182

Research in Science Education, 1987, 17, 182-191.

INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT DURING TEACHER TRAINING

John Baird, Peter Fensham, Riehard Gunstone, and Riehard White

In this paper, one aspect of the initial phase of a three-year project on the teaching

and learning of science in sehools is d e s c r i b e d . The projeet seeks to inerease

understanding of the processes and mechanisms of teaching and learningthrough intensive

observation, participation, and refleetion.

Classroom teaehing and learning are influeneed by many things - in faet, the breadth

and diversity of faetors whieh bear on teaehing and learning sometimes seems

bewildering. For teachers, what is taught, how it is taught, and how well it is taught are

all outcomes of a continual process of eonseious or subconscious deeision-making. These

decisions are influenced by factors associated with the teaeher, the students, the eontent

under study, and the classroom, sehool and societal eontext. Similar eonditions operate

for students and their learning. The foeus of this paper is l imited to only some of these

factors - those which are, or those whieh bear directly on, intel leetual a t t r ibutes of the

teacher in training. However, as will beeome clear, even these faetors are complex in

their nature and manner of interaet ion.

Among other things, how a person teaehes a given topic is influenced by his or her

present intel lectual e.ompetenee with respeet to this topie. As defined here, in te l lectual

competence comprises a number of eognitive and affeet ive faetors in four main areas:

Att i tudes (ineluding Values and Coneerns); Pereeptions; Coneeptions (including Knowledge

and Beliefs); Abilities. Each of the areas of intel leetual eompetenee influenee one

another. A person's intel lectual eompetenee will influence subsequent intel lectual

performance as he or she plans or teaehes a lesson on the topie. By intel lectual

performance is meant the person's Att i tudes (expressed verbally or non-verbal!y),

Perceptions (e.g. awareness of the extent of s tudent understanding, or development of the

lesson in terms of the lesson plan), and Decisions and Behaviours about what to do and

why, as the lesson proceeds.

The purpose of this paper is two-fold: to highlight the nature of some interaetions

which oeeur among the different areas of intel leetual competence, and the influence of

these interaetions on intel leetual performanee; to argue for a style of researeh on

183

teaching and learning which, by acknowledging these interact ions and their importance,

has the potential to deepen understanding of the mechanisms by which teaching and

learning operate.

In this paper, one group of participants in the project will be considered - a group of

fourteen science graduates in the first twelve weeks of their one year preservice training

for secondary school science teaching. Information on these students is set out in three

main sections below. One major aspect of context (the nature of the preservice course

being undertaken by the students) is not considered here.

THE INTERACTION BETWEEN CONCEPTIONS AND ABILITIES, AND

THEIR EFFECT ON INTELLECTUAL PERFORMANCE

In this section, aspects of the conceptions and abilit ies areas of intellectual

competence will be inferred from students ' performance in two episodes which occurred

during individual interviews at the beginning of the study. In both episodes, many students

exhibited faulty performance which is a t t r ibuted to conceptual and processing

inadequacies.

EPISODE 1: CARTESIAN DIVER TASK

The Cartesian diver task formed part of an extensive interview held with each

student in the week before the start of the course. These interviews typically lasted

between one to two hours. For the task, each student was asked to manipulate the

apparatus and to answer two inital questions: 'What do you see happening?', and 'Why do

you think it happens?' Particular responses were followed up through diagnostic

questioning. Subsequently, students were asked about the extent to which they were

sat isf ied with their explanation, how they would go about testing it, and whether they

could think of any 'real world' examples of a similar effect. Full t ranscripts of the episode

were prepared and analysed.

In 1982, Baird and White reported seven 'deficient learning tendencies ' which had

been identified with three ter t iary biology students. These tendencies were processing

habits which mili tated against learning with understanding by limiting the person's

metaeognit ive awareness and control of the task. Such tendencies from part of the

abilit ies area of intelleetual competence. Of these seven tendencies, each of the six

which are relevant to the current task were observed. The incidence of each of these

tendencies for the fourteen students is shown in Table I.

184

TABLE 1 Incidence of deficient learning tendencies during

the Cartesian diver task

Tendency Short Description Number of Students exhibit ing tendency

Related to Critical Observation

Superficial attention

Impulsive a t t en t ion

'Skim ruing' - uniform lack of a t t en t ion to the task

'Spotty' attention - attention to certain parts to the exclusion of other parts

Rela ted to Logical Reasoning

Inadequate monitoring

Inappropriate application

Premature closure

Lack of r e f l ec t ive thinking

- internal

- external

Lack of checking of progress, par t ieu laHy the adequacy or internal consistency of responses

At tem pting rein em bered procedures blindly

Premature decision to finish task when impor tant aspects remain incomplete

Includes la te ra l , c rea t ive , in t rospect ive thinking

Lack of associat ion or integrat ion of present task with re la ted content or exper iences (includes failure to de termine how to tes t explanat ion of observations)

Lack of associat ion or integrat ion of present task with wider experiences e.g. those in everyday l ife

11

185

A striking feature of this task was the disinclination of students to observe carefully,

and to base their explanations on these observations. Many students were content to

theorise about causes for effects inadequately observed. This lack of faith in observation

was related to both superficial attention and impulsive attention.

