Indv. Essay

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The Political Roles of

Women in the

Philippines and

IndonesiaA Comparative Essay

Submitted by: Maria Fe A. Del Mundo (10824707)11/3/2010


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When talking about politics, specifically the hold of political power, the common notion is that it

is male predominance. Women find it difficult to enter in the world of politics. But as the world

become more and more diverse, the social roles of the women are said to be changing, is the

same trend applied with the roles of women in politics?

In comparison with other regions, Southeast Asia (SEA) is exemplified by the fairly encouraging

position of women in the society. As discussed by Barbara Watson Andaya (2000), there are

several factors why the place of women in SEA is quite better and they are as follows:

customarily, kinship was traced in both maternal and paternal lines; a daughter was not a

financial burden because of the widespread practice of bride price; a married couple often lived

with or near the wifes parents; women had prominent roles in indigenous ritual; their labor was

essential in agricultural, and they dominated local markets (Andaya, 2000). When the SEA

region was colonized, except from Thailand, the position of women was affected, nonetheless at

times women led anti-colonial rebellions and still influential in community life.

In the contemporary SEA, the number of women holding political seat is increasing, particularly

in the local offices. However, when women were able to enter in the political world, they still are

considered as marginalized and under the male-dominated society. And whenever women

managed to enter the highest position in the government like in the case of the Philippines and

Indonesia, they were able to do so because they are at least related to a famous man in the

country.

Basically, the focus of the essay is on the political roles of women in South East Asian countries

particularly in the Philippines, and Indonesia. The paper will discuss the political participation of

women in general. The paper will try to examine the different events that gave way to the women


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to enter in the political arena. Also, it will name some of the prominent female leaders and will

try to make assessments on their leadership.

At this point, I will provide the history up to the present of the place of the Philippine and

Indonesian women in politics and society. According to Miguel Flores (1984), date back from

the ancient Malay tradition the Filipino women were given the same treatment as men. The roles

and status of the women show that there was equality between the opposite genders. They held a

honored position, with inheritance and property rights equivalent to those of men and with a

reputable position of authority in family, social and political life as noted by some pre-Spanish

historians. In political life for instance, women were treated as consultants of men or their

husbands when making important decisions. The woman can also be the successor of her father

or husband in case no male heir is available in the leadership of their tribe (Flores, 1984).

But when Spain colonizer came in the Philippines during sixteenth to nineteenth century, the

women were treated differently. They were viewed as someone inferior to those of men. The

Spanish rule brought the Code of Laws of Spain and stated on it was to confine woman at home,

dont allow her to perform business without the legal guidance of her husband, and give her the

social and political rights same with the minors and mentally disabled person (Flores, 1984).

Also, education was mainly for men only. When finally the Spanish rule ended and American

colonizer took over, it brought changes on the roles of women but its more on the social

changes. Women were given equal opportunities as men to study and go to school and have an

access to information. In terms of the political position, the society was very much male-

dominated and patriarchal; women at that time were seen as home keeper. But by 1937, the

Filipino women were given the right to suffrage. From then on, their roles in the political sphere

became much visible.


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The triumph of women in the Philippine politics was significantly shown when the late Corazon

Aquino became the first female president of the country and gave birth to the Philippine

democracy once again. More about the case of former President Aquino will be discuss later.

The People Power Revolution in 1986 that brought Corazon Aquino to power also gives progress

to the laws regarding gender equality. In the 1987 Constitution Article II Section 14 it is avowed

that the State recognizes the roles of women in nation-building and shall ensure the fundamental

equality before the law of women and men. Also, Article 13 Section 14 is a part of constitution

protecting the welfare of the women because as stated State shall protect working women by

proving safe and healthful working conditions, taking into account their mater functions, and

such facilities and opportunities that will enhance their welfare and enable them to realize their

full potential in the service of the nation. In the legislature, Constitution included women as

one of the marginalized sector that can be represented in the Congress through the party-list

system.

