Important European Leaders Albania 1925 - 1939 Zog I : originally Ahmed Bey Zogu; became president after defeating ousting liberal Noli; Albania was a virtual protectorate of Italy, which invaded in 1939 1943 - 1985 Enver Hoxha : formed Albanian Communist Party; broke with USSR after it renounced

Stalism in 1961 Austria 1835 - 1848 Ferdinand I : controlled by von Metternich; abdicated after December 1848 revolution 1848 - 1916 Francis Joseph : established Austria-Hungary dual monarchy in 1867; nephew Francis Ferdinand assassinated by Serbian Princip; started WWI 1916 - 1918 Charles I : Austria-Hungary emperor during WWI; supported France in secret letter about Alsace-Lorraine; twice tried to regain Hungarian throne in 1921; exiled to Madeira 1986 - 1992 Kurt Waldheim : ambassador to Canada; UN secretary-general 1972-1981; elected Austrian president in 1986 despite possible Nazi war crimes Belgium 1831 - 1865 Leopold I : married Charlotte Augusta, daughter of British George IV; first monarch of Belgium after separation from Netherlands in 1831; signed treaty assuring Belgian neutrality 1865 - 1909 Leopold II : established association to develop central Africa; financed Henry Stanley's exploration of Zaire River; given Congo Free State at Berlin Conference 1885; annexed Belgian Congo 1908; forced to institute reforms 1909 - 1934 Albert I : warned France of German war plans and announced Belgian neutrality; when Germans invaded Belgium he undertook delaying actions 1934 - 1951 Leopold III : quickly surrendered to Germany; suspected of treason; exonerated in 1946 and won referendum permitting return; abdicated 1951 1951 - 1993 Baudouin 1993 - Albert II : brother of Baudouin Bulgaria 852 - 889 Boris I : forced by Byzantine Michael III to adopt Christianity; retired to monastery but later deposed his corrupt son Vladimir, replacing him with Simeon 900s Simeon : Cyril and Methodius evangelized in Bulgaria 1100s Asen and Peter : brothers freed Bulgaria from Ottoman Empire 1908 - 1918 Ferdinand I : freed Bulgaria from Ottoman Empire; lost Second Balkan War and WWI 1918 - 1943 Boris III : joined Germany in WWII but wouldn't fight USSR; assassinated by German agents 1954 - 1989 Todor Zhivkov : Communist; ally of USSR; deposed by coup 1997 - Petar Stoyanov : former king Simeon II was elected prime minister in 2001 Byzantine Empire 364 - 378 Valens : fought Visigoths; lost Battle of Adrianople near Edirne 378 - 395 Theodosius I the Great : last to rule a united Roman Empire; orthodox Christian; persecuted Arians

527 - 565 Justinian I the Great : ruled with wife Theodora; completed codification of Roman law; General Belisarius crushed unrest; defeated Vandals and Ostrogoths; built Hagia Sophia (Church of the Holy Wisdom); Justinian Code 867 - 886 Basil I : founded Macedonian dynasty; ruled with Michael III whom he murdered; restored scholar Photius 976 - 1025 Basil II : conquered Armenai and Bulgaria; named Bulgaroctonos (Slayer of Bulgars) 1081 - 1118 Alexius I Comnenus : with Venetians fought Norman invaders under Robert Guiscard; defeated Turkic Pechenegs; regained Anatolia from Seljuk Turks from First Crusade; dispute with Bohemond in Crusade; daughter Anna Comnena wrote biography Alexiad 1261 - 1282 Michael VIII Palaeologus : restored Greek rule; took Constantinople from Latins; fought King Charles I of the Two Sicilies; fomented plot by Sicilian Vespers 1449 - 1453 Constanine XI Paleaeologus : last Byzantine emperor; empire reduced to city of Constantinople by Ottomans; Muhammad II took the city (defended only by a few hundred Greeks and Genoese) Czechoslovakia / Czech Republic / Slovakia 1968 - 1969 Alexander Dubcek : protege of Antonin Novotny; initiated reforms of 1968 Prague Spring but expelled from Communist Party when Warsaw Pact forces invaded 1969 - 1987 Gustav Husak : instituted "nomalization", reversing Dubcek's reforms 1989 - Vaclav Havel : playwright (The Garden Party, The Memorandum); founded Charter 77 Movement; led protests that toppled Communism; elected Czechoslovakian president 1989 and Czech president 1993 1999 - Rudolf Schuster : president of Slovakia Denmark 1513 - 1523 Christian II : claimed Swedish throne under Union of Kalmar and captured Stockholm in 1523; executed many Swedish nobles and became known as The Cruel; Gustav Vasa rebelled and took crown; uncle Frederick I elected Danish king; supported by HRE Charles V but captured and imprisoned for 27 years 1808 - 1839 Frederick VI : allied with Napoleon; lost Norway to Sweden in Treaty of Kiel 1839 - 1848 Christian VIII : king of Norway in 1814 but defeated by Swedish Charles XIII; became Danish king 1839; proclaimed Schleswig and Holstein united to Denmark 1848 - 1863 Frederick VII : last of Oldenburg dynasty 1863 - 1906 Christian IX : lost Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia and Austria under Treaty of Vienna; liberals gained control of Rigsdag; called Grandfather of Europe because daughters married English Edward VII and Russian Alexander III and son became King George I of Greece 1912 - 1947 Christian X : broadened suffrage; sold Danish West Indies to US; allowed Iceland independence; joined League of Nations; obtained North Schleswig from Germany; symbol of resistance during German occupation (possibly wore Star of David) 1947 - 1972 Frederick IX 1972 - Margaret II : first queen in over 550 years, allowed by 1953 succession law France Merovingians 481 - 511 Clovis I : united northern Salian and southern Ripuarian Franks; capital at Soissons then Paris; converted to Christianity; defeated Alamanni Germans and Visigoths 715 - 741 Charles Martel : ruler of Austrasia; "the hammer"; son of Pepin of Herstal; defeated Muslims in 732 at Poitiers; killed Abd-ar-Rahman; grandfather of Charlemagne 743 - 751 Childeric III : last MerovingianCarolingians 751 - 768 Pepin the Short : crowned by Pope Stephen II; ceded Donation of Pepin; the foundation