Superficial attention

Six of the fourteen students just didn't bother to look at the apparatus carefully

enough. Thus, for most of the episode they didn't see the hole in the diver or changes in

the water level within it.

Impulsive attention

For many students, observation simply served to test their ideas. Thus, these

observations were limited, and yielded various results. Four other students placed even

less value on observation. They believed that air must leave the diver through a hole, but

they couldn't find a hole, and they didn't look for bubbles as the diver submerged.

Students also exhibited a variety of logical reasoning inadequacies related directly to

one or more of the deficient learning tendencies in Table I. Many of these reasoning

inadequacies operated in conjunction with specific inadequacies concerning the concepts

of buoyancy, amount, density, pressure, and volume. Assumptions based on these

inadequate conceptions influenced the direction and quality of their reasoning.

For the whole task, the interviewer rated four of the fourteen students as having

achieved a satisfactory explanation and understanding. Six students achieved a partial,

although deficient, explanation. Of these six students, five were unaware of directly

conflicting statements in their explanation. Four students were unable to make much

progress at all. It is significant that only three students expressed satisfaction with their

own explanation.

EPISODE 2: ENERGY TASKS

The second episode comprises a sequence of three tasks which sought the students'

conceptions of energy. The three tasks were as follows:

Task A

The student was presented with 200 gram of each of four foods - carrot, potato

chips, apple, and chocolate. The student was then presented with a hypothetical situation

in which he or she was to eat the shown amount of one of the foods after each meal for

tile next two weeks. The food was to be consumed in addition to the normal food intake,

and there was to be no other change in exercise or life style. The student was asked to

choose a food, and then his or her conceptions related to energy intake, storage, and use

were elicited by diagnostic questioning. Subsequently, the student was asked to predict

and explain what would happen if he or she fasted for one month.

186

Task B

The student was asked to hit a copper plate with a hammer, and then consider the

energy changes which occurred as a result of the hit. Responses were checked through a

supplementary series of questions about a golf ball and club.

Task C

Three arrangements of ten dominoes were eonstructed in front of the student. These

arrangements were a vertical pile, a random horizontal arrangement, and an ordered

horizontal array. The student was asked whether the different arrangements have

different energy.

Full transcripts were made of the fourteen students' responses, and these responses

were then considered in terms of sets of key propositions, or accepted theory, related to

each task. For example, for Task A, responses were considered in terms of thirteen

propositions regarding mass and body functioning, twenty-three propositions regarding

energy and body functioning, and one proposition regarding the non-interconvertabil i ty of

mass and energy under these conditions. Through this analysis, specific conceptual and

processing inadequacies were identified.

As for Episode 1, interrelationships among the conceptions and abil i t ies components

of intel lectual competence, and intellectual performance, were discovered. Processing

inadequacies, considered as deficient learning tendeneies, and conceptual inadequacies

were inferred from students' attitudes, perceptions, decisions and behaviours displayed

during the tasks. Further, evidence was found whereby the interaction of conceptual and

processing inadequacies during the tasks generated new misconceptions, and also changed

personal attitudes and perceptions regarding the topics, tasks, and the teaching of

energy. Major conceptual inadequacies were identif ied with respect to the nature and

types of energy. Processing inadequacies related to four dif ferent learning tendencies

were discovered. Each of these wi l l now be considered briefly.

CONCEPTUAL INADEQUACIES

The different types of enerb~, and their nature

'Movement can be regarded as a type of energy - or, movement can be regarded as an expression of the energy .... a demonstration of the energy being spent. If you see movement, you know energy is being used .. [a moving golf ball] has potential energy, because it is now higher than what it was, and it can fall, so energy is still being expended, but the golf ball itself doesn't have any more energy [than a stationary one], because it has expended that in initially moving- the movement came from the golf ball pushing against the club, and the force ... that it exerted on the club has been exerted, the [elastic] golf ball is in its original shape, and the expression of that push is its movement through the air _.' (Student 2)

187

This quote demonstrates the student's uncertainty about the relationship of the

effect between different forms of energy, the nature of energy itself (i__s movement

energy, is movement an expression of energy, or does movement have energy?), and its

relationship with concepts such as momentum, force, and impact. The uncertainty about

energy as an attribute (is), expression (evidence of), or component (has), extended to other

forms of energy, e.g. 'glucose i__ss energy' [cf. glucose contains energy] (Student 4); 'energy is

stored a__~s fat [cf. i__n_n fat]; the energy is the food itself' (Student 5); 'heat is not energy, it's a

result of using energy' (Student I).