Moving on, there are times when the voter-turnout of women is higher than the men. For

instance, in the local and national election of 1995, the turnout rate for women was 71.0% while

the rate for men was 70.3% though the number of registered male voters, 18.3 million was higher

than female, 18.1 million (Philippines Report). Also, the number of aspiring women who ran for

the office was not far from the number of who actually won the seats. In the 1998 election, there

were 6 female candidates for senatorial position out of 28 candidates, 2 women won the seats of

the 12 Senate position or a total of 16.67%, and 65 female candidates out of 611 for the district

representative position, 25 women won for the 207 representative seats or a total of 12.08%

(Philippines Report).


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Philippine Organization of Women Elected Representatives, Inc. (POWER) is an organization

formed by the women in the legislature which main goal is to serve as a venue for interaction and

talks regarding the general welfare of the women in the country. The organization is capable of

providing laws that are needed by the women, and it can also support bill that is helpful to all

Filipino women. Aside from the mentioned organization, under the Constitution women are

given an opportunity to be represented through party-list representation and one of the prominent

especially in the 1998 election is the Abanse! Pinay party. In the present time, the GABRIELA

party is the most known party-list in terms of fighting and protecting for the rights of the women.

Filipino women aside from being political participants by means of voting and running the

election for the public offices, they also are given certain positions and roles in the bureaucracy.

In 1997, according to the Philippines Report there are more women than men in the government

bureaucracy, 53.81% out of the total 1.38 million government personnel.

However, in the 2001 election it was said to be a watershed in the era of women in politics. No

women party won and the women sector lost their representation. In the paper Participation of

Women in Philippine Politics and Soceity: A Satuationer written by Mylene Hega (2003) ,

presented the study conducted by Ateneo School of Government and the Friedrich-Ebert-

Stiftung. According to the study the amorphous sectoral association did not spare the womens

sector that is supposed to be the most cohesive as it deal with a group defined biologically. The

study concluded that obviously there exists no sectoral vote. Groups representing sectors cannot

rely on their sectoral constituencies to win them seats. Certainly, the sectors have the numbers.

Millions of peasants and workers can elect many representatives in the House. However, none of

the sectors seem united enough or are aware of themselves as a sector with special interests and a


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point of unity in the electoral arena. Perhaps their votes are more oriented toward causes,

personalities or parties (Hega, 2003).

There are several reasons why though Philippines is the most advance country in terms of gender

equality in the SEA, still not fully achieved the balance between the political roles of men and

women. Women in political arena are still considered inferior than that of men. Leadership in the

country is still associated with male. Women more often than not are seen as support to their

husbands. They are the housekeeper and the main function as supposed is to take good care of

the family.

Nevertheless in general, the roles of the Filipino women are advancing in some aspects. In fact in

the 2002 Human Development Report, 17.2 of all the legislative seats are occupied by women,

2.3 of the professional and technical workers are women and 35% of Filipino administrators and

managers are women. The Philippines is the highest in the South East Asia region in terms of

Gender Empowerment Measurement (GEM) having the measure of 0.523.

Let me present here a table as an example that will show the advancement of the roles of women

in Philippine political sphere:

Table I. Percentage of Women in Philippine Government, Congress, and Judiciary


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Source: Participation of Women in Philippine Politics and Soceity: A Satuationer, Mylene Hega

(2003)

Now we shift our focus on the political history of the Indonesian women but just like the history

of women in Philippine political arena, women in Indonesia are having its own ups and downs.

According to H.E. Mr Sudjadnan Parnohadiningrat, ambassador of the Republic of Indonesia

(2002), the role of Indonesian women in shaping the very fabric of their society is integral to the

history of their nation. Presently, the country is attempting to boost the involvement or

participation of women in politics. Women are facing some difficulties in entering politics

because of several factors as enumerated by Arnita Sitasari: firstly, the traditional social

perspective of a womans role as a mother and a wife; second, an electoral system designed to

favor men over women; third, a culture heavily influenced by Islam that reinforces womens

status as second class citizens; and lastly, the influenced of military (Sitasari, 2006).

By the year 1928 it was said to be a turning point in the history of Indonesian women because of

the holding of the first Womens Congress, Kongres Perempuan. The Congress gave way to

women to participate and be part in all phases ofthe countrys development. Moreover, the claim

for independence became a major issue in the country and the role of women by that time was

very crucial. They played a key role distinctively in the armed services. Conversely, after the


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independence was granted and men returned to the place from war, the patriarchal society then

again emerged and the role of women was seen only for household.