of the Papal States; acquired Aquitaine; father of Charlemagne 768 - 814 Charlemagne : born in Aachen; brother Crloman; crowned by Pope Leo III in St. Peter's Basilica on Christmas 800; gathered scholars including Alcuin of York; Viking invasions 814 - 840 Louis I the Pious : son Pepin died; divided succession among sons Charles II the Bald; Louis II the German; and Lothair I in Treaty of Verdun 843 840 - 877 Charles I the Bald : mother Judith of Bavaria; received West Frankish Kingdom in Treaty of Verdun; Viking raids; crowned by Pope John VIII 884 - 887 Charles II the Fat : Charles III of Holy Roman Empire; deposed by nephew Arnulf; Frankish Empire dissolution 898 - 922 Charles III the Simple : ceded much of Normandy to Vikings; imprisoned in Peronne 986 - 987 Louis V : last CarolingianCapetian 987 - 996 Hugh Capet : vassals elected him over Charles duke of Lorraine 996 - 1031 Robert II the Pious : educated by Gerbert (who became Pope Sylvester II); excommunicated by Pope Gregory V for marriage to cousin Bertha of Burgundy 1031 - 1060 Henry I : helped then opposed William the Conquerer 1108 - 1137 Louis VI the Fat : fought Henry I of England and Henry V of Holy Roman Empire; helped peasants 1137 - 1180 Louis VII the Young : married Eleanor of Aquitaine; led Second Crusade with Conrad III of Germany; marriage annulled and Eleanor married Henry II of England; lost Aquitaine 1180 - 1223 Philip II Augustus : fought Richard I and John I of England; defeated European powers at Battle of Bouvines in 1214; fixed capital at Paris and improved city 1223 - 1226 Louis VIII : offered English crown by barons who opposed John but defeated at Lincoln; participated in crusades against Albigenses (Cathars) 1226 - 1270 Saint Louis IX : went on Seventh Crusade but lost in Egypt in 1250; signed Treaty of Corbeil with Aragon in 1258; signed Treaty of Paris with English Henry III; died on crusade in Tunis 1285 - 1314 Philip IV the Fair : Pope Boniface VIII issued Unam Sanctam bull against him in 1302 for making clergy pay taxes; obtained election of Clement V as pope who moved to Avignon beginning Babylonian Captivity (until 1377); arrested Jacques de Molay of Knights Templar and burned many at the stake 1317 - 1322 Philip V the Tall : frequently convoked the Estates General; fined Jews 1322 - 1328 Charles IV the Fair : helped sister Isabella dethrone husband Edward II of England; increased taxes; last CapetianValois 1328 - 1350 Philip VI : crushed revolt in Flanders; began Hundred Years War; lost at Sluis (Netherlands 1340); Crecy (France 1346); and Calais (France 1347); made truce with Edward III; plague began in France in 1347 1350 - 1364 John II the Good : captured by Edward the Black Prince at Poitiers in 1356; tried to raise ransom under Peace of Bretigny but was unsuccessful so was reimprisoned 1364 - 1380 Charles V the Wise : served as regent when John II was imprisoned; faced Jacquerie peasant revolt and insurrection of Paris under Etienne Marcel; successful in war vs. England; built Bastille; founded first French royal library 1380 - 1422 Charles VI : became insane in 1392; civil wars between Armagnacs of Orleans and Burgundians; England won at Agincourt in 1415; England imposed Treaty of Troyes giving Henry V succession to French throne 1422 - 1461 Charles VII : ruled southern France while England controlled northern France; regained English possessions 1461 - 1483 Louis XI : rebelled against Charles VII in 1440 but pardoned; rival Charles the Bold 1483 - 1498 Charles VIII : gained Brittany by marrying Anne of Brittany; occupied Naples in 1495 but defeated by Italy 1498 - 1515 Louis XII : rebelled against Charles VIII; known as Father of the People; mild rule; invaded Italy 1515 - 1547 Francis I : lost election for Holy Roman Emperor to Charles V of Hapsburg; lost and captured in Italy but ransomed; sold judicial and financial offices 1547 - 1559 Henry II : married Catherine de Medicis; persecuted Huguenots; fought Charles V;

won Calais and Gines from England; lost to Philip II of Spain at St. Quentin Picardy; gave up Italian possessions in Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis 1559 - 1560 Frances II : married Mary queen of Scots; dominated by Francois duke of Guise and Cardinal Charles of Lorraine 1560 - 1574 Charles IX : persuaded by mom Catherine de Medicis to approve St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre in 1572 vs. Huguenots 1574 - 1589 Henry III : initially opposed but then accepted Huguenot Henry of Navarre as successor; last ValoisBourbons 1589 - 1610 Henry IV : raised by Calvinist mm Jeanne d'Albret; married Charles IX/s sister Margaret of Valois; converted to Catholicism but then converted back; issued Edict of Nantes in 1610 1610 - 1643 Louis XIII : mom Marie de Medicis served as regent until 1617; married Anne of Austria (daughter of Spanish Philip III); dominated by Cardinal Richelieu; entered Thirty Year's War on side of Protestants and Sweden 1643 - 1715 Louis XIV the Sun King : longest reign in European history; mom Anne of Austria and Cardinal Jules Mazarin ruled as regent; Fronde ("slingshot") rebellions from 1648 to 1653; married Spanish cousin Marie Therese; built palace at Versailles; revoked Edict of Nantes in 1685 leading to Camisard's revolt; invaded Spanish Netherlands; claimed Palatinate in the Rhineland; grandson Philip became Spanish king leading to War of Spanish Succession 1715 - 1774 Louis XV : great-grandson of Louis XIV; Philippe II duc d'Orleans ruled as regent; Prime Minister Andre Hercule; gained Lorraine in War of Polish Succession (1733-1735); indecisive War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748); lost overseas possessions to British in Seven Years' War (1756-1763) 1774 - 1792 Louis XVI : called Estates-General in 1788 for first time in 175 years; imprisoned in Tuileries; Bastille stormed July 14 1789; Legislative Assembly replaced Constituent Assembly and was dominated by Girondists and declared war on Austria; Montagnards under Georges Jacques Danton took control of Paris; guillotined January 21 1793 1793 - 1795 Louis XVII : ruled in name only; many people later claimed to be the "Lost Dauphin"French Revolution 1792 - 1795 National Convention : abolished monarchy; guillotined Louis XVI; Vendee peasants rebelled against conscription; established Committee of Public Safety; Maximilien Robespierre, leader of the Jacobins, led Reign of Terror; crushed Royalist and Girondist (moderates, Roland, Corday stabbed Marat) insurrections; Robespierre beheaded Danton; Thermidoreans beheaded Robespierre 1795 - 1799 The Directory : five members; launched Napoleonic Wars; 1799 coup 1799 - 1804 The Consulate : General Napoleon Bonaparte assumed dictatorial powersFirst Empire 1804 - 1815 Napoleon I Bonaparte : conquered Italy and Egypt as French general; married Josephine de Beauharnais in 1796; gained dictatorial powers 1799; defeated Austria at Marengo 1800; settled quarrel with Pope 1801; Charles Talleyrand was foreign minister; defeated Austria and Russia at Austerlitz in 1805; defeated Prussia at Jena Auerstadt in 1806; defeated Russia at Friedland; allied with Czar Alexander I; seized Portugal; made brother Joseph king of Spain in 1808 causing Peninsular War; defeated Austria at Wagram 1809; married Hapsburg Marie Louise in 1810; abolished feudalism and serfdom and granted bills of rights; invaded Russia in 1812 but retreated; exiled to Elba in 1814; escaped but lost at Waterloo 1815; exiled to St. Helena; French law still Code NapoleonRestoration 1815 - 1824 Louis XVIII : brother of Louis XVI; lived in exile until Napoleon's exile; influenced by liberal minister Elie Decazes; later dominated by reactionary Ultras 1824 - 1830 Charles X : a leader of the emigres during Revolution; headed reactionary Ultras; favoritism to Catholics led to July 1830 revolution; exiled in Britain 1830 - 1848 Louis Philippe : joined Jacobins 1790; fled to Switzerland; proclaimed king by Chamber of Deputies in 1830; deposed by Revolution of 1848 and fled to BritainSecond Republic and Second Empire 1848 - 1870 Napoleon III :president 1848 - 1852; emperor 1852 - 1870; twice tried to overthrow Louis Philippe; elected president 1848 but Royalist won legislative elections the next year; became

emperor following a coup; began liberal reforms in 1860; rebuilt Paris under direction of Baron Haussmann; lost Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871Third Republic 1870 - 1871 Louis Jules Trouchu 1871 - 1873 Adolphe Thiers : wrote for National newspaper which led to 1830 revolution; crushed Commune of Paris rebellion in 1871 1879 - 1887 Jules Grevy 1887 - 1894 Marie Francois Sadi Carnot : assassinated by anarchist 1932 - 1940 Albert Lebrun : last president of Third RepublicVichy Government 1940 - 1944 Henri Petain : WWI hero; at age 84 headed pro-German French governmentFourth Republic 1946 Georges Bidault : led French Resistance; first president of Fourth Republic 1947 - 1953 Vincent Auriol 1953 - 1958 Rene CotyFifth Republic 1958 - 1969 Charles De Gaulle : headed French national committee in exile in 1940; provisional premier 1945 - 1946; appointed by National Assembly to draft new constitution in 1958; negotiated Algerian independence; joined EU; resolved widespread strikes in 1968 1969 - 1974 Georges Pompidou : supported Britain's entry into EU 1974 - 1981 Valery Giscard d'Estaing : conservative like De Gaulle and Pompidou 1981 - 1995 Francois Mitterrand : first Socialist President; nationalized industries; reversed many policies by 1982; died of prostate cancer 1995 - Jacques Chirac : Gaullist; Paris mayor 1977 - 1995; his RPR and Giscard's Union for French Democracy gained majority in National Assembly in 1986 and he was appointed prime minister for domestic affairs in 1986 under "cohabitation" arrangement; privatized businesses Germanic Tribes Goths 300s Ermanaric : established kingdom from Baltic to Black Sea 475 - 493 Odoacer : led uprising of Germanic troops in the Roman army against Romulus Augustulus, gaining control of the empire; made capital at Ravenna; defeated and killed by Ostrogoth TheodoricVisigoths 395 - 410 Alaric I : invaded Greece and Italy; pillaged Rome in 410 410 - 415 Ataulf : brother of Alaric I; invaded Spain 415 - 418 Wallia : conquered Spain and southern Gaul; made capital at Toulouse 418 - 451 Theodoric I : died fighting the Huns with Rome at Chalons 420 - 484 Euric : king of the Spanish Visigoths 484 - 507 Alaric II : issued law code Breviary of Alaric; killed by Clovis I at VouilleOstrogoths 474 - 526 Theodoric : fought Byzantine ruler Zeno; invaded Italy and slew Odoacer and controlled Western Roman EmpireVandals 428 - 477 Gaiseric : defeated Roman general Bonifacus in Africa; captured Carthage and made it his capital; pillaged Rome after Valentinian III's death in 455 Germany Second Reich 1861 - 1888 William I : chief minister Otto von Bismarck and he unified Germany under Prussia; fought Franco-Prussian War 1888 - 1888 Frederick III : led Prussians against Austria at Sadowa in Seven Weeks War 1866 1888 - 1918 William II : dismissed Otto von Bismarck; formed Triple Alliance with Italy and