A source of the confusion seems to be uncertainty regarding the relationship between

types of energy in which motion is apparent (e.g. light, sound, electricity), and stored,

static energy - energy in reserve, 'potential' energy. For example:

S: [Student} 'There is potential energy stored in the petrol, in terms of its chemical potential'

I: [Interviewer]: Is that a different sort of potential energy from that [the gravitational potential energy]?

S: Um ... well "potential" is pretty abstract - I supose, no. I define potential energy as when it is has the potential to become energy, be it sound, heat, kinetic, or whatever.

I: Oh, so it means the potential to become energy? S: ... Potential energy is not im mediately apparent before it's transferred, though

... electric energy is active energy ... I don't think I have a concept of energy myself - it's more a matter of intuition, as to whether you think it's energy or not - movement is a common factor ...

h What about potential energy? S: It's just that, it's not actually an energy, it's something that's potential, it doesn't

exist. I: Would you say that the top domino has energy? S: Yes ... it has the potential to transfer energy - it can potentially move.'

(Student 6)

The confusion with potential energy seems greatest with gravitational potential

energy. Three students did not consider that dropping a body involves energy at all, but

only gravitational force or momentum. In terms of stored energy, five students believed

that energy is not stored as such in food, and three of these students believed that non-

living things generally do not contain energy.

Non-conservation of energy

Five of the fourteen students did not conserve energy, e.g.:

'The energy is transferred into physical movement, or another energy-absorbing act ion. I guess you could say i t disappears. Once the energy is used, i t no longer exists ... i t has been expended, and is now gone' (Student 2)

188

Intereonversion of mass and energy

Together with non-conservat ion of energy, perhaps the most disturbing aspec t of this

episode with these fourteen sc ience graduates is that , in Task A, six of them

in te rconver ted mass and energy. Perhaps this view arises from the common associa t ions

between mass and energy of the form 'chocola te has got more energy than the car ro t ,

therfore I wilI put on more weight ' (Student 1). However, the argument expressed by the

six s tudents all followed the following pat tern: energy appears (is c rea ted) when bodily

react ions occur with food molecules ('food is burnt'). Food doesn' t have energy; energy

appears as mass is destroyed. The reason why you lose weight when you fas t is because

you are convert ing i t into energy, e.g.:

I: 'Now, you're saying that you are using up your energy stores to gain energy for yourself?

S: Yeah h Now, you've also said that you are losing weight S: Yes, beeause this fat - the accumulated energy - is in the guise of fat, fatty

deposits, and these fatty deposits are heavy h And where do they go? S: They are used ... they've gone - you've used it up ... I: So you're saying, by your coneeption, a conversion of mass into energy? S: Yeah' (Student 8)

An extension of this view was a 'using energy, but not losing energy ' argument for

Task B. This view was held by three students. The view is tha t there is an in te rac t ive

pool of body mass and energy. The body works to maintain equilibrium in te rms of the

energy level. So, when something is hit with a hammer, you do not end up losing energy,

because your body converts some body mass into energy, in order to re-es tabl ish energy

equilibrium.

PROCESSING INADEQUACIES

As may be inferred from the above quotes, various processing inadequacies were

observed, involving inadequa te monitoring, inappropr ia te appl ieat ion, p rematu re closure,

and lack of r e f l ec t ive thinking. These inadequacies resul ted in muddied thinking and,

par t icular ly , a disinelination to think through a line of reasoning and eva lua te i ts logicaI

outcome. Students were aware of their diff icul t ies:

'It's really hard for me to say what I know [eompared with] what I remember from high school and therefore say I know, because if I say what I know, none of it makes any sense to me ... I try to answer your questions, so I rely on the things I learnt, and try to use them ... when it's not logical, I toss it aside, and try on my own - the only thing that's left [from school learning] is the big words that the emphasis was put on

189

[e.g.] kinetic energy - to me, that's only a label that's given to movement energy - it doesn't mean I understand it ... Movement is energy - No, that doesn't sound right. No matter what example I use, I cannot say movement is energy'. (Student I)

PERCEPTIONS AND ATTITUDES: THEIR INTERACTION WITH EACH

OTHER AND WITH CONCEPTIONS AND ABILITIES

Various methods were used to determine students' perceptions and attitudes. The

first author participated in all class activities through the nine weeks and shared with the

students their experiences and reactions. Class observations, structured individual

interview, informal individual and group discussion, questionnaires and student written

evaluations were all used repeatedly. However, the most valuable source of information

has come from student diaries. Throughout the course, students are keeping personal

diaries, in which they regularly record feelings, thoughts, concerns and aspirations about

themselves and their development. In these diaries, students give an honest appraisal of

themselves and their experiences, knowing that the diary will only be seen by one other

person (the first author), and that all entries are confidential.

