Castro declared that his government would be socialist, angers USA Castro seized U.S. properties, killed, exiled political opponents Castro seized U.S. properties, killed, exiled political opponents United States cut off Cuban sugar imports, imposed export embargo United States cut off Cuban sugar imports, imposed export embargo Castro accepted Soviet economic aid and arms shipmentsCastro accepted Soviet economic aid and arms shipments

• Bay of Pigs fiasco, April 1961 Bay of Pigs fiasco, April 1961 CIA-sponsored invasion of Cuba failed CIA-sponsored invasion of Cuba failed Diminished U.S. prestige in Latin AmericaDiminished U.S. prestige in Latin America

• Cuban missile crisis, October 1962 Cuban missile crisis, October 1962 Soviet deployed nuclear missiles in Cuba, aimed at USA; claimed Cuban defense Soviet deployed nuclear missiles in Cuba, aimed at USA; claimed Cuban defense Kennedy blockaded Cuba, demanded removal; two tense weeks Kennedy blockaded Cuba, demanded removal; two tense weeks Khrushchev backed down; Kennedy pledged not to overthrow CastroKhrushchev backed down; Kennedy pledged not to overthrow Castro

DÉTENTE & DECLINE OF BIPOLAR WORLDDÉTENTE & DECLINE OF BIPOLAR WORLD Era of cooperation Era of cooperation

• Leaders of both superpowers agreed on policy of détente, late 1960s Leaders of both superpowers agreed on policy of détente, late 1960s • Exchanged visits and signed agreements calling for cooperation, 1972, 1974 Exchanged visits and signed agreements calling for cooperation, 1972, 1974 • Concluded Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT), 1972, again 1979Concluded Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT), 1972, again 1979

Demise of détente Demise of détente • Full U.S.-China diplomatic relations in 1979 created U.S.-USSR strain Full U.S.-China diplomatic relations in 1979 created U.S.-USSR strain • U.S. weapons sale to China in 1981 undermined U.S.-Soviet cooperation U.S. weapons sale to China in 1981 undermined U.S.-Soviet cooperation • 1980 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan prompted U.S. economic sanctions1980 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan prompted U.S. economic sanctions

U.S. defeat in Vietnam U.S. defeat in Vietnam • 1950s, United States committed to support noncommunist government in South Vietnam 1950s, United States committed to support noncommunist government in South Vietnam • U.S. involvement escalated through 1960s U.S. involvement escalated through 1960s • United States and allies unable to defeat North and South Vietnamese communists United States and allies unable to defeat North and South Vietnamese communists • President Nixon pledged in 1968 to end war with Vietnam President Nixon pledged in 1968 to end war with Vietnam • U.S. troops gradually withdrew; U.S. phase of war ended in 1973 U.S. troops gradually withdrew; U.S. phase of war ended in 1973 • North Vietnam continued war effort, unified the nation in 1976North Vietnam continued war effort, unified the nation in 1976

Soviet setbacks in Afghanistan Soviet setbacks in Afghanistan • Afghanistan had been a nonaligned nation until 1978, pro-Soviet coup Afghanistan had been a nonaligned nation until 1978, pro-Soviet coup • Radical reforms in 1978 prompted backlash Radical reforms in 1978 prompted backlash • Islamic leaders objected to radical social change, led armed resistance Islamic leaders objected to radical social change, led armed resistance • 1979, rebels controlled much of Afghan countryside; USSR intervened 1979, rebels controlled much of Afghan countryside; USSR intervened • United States and other nations supported anti-PDPA rebels; struggle lasted nine years United States and other nations supported anti-PDPA rebels; struggle lasted nine years • 1989 cease-fire negotiation by UN led to full Soviet withdrawal 1989 cease-fire negotiation by UN led to full Soviet withdrawal • Taliban forces captured Kabul and declared Afghanistan a strict Islamic state, 1996Taliban forces captured Kabul and declared Afghanistan a strict Islamic state, 1996

Cold war countercultural protests in 1960s and 1970s Cold war countercultural protests in 1960s and 1970s • Cultural criticism of cold war as seen in film Cultural criticism of cold war as seen in film Dr. StrangeloveDr. Strangelove, 1964 , 1964 • European and U.S. students agitated for peace, end to arms race, Vietnam war European and U.S. students agitated for peace, end to arms race, Vietnam war • Rock and roll music expressed student discontentRock and roll music expressed student discontent

END OF COLD WAREND OF COLD WAR Revolution in east and central EuropeRevolution in east and central Europe