Austria; fought World War I; abdicated to NetherlandsWeimer Republic 1919 - 1925 Friedrich Ebert : last German chancellor; headed new republic; suppressed leftist Spartacists; elected president under Weimer constitution; France occupied Ruhr 1925 - 1934 Paul von Hindenburg : won at Tannenberg with Ludendorff; established system of trenches; elected president in 1925 and in 1932 over Hitler whom he appointed chancellor 1934 - 1945 Adolf Hitler : dictator; fought World War II; wrote Menin Kampf; initiated Holocost; Gestapo secret police; 1936 sent troops to Rhineland; supported Nationalist Franco; took Austria 1938; Czechoslovakia 1939; committed suicide 1945West Germany 1949 - 1963 Konrad Adenauer : mayor of Cologne; founded Christian Democratic Union; joined

NATO and EU 1963 - 1966 Ludwig Erhard : led German economic miracle; member of CDU 1966 - 1969 Kurt Georg Kiesinger : formed grand coalition of CDU with Social Democrats 1969 - 1974 Willy Brandt : mayor West Berlin 1957-66; Social Democrat; won 1971 Nobel 1974 - 1982 Helmut Schmidt : Social Democrat; he and D'Estaing led European Community 1982 - 1990 Helmut Kohl : reunified Germany October 1990; elected to four terms as chancellorEast Germany 1946 - 1971 Walter Ulbricht : Social Unity Party 1971 - 1989 Erich Honecker : as head of security forces built Berlin Wall 1961; resisted political reforms 1989 - 1990 Egon KrenzReunited Germany 1990 - 1998 Helmut Kohl : West German chancellor elected chancellor of reunited Germany 1998 - Gerhard Schroder : Social Democratic Party; coalition with Green Parties; closed nuclear power plants Great Britain Saxons and Danes 829 - 839 Egbert : king of Wessex; given title of Bretwalda ("ruler of the British"); defeated Danes and Welsh at Hingston Down in Cornwall 839 - 858 Ethelwulf : son of Egbert 866 - 871 Ethelred I : imposed Danegeld tax; fought Danes 871 - 899 Alfred the Great : captured London 886; began court school and invited scholars including Welsh Asser and Irish John Scotus Erigena; promulgated laws which did not distinguish Welsh and English 899 - 924 Edward the Elder : defeated Danes by 918; annexed London and Oxford 924 - 940 Athelstan the Glorious : defeated Welsh, Scottish, and Danish at Brunanburh in 937; styled self as Rex totius Britanniae; translated Bible 940 - 946 Edmund I : Viking Olaf Godfreyson seized Northumbria but Edmund later expelled them; restricted blood feuds; stabbed by robber 959 - 975 Edgar the Peaceful : made St. Dunstan archbishop of Canterbury; reformer 975 - 978 Edward the Martyr : assassinated by stepmom Elfrida; miracles occurred at his tomb 978 - 1016 Ethelred II the Unready : made treaty with Richard II of Normandy and married Richard's sister Emma; Sweyn I the Forkbeard of Denmark invaded England in 1013; called unready because of his bad counsel 1016 - 1035 Canute II the Great : son of Sweyn I; stayed in England after becoming Danish king; exiled Olaf II of Norway 1035 - 1040 Harold I Harefoot : witenagemot royal council divided England between Harold and Hardecanute but Hardecanute stayed in Denmark 1040 - 1042 Hardecanute : last Danish king of England; left control of England to mom and Godwin earl of Wessex 1042 - 1066 Edward the Confessor : married Godwin's daughter Edith; revolt against Tostig earl of Northumbria; founded Westminster Abbey 1066 Harold II : last Saxon king of England; defeated Tostig and Norwegian Harold III but lost to William Duke of Normandy at Hastings October 14 1066

Normandy 1066 - 1087 William I the Conqueror : son of Robert I of Normandy; Pope Alexander II sanctioned his invasion of England; landed at Pevensey and won at Hastings 1066; crowned at Westminster Abbey; invaded Malcolm III MacDuncan's Scotland 1072; fell off horse at Mantes in campaign against French Philip I 1087 - 1100 William II Rufus : defeated uncle Odo who wanted to replace him with Robert; thrice invaded Normandy against brother Robert II; killed on hunting trip 1100 - 1135 Henry I Beauclerc : defeated brother Robert II Duke of Normandy at TinchebrayBlois 1135 - 1154 Stephen : nephew of Henry I; usurped throne from cousin MatildaPlantagenet 1154 - 1189 Henry II : son of Matilda; defeated Stephen of Blois; four of his knights murdered Thomas a Becket, but was forced to do penance; replaced trial by ordeal with modern courts; married Eleanor of Aquitaine 1189 - 1199 Richard I the Lion-Hearted : given Aquitaine by mom Eleanor; went on failed Third Crusade with French Philip II; fought Saladin of Egypt and Syria; captured by HRE Henry IV and ransomed; made peace with brother John 1199 - 1216 John Lackland : defeated by French Philip II in 1214; raised taxes for wars; forced by barons to sign Magna Carta making him subject to the law 1216 - 1272 Henry III : forced to accept Provisions of Oxford to share power with barons in 1258; son Edward defeated barons at Evesham 1272 - 1307 Edward I : invaded Scotland in 1296; failed to crush William Wallace revolt in 1298; executed Wallace in 1305; Robert Bruce became Scottish king 1307 - 1327 Edward II : first heir known as Prince of Wales; in 1311 barons led by Thomas Earl of Lancaster established committee of lords called lords ordainers and executed Edward's friend Piers Gaveston; lost to Scottish Robert Bruce in 1214; Edward and Hugh le Despenser defeated Lancaster; imprisoned by barons allied with wife Isabella; murdered by captors 1327 - 1377 Edward III : arrested mom Isabella and hanged her lover Roger de Mortimer; defeated Scots; began Hundred Years' War in 1337; gained Aquitaine in Peace of Calais but lost most of his French possessions in 1375 truce 1377 - 1399 Richard II : asserted authority over Parliament with help of uncle John of Gaunt duke of Lancaster; exiled but later captured by John of Gaunt's son Henry Blingbroke duke of Hereford; confined in Pontefract CastleLancaster 1399 - 1413 Henry IV Bolingbroke : exiled by cousin Richard but raised an army and defeated him; suppressed rebellions by nobles, Scots, and Welsh; persecuted Lollards, followers of Wycliffe 1413 - 1422 Henry V : defeated French at Agincourt 1415; became heir to French Charles VI and married his daughter Catherine of Valois; brother Thomas duke of Clarence lost Normandy to French 1422 - 1471 Henry VI : nobles tried to replace him with Richard duke of York in War of Roses; Richard killed in 1460 but his son Edward imprisoned Henry in Tower of London 1461 - 1483 Edward IV : headed house of York; won Battle of Mortimer's Cross in 1461; Lancastrians and Richard Neville earl of Warwick drove him into exile in 1470 but returned in 1471 1483 Edward V : power struggle between uncles Richard duke of Gloucester and Anthony Woodville 2nd Earl Rivers when dad Edward IV died; confined Tower of London 1483 - 1485 Richard III : murdered nephews Edward and Richard; slain at Bosworth FieldTudor 1485 - 1509 Henry VII : head of Lancaster house; defeated Richard III at Bosworth Field 1485; married Yorkist heiress Elizabeth to unite houses and end War of Roses 1509 - 1547 Henry VIII : joined Holy League against France; faced riots over heavy taxes in 1525; wives: Catherine of Aragon (Mary), Anne Boleyn (Elizabeth), Jane Seymour (Edward), Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, Catherine Parr; established Church of England when pope wouldn't annul marriage to Catherine of Aragon; Thomas Cranmer annulled marriage 1547 - 1553 Edward VI : uncle Edward Seymour 1st Earl of Hertford was Lord Protector and Duke of Somerset; John Dudley executed Seymour

