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Topic and relevance: A comprehensive article on India philosophy
and heterodox sects in ancient India.
Important as there is always a question on these topics in every
Prelim. Also useful for ethics paper in Mains.a
India philosophy and heterodox sects in ancient India
The development of systems of philosophy in India took over a
period of time and there was a transition from
the materialistic culture of Rig Vedic time to the
spiritualistic culture during the Later Vedic times. Upanishads
are rich depository of philosophical ideas. The Gupta period may
be said to be the landmark in the
development of philosophical thoughts. There are six school of
thoughts (shaddarshana) that date back from
the ancient times in India.
The six systems are Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimansa,
Vedanta.
The first Indian philosophy, Vaisheshika discusses the material
element , dravya and it is a atomic philosophical
school. Its founder was Uluka Kanada. It combines scientific
principles and spiritualism. It believes in heaven
and salvation. It in a way marked the beginning of physics.
Nyaya was the school of analysis and system of logic
deriving mainly from the sutras of Akshapada Gautama. Its main
expositor was Pakshilavamin Vtasyayana.
Nyaya also believes in salvation by knowledge. The veracity of
any principle can be tested on the basis of
inference, hearing and analogy. It contributed to systemic
thinking and reasoning. The next school , Sankhya
teaches twenty five principles. Its believes that divine
agencies are not essential for creation It focuses on
purusha(soul , person) and prakriti (nature) Salvation is
through the path of knowledge and it is obtained
through perception(pratayaksha), inference (anuman), hearing(
shabd). Its earliest exponent was Kapila. The
next school Yoga, derives its basic text from Yoga Sutra of
Patanjali. It deals with control of the body. Salvation
can be attained by meditation, control over senses, asanas and
pranayama. It principle of Ashtang yog consists
of Yam, Niyam, Asana, Pranyama, Pratyahar, Dharna, Dhyan and
Samadhi. This has been the cultural export of
India all over the world. Mimansa , stressed that Vedas contain
eternal truth and sought to explain and revive
the Vedas. Unlike other schools it propagates that salvation is
attained by performance of rituals. The bliss of
Heaven lasts as long as virtue accumulated lasts and once it is
exhausted the being comes back to Earth. Itsearliest texts is said
to be the Sutras of Jaimini and early scholar Shabarsvamin. Vedanta
also called
Uttarmimansa, exposits that only Brahma is real while the rest
is unreal, Maya. It is an illusion. Self, soul is
identical with brahma and is indestructible. The soul travels
and changes its form and manifestation.
Badrayana is said to have formulated its main tenets. Gaudapada
was also an important thinker of this school,
but the most popular is Shanakaracharya, who during the 8th
9th
century not only revived Hindusim but made
Vedanta the main pillar of Indian philosophy. It believes in
salvation through knowledge of self and thus
knowledge of Brahma. Another tenet is that of
rebirth,punarjanama and the theory of Karma. All Indian
philosophies merge into Vedanta. In Indian philosophy, the
debate has been more on Vedic tradition Vs Non
vedic, than theism Vs atheism.
There were others like Charvaka , who denied the existence of
divine supernatural agency. It opposed thequest for spiritual
salvation and focussed on reality which could be experienced by
human senses. It was a
materialist philosophy and put man at the centre of all
activities.
There were many heterodox sects but only a few developed and
ultimately gave rise to a religion.
The founder of one such sect was Mahavira, born in 540 BC. He
was the 24th
Tirthankara born to Siddhartha,
head of Jnatrika clan, and Trishala. in Kundagrama. He attained
enlightenment in Jrimbhikagrama and Moksha
near Pava at 72 years of age. Jainism developed during the
6th
c BC . The social condition were conducive for
such a religion which would accept the outcastes of Brahmanism.
It rejects the idea of a creator and the
authority of Vedas. The good or bad is determined by actions
rather than birth it believes in Karma and
transmigration of soul. Nirvana can be attained through a
threefold path, The Triratna : Right faith, right
knowledge and right conduct. The last doctrine includes non
injury (ahimsa), non possession (aparigraha),
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truth, no stealing, and the fifth added by Mahavira, chastity(
Brahmacharya ) Its earliest works is in
Apabrahmsha and its literature is compiled in ardhamagadhi. The
use of common language, in preaching
Prakrit was used, made it even more popular. The doctrine of
Syadvada, an essential ingredient of Jaina
philosophy says that no absolute affirmation or denial is
possible as truth is relative. Every mortal possesses
the potential of becoming great as a tirthankar but has to
follow the path. Purification of soul can be done
through penance, non violence, truth etc. Mahavira was also
known as conqueror of all senses.
Another simultaneous development was that of Buddhism.
Siddhartha or Gautam Buddha was born in 563 BC
to Suddhodhana and Maya. He attained enlightenment In Bodh Gaya
and Mahaparnirvana at Kushinara. The
doctrines of Buddhism were simple. Worldly pleasures should be
avoided and asceticism and self mortification
should be followed. Life is transient, causes sorrow . There are
Four Noble truths, existence of suffering. This is
caused by trishna, desire however suffering can cease and
Nirvana can be attained through the eight fold path
orAshtangamarga. It consists of right speech, action,
livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration, thoughts
and understanding. It prescribes a code of conduct quite similar
to Jainism. Do not covet the property of
others, no violence, lie, corrupt practises, in toxicants etc.
It also denied the authority of Vedas, opposed
animal sacrifice.
These were the prevalent system of thoughts and heterodox trends
in Ancient India which continues to
present.
Reference : DN Jha, IGNOU, Ancient history, Spectrum Culture, AL
Basham. My own optional notes collected
from various sources and lectures.
Submitted byUdita Gaurav. Profile- History Optional, appeared
for CSE Mains 2013.