• Moscow's legacies Moscow's legacies After World War II, Soviets had credibility for defeating Nazis After World War II, Soviets had credibility for defeating Nazis Communism unable to satisfy nationalism in eastern and central Europe Communism unable to satisfy nationalism in eastern and central Europe Soviet-backed governments lacked support and legitimacy Soviet-backed governments lacked support and legitimacy Soviet interventions in 1956 and 1968 dashed hopes of a humane socialismSoviet interventions in 1956 and 1968 dashed hopes of a humane socialism

• Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet leader 1985-1991 Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet leader 1985-1991 1989, Gorbachev announced restructuring of USSR, withdrawal from cold war 1989, Gorbachev announced restructuring of USSR, withdrawal from cold war Satellites states informed that each was on its own, without Soviet supportSatellites states informed that each was on its own, without Soviet support

• Rapid collapse of communist regimes across eastern and central Europe, 1989 Rapid collapse of communist regimes across eastern and central Europe, 1989 In Poland, Solidarity leader Lech Walesa won election of 1990 In Poland, Solidarity leader Lech Walesa won election of 1990 Communism overthrown peacefully in Bulgaria and Hungary Communism overthrown peacefully in Bulgaria and Hungary Czechoslovakia's "velvet revolution" in 1990, divided into Czech Republic, Slovakia Czechoslovakia's "velvet revolution" in 1990, divided into Czech Republic, Slovakia Only violent revolution was in Romania; ended with death of communist dictator Only violent revolution was in Romania; ended with death of communist dictator East Germany opened Berlin Wall in 1989; two Germanys were united in 1990East Germany opened Berlin Wall in 1989; two Germanys were united in 1990

The collapse of the Soviet Union The collapse of the Soviet Union • Gorbachev's reforms Gorbachev's reforms

Gorbachev hoped for economic reform within political and economic system Gorbachev hoped for economic reform within political and economic system Centralized economy inefficient, military spending excessive Centralized economy inefficient, military spending excessive Declining standard of living, food shortages, shoddy goodsDeclining standard of living, food shortages, shoddy goods

• Perestroika: "restructuring" the economy Perestroika: "restructuring" the economy Tried decentralizing economy, market system, profit motive Tried decentralizing economy, market system, profit motive Alienated those in positions of power, military leadersAlienated those in positions of power, military leaders

• Glasnost: "openness" to public criticism, admitting past mistakes Glasnost: "openness" to public criticism, admitting past mistakes Opened door to widespread criticism of party and government Opened door to widespread criticism of party and government Ethnic minorities, especially Baltic peoples, declared independence from USSR Ethnic minorities, especially Baltic peoples, declared independence from USSR Russian Republic, led by Boris Yeltsin, also demanded independenceRussian Republic, led by Boris Yeltsin, also demanded independence

• Collapse of the Soviet Union, December 1991 Collapse of the Soviet Union, December 1991 In 1991, conservatives attempted coup; wished to restore communism In 1991, conservatives attempted coup; wished to restore communism With help of loyal Red Amy units, Boris Yeltsin crushed the coup With help of loyal Red Amy units, Boris Yeltsin crushed the coup Yeltsin dismantled Communist party, led market-oriented economic reforms Yeltsin dismantled Communist party, led market-oriented economic reforms Regions of ethnic groups became independent; Soviet Union ceased to existRegions of ethnic groups became independent; Soviet Union ceased to exist

GUERRILLA STRUGGLESGUERRILLA STRUGGLES DefinitionDefinition

• Small trained groups conduct military operationsSmall trained groups conduct military operations• Targets associated with government, economyTargets associated with government, economy• Avoid conflict with larger, regular military forcesAvoid conflict with larger, regular military forces• InspirationInspiration

NationalismNationalism Political IndependencePolitical Independence Political IdeologyPolitical Ideology ReligionReligion

Previous Historical ExamplesPrevious Historical Examples• Dutch against Spanish, late 16Dutch against Spanish, late 16thth and early 17 and early 17thth century century• Americans against British, late 18Americans against British, late 18thth century century• Spanish against Napoleon, early 19Spanish against Napoleon, early 19thth century century• Russians against Napoleon, early 19Russians against Napoleon, early 19thth century century• Boers against British in Boer War, late 19Boers against British in Boer War, late 19thth century century

GUERRILLA MOVEMENTS: VIETNAMGUERRILLA MOVEMENTS: VIETNAM Indochina was a French colonyIndochina was a French colony