1553 - 1558 Mary I Tudor : deposed Lady Jane Grey; married Spanish Philip II; lost Calais; reestablished authority of pope 1558 - 1603 Elizabeth I : imprisoned by Mary until she converted to Catholicism; reverted to Protestantism when Mary died; established Church of England in Elizabethan Compromise; executed Catholic cousin Mary Queen of Scots; defeated Spanish Armada in 1588; Robert Devereux 2nd Earl of Essex lost to Irish and then led failed revolt against ElizabethStuart 1603 - 1625 James I : only son of Mary Queen of Scots; believed in divine right of kings; authorized KJV of Bible; Gunpowder Plot led by Robert Catesby and Guy Fawkes foiled November 5 1605 1625 - 1649 Charles I : born in Dunfermline; accepted Petition of Right demanding reforms in exchange for funds for Thirty Years' War but dismissed Parliament; called Short Parliament to quell Presbyterian Scots riots; called Long Parliament which refused funding to put down Irish revolt; tried to arrest members of Parliament; civil war between Roundheads and Cavaliers; Oliver Cromwell led Independents in Parliament; Rump Parliament executed CharlesCommonwealth 1653 - 1658 Oliver Cromwell : won Battle of Naseby against Cavaliers in English Revolution; became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth; tolerated Puritans 1658 - 1659 Richard Cromwell : resigned May 25 1659Stuart Restored 1660 - 1685 Charles II : routed by Cromwell in 1651 but returned in 1660, granting amnesty to opponents; acquired New Netherlands in unpopular Dutch War of 1672 1685 - 1689 James II : brother of Charles II; converted to Catholicism; deposed by Glorious Revolution; lost at Battle of the Boyne in Ireland in 1690; fled to France 1689 - 1702 William III and Mary II : Netherlands stadtholder during war with French Louis XIV; married Mary daughter of James II; joined Grand Alliance; opposed Parliament's domestic reforms 1702 - 1714 Anne : War of Spanish Succession 1701 - 1714; united England and Scotland 1707Hanover 1714 - 1727 George I : elector of Hannover; succeeded Queen Anne under Act of Settlement; never learned English; defeated attempt to replace him with James II's son 1727 - 1760 George II : subordinated English interests to Hannover in War of Austrian Succession 1740 - 1748; last monarch to fight in battle, at Battle of Dettingen in Bavaria 1760 - 1820 George III : appointed Frederick North 2nd Earl of Gilford prime minister 1770 - 1782; lost American colonies; appointed William Pitt prime minister; contracted dementia and son acted as regent from 1811 1820 - 1830 George IV : extravagant; married cousin Caroline of Brunswick, whom the public supported when he tried to divorce her 1830 - 1837 William IV : liaison with Irish actress Dorothea Jordan and had 10 kids; married German princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen; Reform Bill of 1832 passed; abolished colonial slavery; reformed poor laws; Municipal Reform Act 1837 - 1901 Victoria : longest English reign; appointed William Lamb prime minister; married cousin Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha; supported Conservative Party leader Benjamin Disraeli; became empress of India in 1876; opposed William Gladstone; won Boer War 1899 - 1902Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 1901 - 1910 Edward VII : signed Entente Cordiale in 1904 with France and a pact with Russia in 1907; promoted international amity and known as Edward the PeacemakerWindsor 1910 - 1936 George V : led Britain during WWI 1936 Edward VIII : abdicated to marry American Mrs. Wallis Warfield Simpson; given title Duke of Windsor 1936 - 1952 George VI : married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon; visited many fronts during WWII; visited Canada, US, and South Africa; India and Pakistan gained independence 1947 1952 - Elizabeth II : married Prince Philip duke of Edinburgh; kids Charles, Anne, Andrew, and Edward; about 40 colonies granted independence; joined EU; nationalized many industriesPrime Ministers 1721 - 1742 Robert Walpole : Whig; supported peace and low taxes; considered first prime

minister but title not used until later 1766 - 1768 William Pitt : defeated France in Seven Years' War 1756-1763; allied with Thomas Pelham-Holles duke of Newcastle; distrusted by George III 1770 - 1782 Frederick North : carried out George III's wishes to tax America even though he thought it unwise; resigned 1782 after surrender to America; allied with Charles James Fox and opposed William Pitt the Younger 1783 - 1801 and 1804 - 1806 : William Pitt the Younger : negotiated trade treaty with France; established colony in Australia; 1791 Canada Act established representative institutions for English and French; wanted to incorporate Ireland into UK; opposed French expansion; resigned over opposition to equal rights for Catholics 1834 - 1835 and 1841 - 1846 : Robert Peel : founded Conservative Party with 1834 Tamworth Mainfesto; repealed Corn Laws which limited grain imports; London police known as "Bobbies" because of his Metropolitan Police Act; faced Irish potato famine; known as "Orange Peel" for opposition to Catholics but later passed Catholic Emancipation 1868 and 1874 - 1880 Benjamin Disraeli : Sephardic Jew converted to Christianity; joined Conservative Party; opposed Peel's repeal of Corn Laws; purchased Suez Canal; claimed "peace with honor" after Berlin Conference on Eastern Question of Ottoman Empire; proclaimed Victoria Empress of India 1868 - 1874, 1880 - 1885, 1886, and 1892 - 1994 William Gladstone : first joined Tory (renamed Conservative) Party then changed to Liberal Party in 1859; established national elementary education; judicial, civil, and military reforms; disestablished Anglican church in Ireland; opposed annexation of South Africa; Reform Act of 1884 allowed rural people to vote; crusaded for Irish home rule 1916 - 1922 David Lloyd George : instituted social reforms for workers; participated in Treaty of Versailles; introduced Home Rule Bill for Ireland which alienated Conservatives from his coalition 1923 - 1924, 1924 - 1929, and 1935 - 1937 Stanley Baldwin : joined Conservative Party; proposed protective tariff; curbed trade unions; first premier to visit overseas dominion (Canada) 1937 - 1940 Neville Chamberlain : appeasement policy towards Germany; signed Munich Pact September 1938 1940 - 1945 and 1951 - 1955 Winston Churchill : as admiral lost Gallipoli campaign in WWI; led Britain in WWII; wrote A History of the English-Speaking Peoples and won literature Nobel 1953 1945 - 1951 Clement Attlee : first Labour prime minister; nationalized iron, steel, railroads, coal, and health care 1955 - 1957 Anthony Eden : resigned after attacking Egypt which had seized the Suez Canal 1956 1957 - 1963 Harold Macmillan : Conservative leader; visited Khrushchev in Moscow in 1959; failed to admit Britain to EEC; resigned after personal scandal of War Secretary John Profumo 1964 - 1970 and 1974 - 1976 Harold Wilson : Labour Party leader 1970 - 1974 Edward Heath : Conservative leader; joined EC 1976 - 1979 James Callaghan : Labour leader; allied with Liberals and Scottish Nationalist Party 1979 - 1990 Margaret Thatcher : first woman PM; Conservative leader; defeated Argentina in Falkland Islands 1982; opposed full economic integration of Britain in Europe 1990 - 1997 John Major : Conservative leader; established dialogue with Irish Republican Army 1997 - Tony Blair : Labour leader; youngest PM in 200 years; med with Sinn Fein leader Gerry Adams; allowed Scottish parliament and Welsh assembly Greece Athens c. 632 BC Cylon : dictator c. 621 BC Draco : issued harsh legal code c. 594 BC Solon : elected archon; poet; replaced Aeropagus with a popular assembly c. 560 BC Pisistratus : dictator c. 509 BC Cleisthenes : restored democracy; instituted ostracism 461 - 431 BC Pericles : made Athens supreme in the Delian League; built Parthenon; deposed