The findings regarding students' perceptions and attitudes towards teachers and

teaching, learners and learning, themselves and their competencies, their course of study,

and so on highlight their highly individual nature and the complex interdependence

between them and the other areas of intellectual competence.

SOME CHANGES IN INTELLECTUAL COMPETENCE THAT HAVE

OCCURRED OVER THE PERIOD

As with the intial perceptions and attitudes above, it is not possible to document

here the individual and complex changes that have oecured in the intellectual competence

of students over the period described. But change has occurred, particularly in attitudes,

to, and perceptions and conceptions of, themselves and teaching. Experiences in the

course have challenged all the students. Some experiences have stimulated an increased

proficiency and, with it, confidence, while other have exacerbated uncertainty and

apprehension. As the latter changes have usually been associated with enhanced

realisation of themselves and the range and extent of demands of teaching, they have

constituted a necessary stage in positive personal development.

'I'm finding the course very personal. I am star t ing to question my own self. This is sometimes very disturbing, because I ask a lot of questions that I always took the answers to for granted'. (Student 4, Week 2)

190

'The s ty le of [a school supervising teacher 's] teaching ... which I was essential ly asked to present and which in hindsight Pm ashamed to admit I did without the s l ightest whimper of protes t , is bering the kids to death ' . (Student 10, Week 6)

'My attitudes have changed or are changing, but my personality is yet to reflect this', (Student 12, Week 8

'I now know that I am quite capable of teaching ehildren. My chal lenge now is to ex t rapo la te that teaching skill to include learning methods which are enjoyable for s tuden t s , and enthuse them'. (Student 9, Week 8)

Despite evidence in other studies for the supposed in t rae t ib i l i ty to change of such

personal i ty a t t r ibu tes as percept ion and a t t i tudes , we bel ieve that the above t ranscr ipts

represent real evidence of such change.

DISC USSIO N

The complexi ty of teaching is becoming increasingly acknowledged by educat ional

researchers . This acknowledgement has necessitated a change in focus of research on

teaching from behaviours to mechanisms, from e f fec t s to causes, from observat ions to

explanations - in essence, towards meaning through study of process. In turn, this change

in focus necess i ta tes change in style of research, and the methods used (e.g. Erickson,

1986).

The s ty le of research should preserve the ecology of teaching. How a person teaches

can not be separa ted from why the person teaches this way. Understanding both the how

and the why of teaching requires that research must be done where the teaching oeeurs. It

must embrace the range of personal and contextual fac tors which opera te to influence the

teacher ' s decisions and the behaviours he or she exhibits.

The te rms in te l lec tua l competence and per formance have been used in this paper in

order to emphasise this in tegr i ty of process and outcome. A person's competence to

teach, say, Year 10 Elec t r ica l Energy is not de te rmined by subject m a t t e r knowledge, or

' teaching abi l i ty ' , or some other fac tor taken in isolation. Teaching behaviours a re

inextr icably re la ted to current a t t i tudes , percept ions and decisions made. Teaching

per formance is thus l inked to establ ished eognit ive and a f f ee t ive e lements of the person's

in te l lec t . Both teaching competence and performance must be considered in relat ion to

the content being taught. Other factors , not considered in this paper, also influence the

how and why of teaching, e.g. the students ' learning eompetenc ies and performances , and

the context in whieh teaching occurs, both within and outside the classroom.

The th ree -yea r project of which the content of this paper _forms par t is an a t t e mp t to

embrace this complexi ty. Many of the t rainee teachers in the group above will be

191

followed through their first two years of full-time teaching. Other groups of currently

practising teachers are also participating in the project. These groups are engaged in a

style of collaborative action research, whereby they are researching aspects of their own

teaching and their students' learning over a protracted period.

The holistic nature of this research presents obvious difficulties in generation and

interpretation of data. But in the complexity of the undertaking lies its promise. To take

one example related to some results presented above, the groups of trainee and practising

teachers are currently researching the topic of energy in the science curriculum, using the

methods of reflection on practice and collaborative action research. Over time, it is

expected that their research will touch on many of the areas of intellectual competence

and performance above, all considered in relation to the content and context of their own

teaching. Much is to be learned by both the teachers and the authors, but from this

learning should come understanding. The endeavour merits the effort.

REFERENCES

BAIRD, J.R. AND WHITE, R.T. (1982) Promoting self-control of learning. Instructional Science, 11, 227-247.

ERICKSON, R. (1986) Quali tat ive methods in research on teaching. In M.C. WlTTROCK (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching, third edition. New York: Macmillan.