• Nationalist movements arrested by FrenchNationalist movements arrested by French• Model aims after Chinese nationalist partiesModel aims after Chinese nationalist parties• In 1940, Japanese occupy area in agreement with Vichy FrenchIn 1940, Japanese occupy area in agreement with Vichy French

1945 – 19591945 – 1959• Ho Chi Minh founds Vietnamese Communist PartyHo Chi Minh founds Vietnamese Communist Party• Fought French, Japanese in World War IIFought French, Japanese in World War II• Declared Vietnam independent in 1945Declared Vietnam independent in 1945• French decided to reassert colonial ruleFrench decided to reassert colonial rule• Viet Minh defeated French 1954 Dien Bien PhuViet Minh defeated French 1954 Dien Bien Phu• Vietnam partitioned at 17Vietnam partitioned at 17thth parallel parallel

1959 – 19751959 – 1975• US assumes roll of aid to anti-communist southUS assumes roll of aid to anti-communist south• Viet Cong wage war against corrupt South Vietnamese stateViet Cong wage war against corrupt South Vietnamese state• Communist guerrilla movements in Laos, Cambodia, tooCommunist guerrilla movements in Laos, Cambodia, too• US troops reach 300,000 but cannot win warUS troops reach 300,000 but cannot win war• 1968: Tet Offensive broke Viet Cong, US will to win1968: Tet Offensive broke Viet Cong, US will to win• US eventually withdraws, South fights loosing battleUS eventually withdraws, South fights loosing battle• North Vietnam takes control of South in 1975North Vietnam takes control of South in 1975

1979 Vietnam invades Cambodia1979 Vietnam invades Cambodia• To displace murderous Pol Pot RegimeTo displace murderous Pol Pot Regime• Khmer Rouge use guerrilla warfare against VietnameseKhmer Rouge use guerrilla warfare against Vietnamese

Other Communist Guerrilla MovementsOther Communist Guerrilla Movements• Mozambique, Angola, Guinea-Bissau against PortugueseMozambique, Angola, Guinea-Bissau against Portuguese• Yugoslavia, Albania against Nazi occupationYugoslavia, Albania against Nazi occupation

RELIGIOUS GUERRILLA MOVEMENTSRELIGIOUS GUERRILLA MOVEMENTS Iran: 1953 – 1979 Iran: 1953 – 1979

• Shah Reza PahlaviShah Reza Pahlavi Modernization equals westernization; export of oil, military take top Modernization equals westernization; export of oil, military take top

prioritypriority Ruled with secret police, tyrannyRuled with secret police, tyranny

• Violent clashes between protestors, policeViolent clashes between protestors, police Ayatollah KhomeniAyatollah Khomeni

• Traditionalist movement unites opposition; ousts Shah in 1979Traditionalist movement unites opposition; ousts Shah in 1979• Established Muslim fundamentalist stateEstablished Muslim fundamentalist state• Takes US diplomats hostage in 1979, released 1981Takes US diplomats hostage in 1979, released 1981

Actively sponsors Muslim terrorist groups abroadActively sponsors Muslim terrorist groups abroad• HAMAS: Palestine; FPLO: Radical branch of the PLOHAMAS: Palestine; FPLO: Radical branch of the PLO• Hezbollah: Lebanon Shites; Islamic JihadHezbollah: Lebanon Shites; Islamic Jihad

Afghanistan: 1979 – 2002 Afghanistan: 1979 – 2002 • 1979: USSR invades to support pro-Soviet government1979: USSR invades to support pro-Soviet government

Mujahidin forces fight until 1989Mujahidin forces fight until 1989 Communist regime collages 1992 after Soviets withdraw troopsCommunist regime collages 1992 after Soviets withdraw troops

• 1996 Taliban Islamic Fundamentalist militia take control1996 Taliban Islamic Fundamentalist militia take control Anti-western; anti-women; anti-democracyAnti-western; anti-women; anti-democracy Attacks images of west, non-Islamic culture (blew up Buddha statues)Attacks images of west, non-Islamic culture (blew up Buddha statues) Anti-any group which was not MuslimAnti-any group which was not Muslim

• Supports Islamic terrorist groups abroad (Osama bin Laden)Supports Islamic terrorist groups abroad (Osama bin Laden) US topples regime after it supported 9-11 attacks on USUS topples regime after it supported 9-11 attacks on US

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONSINTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS Post-1945Post-1945

• Era of international cooperationEra of international cooperation• Many global problems cannot be solved by national governments Many global problems cannot be solved by national governments

Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) • Red Cross, an international humanitarian agency, founded 1964 Red Cross, an international humanitarian agency, founded 1964 • Greenpeace, an environmental organization, founded in 1970Greenpeace, an environmental organization, founded in 1970• Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch

The United NationsThe United Nations• Founded 1945 "to maintain international peace and security" Founded 1945 "to maintain international peace and security" • Security CouncilSecurity Council

Permanent Veto Nations: UK, US, France, Russia, ChinaPermanent Veto Nations: UK, US, France, Russia, China Not successful at preventing wars, for example, Iran-Iraq warNot successful at preventing wars, for example, Iran-Iraq war Often can diffuse tense situationsOften can diffuse tense situations

• General AssemblyGeneral Assembly Each nation has one vote; poor, 3Each nation has one vote; poor, 3rdrd world nations dominate world nations dominate Cannot legislate, but has influence in international communityCannot legislate, but has influence in international community Often used as a sounding board for world concerns, ignored by West Often used as a sounding board for world concerns, ignored by West

• ECOSOC, UN Commission of Refugees, WHOECOSOC, UN Commission of Refugees, WHO More successful in health and educational goalsMore successful in health and educational goals Eradication of smallpox and other diseasesEradication of smallpox and other diseases Decrease in child mortality, increase in female literacyDecrease in child mortality, increase in female literacy

Human rights: an ancient concept, gaining wider acceptance Human rights: an ancient concept, gaining wider acceptance • Nuremberg Trials of Nazis Nuremberg Trials of Nazis

Established concept of "crimes against humanity“Established concept of "crimes against humanity“ Permanent court sits in Hague, Netherlands for war crimes trials Permanent court sits in Hague, Netherlands for war crimes trials

• UN Universal Declaration of Human RightsUN Universal Declaration of Human Rights Forbids slavery, torture, discriminationForbids slavery, torture, discrimination Guarantees basic human rights, freedoms Guarantees basic human rights, freedoms

GENOCIDESGENOCIDES Types of MurderTypes of Murder

• Genocide: Killing of a specific group of people, attempt to wipe outGenocide: Killing of a specific group of people, attempt to wipe out• Democide: Mass murder of people by governmentDemocide: Mass murder of people by government• Ethnic Cleansing: Term common when one group attacks, kills anotherEthnic Cleansing: Term common when one group attacks, kills another

Armenian HolocaustArmenian Holocaust• First genocide of 20First genocide of 20thth century century• Turks killed 1.5 million Armenians for their support of Russians in World War ITurks killed 1.5 million Armenians for their support of Russians in World War I

The Holocaust The Holocaust • Long history of anti-Semitism Long history of anti-Semitism

Created tolerance of Nazi's anti-Jewish measures Created tolerance of Nazi's anti-Jewish measures At first Nazis encouraged Jewish emigration At first Nazis encouraged Jewish emigration Many Jews were unable to leave after Nazis took their wealth Many Jews were unable to leave after Nazis took their wealth Nazi conquest of Europe brought more Jews under their controlNazi conquest of Europe brought more Jews under their control

• The "final solution" The "final solution" Began with slaughter of Jews, Gypsies, undesirables in Soviet Union Began with slaughter of Jews, Gypsies, undesirables in Soviet Union By 1941, German special killing units had killed 1.4 million Jews By 1941, German special killing units had killed 1.4 million Jews By 1942 Nazis evacuated all European Jews to camps in east Poland By 1942 Nazis evacuated all European Jews to camps in east Poland

• Jewish resistance Jewish resistance Will to resist sapped by prolonged starvation, disease Will to resist sapped by prolonged starvation, disease Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: 60,000 Jews rose up against GermansWarsaw Ghetto Uprising: 60,000 Jews rose up against Germans

• AltogetherAltogether About 5.7 million Jews perished; more than 2 million Poles diedAbout 5.7 million Jews perished; more than 2 million Poles died Almost 98% of all Gypsies were murderedAlmost 98% of all Gypsies were murdered

Other ExamplesOther Examples• Democides: Stalin, Mao, Pol Pot (Cambodia), Zaire/CongoDemocides: Stalin, Mao, Pol Pot (Cambodia), Zaire/Congo• Genocides: Rwanda, SudanGenocides: Rwanda, Sudan• Ethnic Cleansings: Bosnia, Kosovo, Kurds in IraqEthnic Cleansings: Bosnia, Kosovo, Kurds in Iraq

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