as the Peloponnesian War began 404 - 403 BC Thirty Tyrants : puppet government set up by Sparta after winning Peloponnesian War; soon deposed and democracy restoredSparta 600s BC Lycurgus : semimythical lawgiver 490 - 480 BC Leonidas I : fought Xerxes I (Persia) at mountain pass at ThermopylaeMacedonia 359 - 336 BC Philip II : learned military skills as captive in Thebes; renamed Crenides Philippi; Demosthenes warned Athens about him; became head of Amphictyonic League; defeated Athens and Thebes at Chaeronea; assassinated; father of Alexander III 336 - 323 BC Alexander III the Great : born in Pella; tutored by Aristotle; defeated Thebes rebellion; defeated Darius III of Persia at Issus and Gaugamela; built Alexandria in Egypt; cut Gordian knot; at his death empire was divided among "successor kings" (diadochi) Antigonus I (Greece), Seleucus (Babylonia), and Ptolemy I (Egypt) 306 - 301 BC Antigonus I Cyclops : controlled much of Asia Minor; almost reunified Alexander's empire but was killed by Lysimachus of Thrace and Seleucus I at IpsusModern Greece 1827 - 1831 King Ioannis Kapodistrias : came to power after Greece won independence from the Ottomans at Navarino; assassinated 1832 - 1862 King Otto I : Bavarian Catholic; made capital at Athens; powers reduced by 1843 coup 1863 - 1913 King George I : Danish; established House of Gluksburg in Greece; with Prime Minister Venizelos defeated Turkey in First Balkan War; assassinated 1913 - 1917, 1920 - 1922 King Constantine I : favored Germany in WWI but Prime Minister Venizelos favored Allies; forced to abdicate in favor of son Alexander; regained throne when son died 1922 - 1923, 1935 - 1941, 1946 - 1947 King George II : lost land to Turkey in Treaty of Lausanne; monarchy abolished in 1922 but twice restored 1936 - 1941 Dictator Ionnais Metaxas : restored George II; joined Allies in WWII 1947 - 1964 King Paul I : US, following Truman Doctrine, aided anti-Communist forces in civil war 1955 - 1964 Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis : leader of National Radical Union; conflict in Cyprus 1964 - 1973 King Constantine II : deposed by military, abolishing monarchy and establishing republic 1964 - 1965 Prime Minister Georgies Papandreou : leader of Central Union Party; had led Greek government-in-exile during WWII 1981 - 1989, 1993 - 1996 Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou : socialist 1996 - Prime Minister Costas Simitis Holy Roman Empire Carolingian Dynasty 800 - 814 Charlemagne : king of Franks; born in Aachen; son of Pepin the Short; grandson of Charles Martel; crowned by Pope Leo III in St. Peter's Basilica Christmas 800; gathered scholars including Alcuin of York; 250 counts administered empire; Viking invasions began 814 - 840 Louis I the Pious : divided empire among sons Lothair I, Louis II the German and Charles II the Bald in Treaty of Verdun after Pepin of Aquitaine died 843 - 876 Louis II the German 876 - 887 Charles the Fat : Franklish Empire dissolved when he was deposed by Arnulf 911 - 918 Conrad I : last CarolingianSaxon Dynasty (First Reich) 919 - 936 Henry I the Fowler : first Saxon German king; defeated Magyars, Wends, and Danes 936 - 973 Otto I the Great : married Adelaide of Lombardy and became ruler of northern Italy; deposed Pope John XII, replaced by Leo VIII 973 - 983 Otto II : wife Theophano of Byzantine; captured Lorraine but returned it; defeated by

Greeks at Crotona in 982 1002 - 1024 Henry II the Saint : last Saxon king of Germany; crowned by Pope Benedict VIII; fought three campaigns in Italy; fought Kig Boleslaw I of PolandSalian Dynasty 1024 - 1039 Conrad II : king of Lombards; inherited Burgundy from Rudolf III 1039 - 1056 Henry III the Black : appointed Pope Clement II and three more Germans 1056 - 1106 Henry IV : won civil war against Rudolf Duke of Swabia; deposed Pope Gregory VII, replaced by Clement III 1106 - 1125 Henry V : last Salian; fought Pope Paschal II over lay investitureHouse of Hohenstaufen 1138 - 1152 Conrad III : first Hohenstaufen; king of Italy; leader in Second Crusade 1152 - 1190 Frederick I Barbarossa : defeated by Lombard League at Legnano; led Third Crusade in 1189; drowned in Calycadnus River 1197 - 1208 Philip of Swabia : murdered in 1208 1198 - 1215 Otto IV of Brunswick : grandson of Henry II of England; excommunicated by Pope Innocent III; defeated by France at Bouvines 1215 - 1250 Frederick II : led Fifth Crusade; fought Lombards 1250 - 1254 Conrad IV : deposed by Pope Innocent IV; fought Henry Raspe and William of Holland for German crownGreat Interregnum (1254 - 1273)Hapsburg 1273 - 1291 Rudolf I of Habsburg : first Hapsburg; fought Alfonso X of Castile and Ottokar II of Bohemia for German crown, ending Great Interregnum 1298 - 1308 Albert I : lost war to Thuringia; murdered by nephew John of Swabia 1314 - 1347 Louis IV the Bavarian : fought Frederick II the Fair and Leopold I for crown; opposed by Pope John XXII 1347 - 1378 Charles IV of Luxemburg : issued Golden Bull, establishing method of imperial election 1378 - 1400 Wenceslas : made Prague capital; supported John Huss but later fought his followers in Hussite Wars 1411 - 1437 Sigismund : wife Queen Mary of Hungary; defeated by Ottoman Bayazid I at Nicopolis in Bulgaria; convoked Council of Constance; executed John Huss and fought Hussite Wars 1493 - 1519 Maximillian I : defeated Louis XI of France for Burgundy; won thrones of Hungary and Bohemia for Hapsburgs; son Philip I married Joanna the Mad, establishing Hapsburgs in Spain 1519 - 1556 Charles V : 1552 Peace of Passau allowed Lutherans to exercise religion, reaffirmed by 1555 Peace of Augsburg; fought France and Ottomans; ruled as Charles I of Spain 1576 - 1612 Rudolph II : patron of Brahe and Kepler; gave religious liberties to Bohemians 1619 - 1637 Ferdinand II : Bohemian rebels threw two of his ministers out a window (Defenestration of Prague) to start Thirty Years War 1637 - 1657 Ferdinand III : signed Peace of Westphalia, allowing rulers of each region to choose religion 1711 - 1740 Charles VI : lost War of the Polish Succession 1740 - 1780 Maria Theresa : ruled with Francis I; lost Silesia in War of the Austrian Succession; joined France and Russia against Prussia in Seven Year's War; acquired Galicia from Poland 1780 - 1790 Joseph II : ruled in accordance with principles of the Enlightenment; freed serfs 1790 - 1792 Leopold II 1792 - 1835 Francis II : last Holy Roman emperor; dissolved empire in 1806; gave Klemens von Metternich control of foreign affairs; daughter Marie Louise married Napoleon; fought Napoleonic Wars; regained most lost land at Congress of Vienna Hungary 997 - 1038 Stephen I : founded Arpad dynasty; given title "Apostolic Majesty", adopted by future