During 1952 despite the re-emergence of patriarchal society a law was passed granting women

the freedom to vote and to be appointed and participate to the legislature and in all political

position in the country. This was by the ratification of Indonesia of the UN Convention on

Political Rights through Law No. 68/1958. The general election laws such as laws No. 15/1969,

No. 4/1975, No. 29/1980, and No. 3/1985 permit women to actively partake in the political

sphere and give rights to women to be part of the decision-making body in Indonesia (Women in

Indonesia, 2002).

Aside from the law passed as stated earlier, the government of Indonesia ratified the Convention

on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. The law passed regarding this

was the Law No. 7/1984. Also, the government in its effort to ensure the removal of

discrimination among women created on 1998 the National Commission on Violence against

Women. The main goals of the commission are as follows: to promote public awareness about all

forms of violence against women, to create advantageous environment for the ending of violence

to women, to secure the human rights of women, and to advance the protective measure about

the ending of violence against women. In addition, the Optional Protocol to the Convention in

1999 added to the legality of the rights of the women to be part of the growth of the country

(Women in Indonesia, 2002). Another step taken by the government of Indonesia to secure the

rights of the women was the establishment of the National Action Plan for the Elimination of

Violence against Women. The policy about the non-tolerance of the mistreatment of women is

under the action plan.


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Going back to the more political aspect, the first general election was held during 1955, the

women made up the 6.5% of the total member elected in the Parliament. This election also gave

way to the rise of the different patterns of womens representation. The increasing participation

of women was evident and peaking at 13% by 1987 (Parawansa, n.d.). Likewise, during the first

election of the reform era or the so-called New Order era, a single party system was dominant

and the representation of the women was greatly affected by the national-level elites in the

country. Also, during the new era the women get elected even if not actively participating in the

election campaign because they were under the closed-list proportional representation, and they

merely won because of the influential elite. In the 1999 election, some changes occurred like the

recruitment of the party candidates for the legislature needs the approval of the regional party

officials. During this time, women were actively doing the campaign and participating in the

whole electoral process. The women were able to get 8.8% of the representative seats during

1999.

Another turning point event happened in the Indonesian history was the appointment of the first

woman president Megawati Sukarnoputri in 2001 which will be discuss more in the next part of

the paper. According to Khofifah Indar Parawansa (n.d.), during the presidencies of Megawati

Sukarnoputri and Abdurrahman Wahid (the one replaced by Megawati) a major process of

constitutional amendment took place.

Indonesia changed from an integrationist state in which the Majelis Permusyawaratan (MPR,

Peoples Consultative Assembly) was the single highest institution of the nation to a conventional

presidential system with separation of powers. As a result, Indonesia held elections for the national

legislature and for provincial and district legislatures in 2004, accompanied by the first election for

the newly established second chamber of the legislature, the regional Dewan Perwakilan Daerah


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(DPD, Representatives Council). These elections were followed by Indonesias first-ever direct

presidential election, conducted in 2004 using a Two-Round system (Parawansa, n.d.).

The results of the 2004 election showed an increase of womens electoral participation. Out of

the 128 DPD there were 27 women won or 21%. And in DPR there were 11.5%. The new

election process brought important changes that may affect the representation of women in both

the national and regional legislature. One of the most important changes that affect the women is

the new provision requiring parties to bear in their hearts the desirability of 30 percent of

nominated candidates being women, which can be described as a maybe quota (Parawansa,

n.d.). Though the provision is not fixed, many parties are trying to comply with the 30% women

candidates in their list for the elected bodies at all levels. This shows that the rights of Indonesian

women are atleast treated well during the modern times though still limited.

At this point, let me show some of the statistics that will illustrate the trend ofwomens political

involvement in Indonesia:

Table II. Women in the Formal Institution in Indonesia as of 2005


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Source: Case Study: Indonesia. Enhancing Womens Participation in Indonesia by Khofifah

Indar Parawansa.

