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Inequality and Fiscal Policy Sang‐Hyop Lee University of Hawaii at Manoa (UHM) & East‐West Center (EWC) Building Forward Fairer – Economic Policies for an Inclusive Recovery and Development Expert Group Meeting, 1‐3 December 2021 (virtual)

Inequality and Fiscal Policy

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Page 1: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

Inequality and Fiscal Policy

Sang‐Hyop LeeUniversity of Hawaii at Manoa (UHM) &

East‐West Center (EWC)

Building Forward Fairer – Economic Policies for an Inclusive Recovery and Development

Expert Group Meeting, 1‐3 December 2021 (virtual)

Page 2: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

Overall Consideration

• A big picture• Policy target group• Effective?• Sustainable?

Page 3: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

Aging

Housing Price

Loe f

Old‐age Poverty

Segmented Labor

Intergenerational transfer, 

Inequality

HH debt 

Self‐EmployedTemporary

Youth Unemployment

Employment Less 

IndustrializationIMF  Post‐IMF Post COVID‐19

Family Individual

Labor Capital, Asset

Inequality(Generation, job, house, education..)

Opportunity, Generation

Rising cost of children 

House,Asset

Social Protection 

Little social protection

High growth Low

These gears are closely linked to each otherCovid-19 has brought huge challenges. Countries are different.

1. Inequality  Holistic approach is needed

Page 4: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

Policy options (1)

• Encourage and support work?– Appropriate and inevitable. But not sufficient available jobs to meet the challenges (short term vs. long term)

– Quality (decent jobs) vs. quantity (labor force participation)– Issue on labor market structure (informal sector, segmented)

• Encourage family transfers?– Family transfers have been important support systems in Asia (important during the pandemic). But it is deteriorating. 

– Singapore stresses this more than the others in Asia– May not be sustainable (decline in fertility, women’s lfpr, urbanization, consensus, etc.)

Page 5: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

Policy options (2)• Increase public transfers? Fiscal Policy 

– Inevitable for most countries.• Rising inequality and poverty• COVID‐19 • Public health and education for sub‐population can also reduce inequality (but takes long time, failing public education is an issue)

– Sustainability (issues on fiscal space + rising debt (aging)  intergenerational equity)

• Reduce public transfers (for sustainability)?– Pension reform (including from PAYGO to funded system) 

• Old age poverty is an issue—many Asian countries are getting old before they get rich (very different from European countries)

– Encourage (forced) saving• Limited implication on reducing inequality.

Page 6: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

2. Finding the target group(under Covid‐19) 

• The effect of the pandemic is very different across generations– Employment, labor income, and private consumption have been 

affected substantially (working group)– Children of working groups are also affected.– Elderly rely more on pension and savings. Thus, additional public 

support (ps) boosting labor income would have a little impact on older people.

– Government overall deficit will increase dramatically.

• National Transfer Accounts (NTA) (ntaccounts.org) may provide some useful information

Page 7: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

National Transfer Accounts

National Accounts(NA)

Household Surveys

Census, Population Projections

Administrative Data

Other Surveys and Indicators

NTA integrates information from many different sources to provide a snapshot of the generational economy(90+ countries)

NTA integrates population into economy and consistent with National Accounts

Page 8: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

Example of NTA: Thailand (2017)Government expenditure (benefit) and tax (burden) profiles

‐0.4

‐0.3

‐0.2

‐0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 71 76 81 86 91 96

Benefit (TGI) Burden (TGO)

Net Benefit (TG)

‐500

‐400

‐300

‐200

‐100

0

100

200

300

400

500

1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 71 76 81 86 91 96 101

Benefit Burden

Page 9: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

Case of Japan (2009)

‐1

‐0.8

‐0.6

‐0.4

‐0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90+

Benefit Tax burden Net transfers

‐0.5

‐0.4

‐0.3

‐0.2

‐0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90+

Benefit Tax burden

Page 10: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

Impact of Covid‐19 on consumption by age group (ratio to labor income) 

Source: Sánchez‐Romero, M. (2021). Assessing the generational impact of Covid‐19 using National Transfer Accounts (NTAs). Vienna Yearbook of Population Research, Vol 20. Special Issue on Demographic Aspects of the COVID‐19 Pandemic and its Consequences.

Page 11: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

3. Effectiveness of Fiscal Policy onReducing Inequality

We need to rely on evidences and countries are all different!—but also should be interpreted with caution.

Source: IMF, 2017. IMF Fiscal Monitor: Tracking Inequality www.imf.org

USA

GBR

AUT

BEL

DNK

FRA

DEU

ITA

LUXNLD

NOR

SWECHE

CAN

JPN

FIN

GRC

ISL

IRL

PRTESP

AUS

NZL

ISR

KOR

CZE

SVK

ESTLVA LTU

SVN

ARG

BRA

COL

CRI

DOM

ECU

SLV

GTM

PER

URY

VEN

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Dis

posa

ble

inco

me

Gin

i coe

ffici

ent

Market income Gini coefficient

Advanced economiesLatin America and Caribbean

Page 12: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

Effectiveness of Fiscal Policy on Reducing Poverty by Age: South Korea

Measure the poverty rate by age using market income vs. disposable income effective tool for poverty reduction for older people 

in S. Korea

Source: Korea Institute of Health and Social Affairs

Page 13: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

Poverty rate of pop. 65+ vs. total

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25

Poverty rate (6

5+)

Poverty rate (Total population)

Korea

Source: OECD data portal. www.data.oecd.org, Accessed November 22, 2021

Page 14: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

4. Sustainable?Social welfare spending as % of GDP (1980‐2019)

Source: OECD data portal. www.data.oecd.org

Financial Crisis Covid‐19 ?

Page 15: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

Impact of Covid‐19 ondebt‐to‐output (%)

Country

Public support ps=0%

Public support ps=100%

Australia 4.89 7.75

India 2.96 6.30

Philippines 2.10 5.86

Singapore 1.99 6.18

Thailand 2.53 6.43

Japan 5.53 8.36

Thought experiment:•Demographic shock (Infected Covid-19)•Labor income shock

Year 2020= -7.5%Year 2021= -3.7%(1-ps)Year 2022= -1.8%(1-ps)

•Public support=ps

Source: Sánchez‐Romero, M. (2021). Assessing the generational impact of Covid‐19 using National Transfer Accounts (NTAs). Vienna Yearbook of Population Research, Vol 20. Special Issue on Demographic Aspects of the COVID‐19 Pandemic and its Consequences.

Page 16: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

Per capita government transfers has increased rapidly (as ratio of labor income ages 30‐49)!

Page 17: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

But, countries do not increase taxes as much as an increase in expenditure

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88

Japan's actual tax profiles as ratio of average labor income of 30‐49

1984 1989 1994 1999 2004 2009

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88

Should have been this to make fiscal balance

1984 1989 1994 1999 2004 2009

Source: ntaccounts.org database. 

Page 18: Inequality and Fiscal Policy

Concluding Remarks• A big picture• Policy target group (age, gender, etc)• Effective?• Sustainable?Evidence driven policies targeting sub‐population (by age, 

income level, …)The recovery should be a platform on which to build a better 

nationBut no silver bullets (all countries are different).