Hungarian sovereigns, by Pope Sylvester II 1342 - 1882 Louis I the Great : king of Hungary and Poland; fought three wars with Venice 1515 - 1526 Louis II : fought Ottoman Suleiman; invaded by Turks 1849 - 1849 Lajos Kossuth : briefly established independent Hungarian Republic, defeated by Austrians; gave speeches in US and Britain 1953 - 1955, 1956 Imre Nagy : allowed peasants to leave collective farms; promised free elections; suppressed by Soviets; returned to power briefly in 1956 Hungarian Revolution; executed 1956-1988 Janos Kadar : restored Soviet-style Communism 2000- Ferenc Madl Ireland 1959 - 1973 Eamon De Valera : math teacher; led Sinn Fein rebels in 1916 Easter Rebellion; fled to US; nationalist and isolationist 1990 - 1997 Mary Robinson : nominated by Irish Labour Party; first woman president; won when Brian Lenihan was involved in scandal; first president not in Fianna Fail or Fine Gael parties; resigned to become UN High Commissioner for Human Rights 1997 - Mary McAleese Italy Syracuse 485 - ? BC Gelon; tyrant of Gela; defeated Carthage at Himera ? - 466 BC Hiero I : patron of the arts; supported Pindar; ousted in favor of democracy 317 - ? BC Agathocles : restored despotic government; praised in The Prince Florence 1434 - 1464 Cosimo de' Medici : established Medici dominance in Florence; his line included Lorenzo and Popes Leo X and Clement VII; family ruled Florence until 1737 1464 - 1492 Lorenzo de' Medici the Magnificent : directed Medici bank and was de facto ruler of Florentine republic; patronized artists including Michelangelo and Sandro Botticelli 1494 - 1497 Girolamo Savonarola : Dominican friar; displaced Medicis with Charles VIII's (France) aid; hanged as a hereticMilan 1262 - 1447 Visconti family; patrons of Petrarch; Ottone defeated Della Torre at Desio; last ruler was Filipepo Maria 1450 - 1535 Sforza family; patrons of Bramante and da VinciKingdom of the Two Sicilies 1266 - 1285 Charles I : son of Louis VIII, went on Sixth Crusade with Louis IX; pope gave him Two Sicilies for helping fight Ghibellines; killed King Manfred; defeated revolt by Conradin (last Hohenstaufen); went on failed Seventh Crusade; lost to Pedro III of Aragon 1816 - 1825 Ferdinand I : also king of Naples as Ferdinand IV; led Naples against Napoleon 1830 - 1859 Fredinand II Bomba : fought insurrection in 1848; bombarded rebellious cities 1859 - 1861 Francis II : last Bourbon ruler of Naples and Sicily; invaded by Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860Unification of Italy 1815 - 1861 Unification : Congress of Vienna established Italy as patchwork of kingdoms such as Naples and Sicily, Papal States, and Sardinia; Sardinian Prime Minister Camillo Count di Cavour, Giuseppe Mazzini, and Giuseppe Garibaldi led unification; Garibaldi expelled Francis II from Naples in 1860Savoy 1861 - 1878 Victor Emmanuel II : Sardinian king proclaimed king of united Italy at Turin in 1861; won Venetia by allying with Prussia in Austro-Prussian War 1866; General Raffaele took Papal States 1878 - 1900 Humbert I : signed Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany in 1882;

colonial expansion in Africa but lost to Ethiopia at Adwa; assassinated by anarchist at Monza 1900 - 1946 Victor Emmanuel III : served in army during WWI; accepted Fascist Benito Mussolini regime in 1922; recognized sovereignty of Vatican in Lateran Treaty 1929; abdicated after WWII 1946 Humbert IIFascist Dictator 1922 - 1943 Benito Mussolini : formed government in 1922; conquered Ethiopia and Albania; aided Francisco Franco in Spanish Civil War; dismissed by Victor Emmanuel III in 1943 but escued by Germans; set up puppet state in northern Italy; shot by Italians in 1945Prime Ministers 1945 - 1953 Alcide De Gasperi : founded Christian Democratic Party; joined NATO 1999 - Carlo Azeglio Ciampi Knight Orders Knights Templar (Poor Knights of Christ) - founded by Hugh de Payens; rules established by Bernard of Clairvaux; moved to Cyprus; established banking system; persecuted by Pope Clement V and French King Philip IV Knights Hospitalers (Knights of St. John of Jerusalem) - founded by Gerard; rules established by Saint Augustine; moved to Rhodes and later to Malta; conquered by Napoleon in 1798 Teutonic Knights (Teutonic Knights of St. Mary's Hospital in Jerusalem) - founded by Germans; fought Slavs and controlled Prussia; tried to convert Eastern Europe to Christianity; defeated by Poland at Tannenberg in 1410 Netherlands Orange-Nassau 1815 - 1840 William I : son of William V of Orange, last stadtholder of United Netherlands; as general lost to France in War of the First Coalition 1793 - 1795; first king of Belgium-Netherlands created by Treaty of Paris; Belgium seceded 1830 1840 - 1849 William II : served under General Wellesley duke of Wellington in Napoleonic Wars; commanded Dutch and Belgians at Waterloo; liberalized constitution in 1848 1849 - 1890 William III : wanted to sell Luxembourg to France but Prussia made in be independent at London conference; reign of peace 1890 - 1948 Wilhelmina : mom Emma was regent; Luxembourg terminated union with Netherlands because it refused a woman ruler; married Henry duek of Mecklenburg-Schwerin; neutral in WWI; set up government-in-exile in England during WWII 1948 - 1980 Juliana 1980 - Beatrix : earned doctorate in law from University of Leiden; marriage to West German Claus von Amsberg caused controversy; son Willem Alexander first male heir in four generations Norway 885 - 933 Harold I the Fairheaded : first to rule all Norway; won Battle of Hafrsfjord; many fled and launched Viking raids; allied with English Athelstan 935 - 961 Hakon I the Good : dethroned half brother Eric Bloodaxe; attempted to introduce Christianity 968 - 1000 Olaf I : raided England with Danish Sweyn I Forkbeard; converted to Christianity; defeated rebellion under pagan Earl Hakon; made Nidaros capital; won Battle of Svold in 1000 against Sweyn I, Swedish Olaf, and sons of Hakon but died 1015 - 1028 St. Olaf II : converted to Christianity by English Ethelred II; killed at Battle of Stiklestad; canonized in 1164 1066 - 1093 Olaf III the Quiet : father Harold III Hard Ruler killed at Battle of Stamford Bridge; ruled for three years with brother Magnus II Barefoot

1217 - 1263 Hakon IV the Old : defeated rival Earl Skule; acquired Greenland in 1261 and Iceland in 1262; murdered historian Snorri Sturluson 1450 - 1814 Ruled by Denmark 1814 - 1905 Ruled by Sweden 1905 - 1957 Hakon VII : chosen king by Storting parliament; headed WWII government-in-exile 1957 - 1991 Olaf V : commander of Norwegian armed forces 1944-1945 1991 - Harald V Poland Piast Dynasty 962 - 992 Mieszko : converted Poland to Christianity 992 - 1025 Boleslaw I : defeated Henry II (HRE); crowned by pope in 1025 1102 - 1138 Boleslaw III : defended Silesia against Henry V (HRE); conquered Pomerania; at his death kingdom was divided among sons and deteriorated 1320 - 1333 Wladyslaw I : defeated Teutonic Knights; reunited kingdom 1333 - 1370 Kazimierz III the Great : conquered Galicia; enlightened; founded universityJagiellonian Dyansty 1386 - 1434 Wladyslaw II Jagiello : grand duke of Lithuania; converted Lithuania to Roman Catholicism; defeated Teutonic Knights at Tannenberg in 1410 1447 - 1492 Kazimierz IV : won land from Teutonic Knights in Treaty of Torun 1469 - 1472 Zygmunt II Augustus : joined Poland and Lithuania in the Commonwealth; dynasty ended at his death and nobles and the Sejm parliament ruledPeriod of Decline 1764 - 1795 Stanislaw II Augustus : paramour of Catherine the Great (Russia); last king; Kosciusko, who had aided US in American Revolution, rebelled against Russians but was defeated by Suvorov; Poland was partitioned three times among Austria, Prussia, and Russia Modern Poland 1918 - 1922, 1926 - 1935 Jozef Pilsudski : won Polish independence after Germany lost WWI; defeated Soviet invasion in Russo-Polish War 1956 - 1970 Wladyslaw Gomulka : expelled from Communist party in 1949 but reinstated after Stalin's death 1970 - 1980 Edward Gierek : ousted after Solidarity strikes 1981 - 1990 Wojciech Jaruzelski : outlawed Solidarity but legalized it again in 1988 after Gorbachev instituted glasnost 1990 - 1995 Lech Walesa : led strike in 1980 at Lenin Shipyard in Gdansk; formed Solidarity trade federation; won 1983 Nobel Peace Prize; elected president 1990 1995 - Aleksander Kwasniewski : formed Democratic Left Alliance with ex-Communists Popes ? - 64 St. Peter : one of twelve disciples, denied knowing Jesus on night of trial; first to see risen Jesus; called the rock on which church was founded; martyred in Rome 64 - 76 St. Linus : second pope; possibly martyred 189 - 199 St. Victor I : born in Africa; first Latin pope; threatened excommunication for Quartodecimans, who celebrated Easter on Nisan 14; condemned Theodotus and Dynamic Monarchianism, which said Jesus was human until Baptism; replaced Greek with Latin as official language 440 - 461 St. Leo I the Great : born in Tuscany; persuaded Attila the Hun not to sack Rome; Council of Chalcedon in 451 endorsed Leo's views, said "Peter has spoken through Leo" 492 - 496 St. Gelasius I : cultivated relations with Arian Ostrogothic King Theodoric; predecessor Felix III had excommunicated patriarch of Constantinople for monophysitism; alienated Byzantine emperor Anastasius I; "two swords" of pope and emperor; opposed Pelagianism, Manichaeism, and Lupercalia; called "vicar of Christ"; wrote part of Leonine Sacramentary 590 - 604 St. Gregory I : last of four original Doctors of the Church; consolidated Papal States;