Table III. Women in the House of Representatives (DPR), Indonesia

Source: Case Study: Indonesia. Enhancing Womens Participation in Indonesia by Khofifah

Indar Parawansa.

As we can see from the tables above, women are given way to participate in the politics but still

the figures clearly show that the Indonesian political arena is still male-dominated. From the year

1950 until this present era, no more than 14% constitute the women in every House of

Representatives. Some of the reasons why it happens that way are presented in the Case Study of

Indonesia authored by Parawansa.

According to the said author, there are several obstacles preventing women to be part of the

Parliament. The first one is that Indonesia is still largely patriarchal society and assumes that the

political positions are for men and women can more likely are in the household or sometimes in

the business. Second, the party leaders are always men and the selection of the party candidates


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mostly are bias and prefer men as political candidate more than women. Men have the final say

over the party politics. Third factor is that the media in Indonesia doesnt give much importance

to the information dissemination about the importance of women being part of the Parliament.

Fourth, the Non-governmental organizations or the (NGOs) representing the women are present

since 1999 but they lacked cooperation and networking which are important to achieve the

common goal. They work individually and there is no social capital. The fifth factor is about the

low educational attainment of the women. Only women coming from the upper sector of the

society can afford education in Indonesia. Women in terms of education are inferior and since

the qualification set by 2003 electoral law states that the electoral candidates should have attain

at least senior high school degree, this become hindrance for women. The qualification set by the

2003 electoral law of Indonesia is opposite in the case of the Philippines and in this aspect

Philippine electoral laws can offer much equal opportunities for both men and women to be

electoral candidate. However, I find the electoral law regarding educational attainment in the

Philippines not convincible because as stated on it, as long as the citizen is eligible to read and

write can assume the candidacy for election in compliance with other qualifications stated in the

electoral law. In my point of view, the low educational qualification can somehow threaten the

matter of governance. Moving on, the sixth factor is that women play a vital role in the family

and usually this becomes an issue when they will run for office. The issue of family versus

political position turns out to be a big deal especially with their spouses. Seventh, money is

always been an issue when running into office and women usually lacks the resources. Lastly,

political parties received limited seats in the Parliament and men are always the priority.

After discussing the place of women in the Philippines and Indonesia, I will try to give a deeper

understanding of the political roles of women by examining the two of the most well-known


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female leaders in South East Asia, Corazon Aquino of the Philippines and Megawati

Sukarnoputri of Indonesia.

Mother of the Philippine democracy- this was title given to Maria Corazon Cory Sumulong

Cojuangco-Aquino. Cory Aquino was the first woman president of the Philippines. Before the

assassination of her husband Benigno Ninoy Aquino Jr., Mrs. Aquino was a plain housewife.

But in 1983, Cory Aquino became visible and actively participated in the rallies and

demonstrations against the Marcos regime. She assumed the responsibilities of her husband

placing herself in the opposition and fighting for the freedom of the Filipino under the Marcos

era. By that time, Ferdinand Marcos regime was accused of illegitimacy and his administration

was being questioned by the nation. During November 1985, Marcos announced that there will

be a snap election on February 1986 to satisfy the people questioning his rule. With the demand

of the people and their signature campaign, Cory Aquino was asked to run as President against

Marcos.

The campaign happened before the snap election was said to be dirty and controversial. Marcos

threw unacceptable accusations of Aquinos personality and her capability. One of the most

controversial charges Marcos said about Aquino is her being a woman. According to Marcos,

Aquino is just a woman whose place was in a bedroom. In this line, it was clearly shown the

perception of woman, inferior that of a man. Nonetheless, Aquino handled the matter by saying

that may the better woman win this election. Aquino tried not to be affected by the many

charges of his opponent.

The snap election held on February 7, 1986 was unforgettable in the political history of the

country. It was bloody and full of violence. Many allies of Aquino were killed like the Governor


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of Antique, Evelio Javier. On February 15, 1986, Marcos was declared as the winner by the

Batasang Pambansa. Aquino on the other hand, didnt believe the proclamation of the Batasan

and called for a rally the following day. With this, many Filipino came out of their houses and

became part of the rally which only shows that Filipino were longing for change and already

tired of the Marcos regime. Moreover, on the 22nd

day of February, Defense Minister Juan Ponce

Enrile and General Fidel V. Ramos announced that they were not convinced on the result of the

snap election and gave their support on Aquino. This instance gave way on what we call now

EDSA I or the People Power Revolution. On February 25, 1986, Corazon Aquino was

proclaimed as the new president of the Philippines.

As presented in the paper The Rise of Women Leaders in the Philippines: A Study of Corazon

Aquino and Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo by Jaylyn Silvestre, there are four variables that affect

the being in the power of the two female presidents: family ties, the Catholic Church, the context

of corruption and gender symbolism. Aquino presidency was said to be impossible without her

relation to the prominent politician, his husband Ninoy Aquino (Silvestre, n.d.). Being part of a

prominent family, Cojuangco-Aquino was I think also help in bringing Cory Aquino in the

position. Next about the role of Catholic Church, women being more religious than men at least

in the view of the Church can suffice why they were able to get the support needed to be in the

position. Filipinos are known for being religious and obedient to the Church and so most of the

time when the Church says something the people easily accept it or follow it. It is deeply rooted

in the culture. In addition, the context of corruption is seen as one variable affecting the rise of

the two female presidents. Both the cases of Aquino and Arroyos rise to power were products of

the ousted corrupt political leaders. Lastly, traditional Filipino woman is seen as someone with


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good morals and has the capacity of directing the family towards the right path and with this

gender symbolism helped explain why the two presidents got the position.

Aquinos administration faced a great challenges left by the Marcos era. Her first few months in

the office were spent for democratic reforms. She abolished the Batasang Pambansa which was

known for being pro-Marcos as well as the 1973 Constitution. She called for drafting a new

Constitution and created Constitutional Commission whos in charged of it. While waiting for

the amendment of the new Constitution, the Freedom Constitution of 1986 was used. When the

Constitution was amended during 1987, the new Congress also opened. The important

contributions of Aquino to the Philippine law are the legal codes as follows: Administrative

codes of 1987 which is about the reorganization of the structure of the government executive

branch, and Local Government Code of 1991 which is about decentralization of power from

national government to the local government units (LGUs).

Moving on, Aquinos presidency did affect the roles of the women in the Philippine politics and

society. The creation of commission for the development of women in the society really helped

to elevate the position of women. It was also evident that there was an increased in the womens

representation in the public office. Under her administration, three women served in Aquinos

cabinet and in Judiciary, the representation of women in key position increased from 7.5% to

9.6%, and in the Foreign Service it grew from 27.5% to 40% (Boudrea, 1995). The presidency

of Aquino also gave way to other aspiring Filipino women and it made them feel that women can

be political leaders and not just always be treated inferior than that of men.

At this part let me give my reaction about Aquinos administration and her being a leader. If Im

going to rank Aquinos administration probably its on the middle, not so good but not so bad

either. I believe that her being woman is more of an advantage that if was used properly during


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her time can bring much more changes. Her good side however is the fact that she widens the

way and broadens the path for the women not only in the Philippines but all over the world to be

actively political participants.

Moving in the case of Indonesia, Diah Permata Megawati Setiawati Sukarnoputri marked the

political history of the country. Like Corazon Aquino, she was the first female president. But

unlike Aquino, Megawati assumed other political position before being president. She became

the vice-president and leader of the opposition party named Indonesian Democratic Party-

Struggle (PDI-P). She was also a daughter of Sukarno, the first president of Indonesia and a part

of political elite.

In 2001, Megawati was appointed as the fifth president of Indonesia. By the unanimous decision

made by the Peoples Consultative Assembly, they removed Abdurrahman Wahid and replaced

by her. When Megawati laid down her state of the nation address, her 6 point programs were said

to be a motherhood statements and also in her speech included some of her personal life

experiences. Megawati is accused of having intellectual shortcomings and for some this is not a

good trait of president.

Before being appointed as president, Megawati was really planning then to run as president.

When PDI-Ps Legislative election was a victory in 1999, the more it gave Megawati confidence

to run for the office but it was opposed by United Development Party (PPP) because they dont

want female president. This clearly depicted that Indonesian politics is still bias on women.