sent St. Augustine to England; incorporated Gregorian chants in liturgy 625 - 638 Honroius I : bestowed pallium on archbishops of Canterbury and York; wrote letter seemingly supporting Monothelitism, saying Christ had one will but two natures; called a heretic by Third Council of Constantinople in 680 795 - 816 St. Leo III : gang tried to gouge out his eyes and cut out his tongue; imprisoned for perjury and adultery; exonerated by Charlemagne, whom he then crowned HRE 1049 - 1054 St. Leo IX : caused Great Schism by excommunicating patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople with bull in Hagia Sophia 1073 - 1085 St. Gregory VII : opposed simony (sale of clerical office) and lay investiture, leading to Investiture Controversy; HRE Henry IV declared Gregory VII deposed 1088 - 1099 Urban II : launched First Crusade; sought to end Great Schism but continued opposition to investiture 1099 - 1118 Pashal II : resolved disputes with English Henry I and French Philip I; First Crusade successful; continued investiture conflict with HRE Henry IV and Henry V, who took him prisoner; after 61 days gave Henry right to appoint bishops but nullified this in 1112 1159 - 1181 Alexander III : studied under Gratian, father of canon law; negotiated Treaty of Constance with HRE Frederick I; forced English Henry II to do penance for murder of Thomas a Becket; forced into French exile by Frederick I; presided over Third Lateran Council 1198 - 1216 Innocent III : established control of Papal States; declared crusade against dualist Albigensianism in 1208; launched unsuccessful Fourth Crusade; convoked Fourth Lateran Council; encouraged St. Dominic and St. Francis 1227 - 1241 Gregory IX : excommunicated HRE Frederick II for not going on crusade; issued Excommunicamus to prosecute Albigensian heretics, establishing Inquisition; collected decretals to codify canon law 1294 - 1303 Boniface VIII : issued Clericis Laicos against French Philip IV and English Edward I, forbidding clergy taxes; asserted papal supremacy in Unam Sanctum bull; imprisoned by Philip IV 1305 - 1314 Clement V : first pope to reside at Avignon in Babylonian Captivity; controlled by French Philip IV; suppressed Knights Templar 1417 - 1431 Martin V : election by Council of Constance ended Great Schism 1431 - 1447 Eugene IV : struggled against Council of Basel; French Charles VII issued Pragmatic Sanction in 1438 giving French church some freedom; moved Council of Basel to Ferrara then Florence; temporarily rejoined Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches 1513 - 1521 Leo X : son of Lorenzo de' Medici; led Fifth Lateran Council; excommunicated Martin Luther in 1521 for 1517 protests against sale of indulgences 1523 - 1534 Clement VII : held prisoner by HRE Charles Vfor seven months in 1527; declared English Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon still valid; patronized Cellini, Raphael, and Michelangelo 1534 - 1549 Paul III : revived Inquisition; started Counter Reformation; Michelangelo began work on Sistine Chapel; negotiated Treaty of Nice between HRE Charles V and French Francis I; excommunicated English Henry VIII 1538; called Council of Trent; established Jesuits (Society of Jesus) 1559 - 1565 Pius IV : reconvened Council of Trent; commissioned Michelangelo 1846 - 1878 Pius IX : longest pontificate; fled to Naples during 1848 revolution; supported Ultramontanism; called First Vatican Council; proclaimed Immaculate Conception; lost Papal States to reunified Italy 1878 - 1903 Leo XIII : Rerum Novarum encyclical supported just wages and trade unions; known as "the workers' pope"; opened Vatican Library and established universities 1903 - 1914 St. Pius X : opposed Modernist movement, which reinterpreted religion in light of science; opposed anticlerical legislation in France and Portugal; started Roman Catholic Action movement 1914 - 1922 Benedict XV : neutral during WWI; restored relations with France and Britain; promulgated Code of Canon Law 1922 - 1939 Pius XI : Quadragesimo Anno encyclical supported reconstruction of social order; signed Lateran Treaty with Mussolini, gaining control of Vatican 1939 - 1958 Pius XII : Mystici Corporis Christi condemned false mysticism; named 32 new cardinals to the Sacred College; anti-Communist; tried to bring peace in WWII

1958 - 1963 John XXIII : called Second Vatican Council; established secretariat for promoting Christian unity; Ecumenical Movement promoted Christian-Jewish dialogue 1963 - 1978 Paul VI : presided over most of Second Vatican Council; nullified excommunications with Greek Orthodox patriarch Athenagoras I; met with Coptic Orthodox patriarch Shenouda III; traveled extensively 1978 John Paul I : first with double name; died after 34 days 1978 - John Paul II : Polish, first non-Italian since 1523; assassination attempt May 13 1981; conservative and well-traveled Portugal Early Kings 1139 - 1185 Alfonso I : first king of Portugal; captured Lisbon 1438 - 1481 Alfonso V the African : sponsored west African exploration by Henry the Navigator 1495 - 1521 Manuel I : sponsored da Gama, Cabral, Afonso de Albuquerque 1521 - 1557 John III : title to Brazil confirmed by Congress of Badajoz in 1524; established Inquisition in Portugal; increased influence over the Moluccas (Spice Islands) 1580 - 1640 : Spanish kings Philip I, II, IIIBraganza 1640 - 1656 John IV : drove out Spanish usurpers at Battle of Montijo; first Braganza king 1706 - 1750 John V : allied with British in War of Spanish Succession; named "Most Faithful King" by Pope Benedict XIV 1816 - 1826 John VI : fled to Brazil; mother Maria I became insane; son Pedro became emperor of Brazil; suppressed revolt led by wife and son Dom Miguel 1908 - 1910 Manuel II : last king of Portugal; father King Carlos assassinated; fled naval revolt 1932 - 1968 Antonio de Oliveira Salazar : economics professor at Coimbra; balanced budget; 36- year dictator Prussia 1640 - 1688 Frederick William the Great Elector : acquired land for Brandenburg; admitted Hugunots; neutral during Thirty Years' War 1701 - 1713 Frederick I : patronized scholars such as Leibnez; est. Academy of Sciences 1713 - 1740 Frederick William I : centralized Prussian finances; proud of Potsdam Guard; developed strong army 1740 - 1786 Frederick II the Great : learned warfare from dad FWI and music from mom Sophia Dorothea; won Silesia from Maria Theresa in War of Austrian Succession; Pragmatic Sanction gave lands to Maria Theresa; supported US in revolution 1786 - 1797 Frederick William II : supported Louis XVI; forced to cede land to France in Treaty of Basel; won land in Polish partitions; influenced by Rosicrucian Order not Enlightenment 1797 - 1840 Frederick William III : fought Napoleon; joined Holy Alliance 1840 - 1861 Frederick William IV : new constitution; became insane Roman Empire Legendary Kings 753 - 715 BC Romulus : he and twin brother Remus (sons of Rhea Silvia; daughter of king of Alba Longa); founded Rome 715 - 676 BC Numa Pompilius : introduced many religious customs 673 - 641 BC Tullus Hostilius : destroyed Alba Longa and fought Sabines 641 - 613 BC Ancus Marcius : captured many Latin towns; built port of Ostia 616 - 578 BC Lucius Tarquinius Priscus : constructed many public buildings in Rome 578 - 534 BC Servius Tullius : created new constitution; enlarged boundaries of Rome