Megawatis presidency became controversial and full of doubts on the part of many scholars and

analysts. There were lot of governance challenges left to Megawati by the Soehrto, Habbie and

Wahid government. Democracy is one of the issues faced by Megawatis presidency for almost 4

years. Megawati ran for the 2004 and 2009 presidential election but was defeated.


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According to Krishna Sen (2002), democracy in Indonesia under Megawati is producing a new

kind of politics- different from their own democracy which is the mass-based democracy and

different too from the ideals of Indonesias reformist intellectuals.

Overall, I think Megawatis presidency didnt show a great result in the political sphere of

Indonesia and this was evident when she tried to run twice for the office but did not win.

In comparison, Cory Aquino and Megawati Sukarnoputri both became the first female presidents

of their countries. They are both appointed and not really as a result of valid or legitimate

election. However, the demand of the people for Cory Aquino to be the president was more

visible than that of Megawati. Both of them also were related to the prominent men of the

countries. Aquino was the wife of the known opposition leader against Marcos martial law while

Megawati is a daughter of the first president of Indonesia. Moreover, Aquino and Megawati

have the traits of being a housewife. In Aquinos case she was sometimes soft-hearted and easy

to forgive while in the case of Megawati, her being a housewife is manifested in her state of the

nation address. Despite the similarities, there also exist the differences among the two female

leaders. Megawati have already a background of politics before being president on the other

hand Aquino was just a plain housewife before appointed in the office. And after their terms in

office, Aquino stepped down and not run for the office again while Megawati did. The cases of

Aquino and Megawati show that indeed women can have a place in the political arena but

obstructions and difficulties regarding gender-related issue are still inescapable especially in a

male-dominated society like the Philippines and Indonesia.


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To conclude, there are indeed changing political roles of women in the Philippines and

Indonesia. In both countries at the present times, women are allowed to vote and actively

participate in the electoral process. However, there are still some difficulties women encounters

specially when assuming political position. These were rooted mainly from the culture of the

region. Philippines and Indonesia are both patriarchal by nature and from this very fact, it can

explain why women are treated somewhat inferior when compare to men. Different laws were

passed in both countries protecting not only the political rights of the women but the general

welfare as well. Both countries also show that having female political leaders is not impossible

but its really challenging.


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Andaya, B. W. (2008). Women in South East Asia. Retreived October 20, 2010 from

http://asiasociety.org/countries-history/traditions/women-southeast-asia

Boudreau, Vincent (1995). Corazon Aquino: Gender, Class, and the People Power President.Bergin & Garvey, 88 Post Road West, Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. Inc.

DAmico, F. & Beckman, P .R. (Eds.). (1995). Women in World Politics: An Introduction.

Bergin & Garvey, 88 Post Road West, Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. Inc. pp.

1-15.

Hega, M. (2003). Participation of Women in Philippine Politics and Society: A Situationer.

Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Philippine Office. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from

library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/philippinen/50067.pdfParawansa, K. I. (n.d.) Case Study: Indonesia- Enhancing Womens Political Participation in

Indonesia. Women in Parliament: Beyond Numbers. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from

www.idea.int/publications/wip2/upload/Indonesia.pdfReport on the State of Women in Urban Local Government Philippines. Philippines Report.

Retrieved October 20, 2010 from http://www.unescap.org/huset/women/reports/philippines.pdf

Robinson K. & Bessell, S. (Eds.) (2002). Women in Indonesia: Gender, Equity and

Development. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore.

Sen, Krishna (2002). The Mega Factor in Indonesian Politics: A New President or a New Kind

of Presidency. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore.

Silvestre, Jaylyn. (n.d.) The Rise of Women Leaders in the Philippines: A Study of Corazon

Aquino and Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. The Berkeley McNair Research Journal.

Retrieved October 20, 2010 from www.capwip.org/readingroom/silvestre.pd Sitasari, Arnita. (n.d.)Indonesian Women and Politics: Challenges and Promises. Department of

Political Science, West Virginia University. Retrieved October 20, 2010 from

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