534 - 510 BC Lucius Tarquinius Superbas : tyrant; his son outraged Lucretia and he was banishedFigures from the Republic Brennus : Gaul chieftan who burned Rome in 390 BC Pyrrhus : king of Epirus; helped Greek cities of southern Italy fight Rome; 280-276 BC in Pyrrhic War but lost Gaius Duilius : consul who led naval victory over Carthage in First Punic War at Mylae in 260 BC Marcus Atilius Regulus : general to lost to Carthage in Africa during First Punic War Hamilcar : Carthage general who occupied Spain; father of Hannibal Hannibal : Carthage general who crossed the Alps in Second Punic War beginning 218 BC Scipio Africanus : Roman general who invaded Carthage and defeated Hannibal at Zama 202 BC Philip V : Macedonian king defeated by Romans in Second Macedonian War 200-197 BC Cincinnatus : dictator for 16 days; defeated Aequi in 458 and returned to his farm Antiochus III : king of Syria defeated by Romans at Magnesia 190 BC Perseus : son of Philip V; lost to Romans in Third Macedonian War Lucius Aemilius Paullus : Roman general who captured Perseus at Pydna in 168 BC Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Minor : destroyed Carthage in 146 BC in Third Punic War Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus : brothers who served as people's tribunes and attempted to help the poor by agrarian and corn laws; both died in separate riots 133 and 121 BC; sons of Cornelia and grandsons of Scipio Africanus Marcus Drusus : attempted to help poor; assassinated 91 BC Lucius Cinna and Marius : leaders of the popular party; became consuls Mithridates VI Eupator : king of Pontus; defeated by Sulla, Lucullus, and Pompey the Great (66 BC) Sulla : left Rome to fight Mithridates in 87 BC; returned in 83 BC and defeated Cinna Pompey the Great : ended Servile War by Spartacus; cleared Mediterranean of pirates; captured Jerusalem; formed First Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Marcus Crassus; defeated by Caesar at Pharsalus in 48 BC; murdered in Egypt Marcus Licinius Crassus : member of First Triumvirate; very wealthy; killed by Parthians in Syria at Battle of Carrhae Julius Gaius Caesar : governor of Spain; joined First Triumvirate; conquered northern Gaul; crossed Rubicon and marched on Rome making Pompey flee; assassinated on Ides of March 44 BC Marcus Brutus and Gaius Cassius : two nobles who assassinated Julius Caesar; crushed by Octavian and Antony at Philippi Mark Antony : served with Caesar against Pompey; formed Second Triumvirate with Octavius and Lepidus; married Octavius's sister; affair with Cleopatra; defeated by Octavius at Actium; committed suicide with Cleopatra at Alexandria Marcus Aemilius Lepidus : member of Second Triumvirate; controlled Africa; tried to take Sicily from Octavian and was expelled from triumvirateThe Empire 27 BC - 14 AD : Augustus : originally Octavian; period of cultural development called Augustan Age; formed Second Triumvirate; forced Lepidus from power; defeated Antony at Actium; wife Livia 14 - 37 Tiberius : stepson of Augustus; married his daughter Julia; studied at Rhodes for seven years; left Praetorian Guard prefect Lucius Sejanus in charge while he went to Campania and Capreae 37 - 41 Caligula : name means "Little Boot"; joint heir with Tiberius Gemellus but chosen sole emperor by Senate; became tyrant after illness; made horse a consul; assassinated by his guards 41 - 54 Claudius I : semiretired after conspiracy against him; cruel wife Messalina assumed powers; began conquest of Britain; executed Messalina; married niece Agrippina the Younger who poisoned him 54 - 68 Nero : moderate rule for five years; then executed mom and wife Octavia; Rome burned in 64; revolts in Britain and Judea; Praetorian Guard revolt in 68; suicide 68 - 68 Galba : assassinated after naming unpopular successor 69 - 69 Otho 69 - 69 Vitellius

Favian Emperors : Vespasian; Titus; Domitian 69 - 79 Vespasian : campaigned in Britain and Judea; 9-year world peace; suppressed Germanic Batavian revolt under Julius Civilis; General Agricola led conquests in Britain; Colosseum constructed 79 - 81 Titus : destroyed Jerusalem in 70; beneficent after Vesuvius eruption in 79 and fire and plague in Rome in 80 81 - 96 Domitian : clashed with Senate; defeated revolt led by Antonius Saturnius of Upper Germany; executed many aristocrats; murdered by officials and wife Domitia Five Good Emperors : Nerva; Trajan; Hadrian; Antonius Pius; Marcus Aurelius 96 - 98 Nerva 98 - 117 Trajan : conquered Dacia and Mesopotamia; fought Parthians 117 - 138 Hadrian : ended Roman expansion; built Hadrian's Wall for defense; patron of arts; erected Athenaeum; Temple of Venus; Roma; mausoleum Castel Sant'Angelo; and rebuilt Pantheon 138 - 161 Antonius Pius : built wall between Forth and Clyde rivers in Britain; Antonine Column now in Vatican built in his honor by Marcus Aurelius 161 - 180 Marcus Aurelius : Stoic philosopher; champion of poor; wrote Meditations 180 - 192 Commodus : cruel tyrant; murdered; Galen of Pergamum was his physician 193 - 211 Lucius Septimius Severus : purchased throne from Praetorian Guard; military and legal reform; reduced power of aristocracy; defeated Parthians and British revolt 211 - 217 Caracalla : real name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus; nickname from Gaul cloak; cruel; built Baths of Carcalla and Arch of Septimius 217 - 217 Marcus Macrinus : murdered Caracalla 218 - 222 Heliogabalus : priest of Baal 222 - 235 Alexander Severus : wise and just 235 - 268 : 12 emperors in 33 years Illyrian Emperors : Claudius II through Diocletian 268 - 270 Claudius II : defeated Goths 270 - 275 Lucius Aurelian : defeated Germanic Alamanni; made Danube the western boundary; defeated Queen Zenobia of Palmyra; given title Restitutor Orbis (Restorer of the Empire) by Senate; built Wall of Aurelian around Rome 275 - 284 : 6 emperors in 9 years 284 - 305 Diocletian : empire divided into four parts ruled by caesars and augutuses; Maximian second in command 306 - 337 Constantine the Great : first Roman ruler to convert to Christianity; believed in sun god Sol but then saw cross on sun before winning a battle; co-emperor Lucinius; issued Edict of Milan mandating tolerance of Christians; presided over Council of Nicaea in 325; began building Constantinople 337 - 351 : civil wars among rivals 351 - 361 Constantius II : defeated Magnentius at Battle of Mursa; Arian Christian; opponent of St. Athanasius (orthodox bishop of Alexandria) 361 - 363 Julian the Apostate : renounced Christianity 363 - 364 Jovian : last emperor before division of empireWestern Roman Emperors 364 - 375 Valentinian I : split empire with brother Valens; defeated Alamanni; orthodox Christian 375 - 392 Valentinian II : driven from Italy by Magnus Maximus; restored to power by Theodosius I; murdered by Arbogast who installed Eugenius as emperor 394 - 395 Theodosius I the Great : last to rule a united Roman Empire; orthodox Christian; persecuted Arians 384 - 423 Honorius : Rome sacked by King Alaric I of the Visigoths in 410; Ataulf withdrew Visigoths to Gaul and Wallia founded dynasty at Toulouse 425 - 455 Valentinaian III : General Flavius Aetius held most power; Africa taken by King Gaiseric of the Vandals; fought Atilla th eHun at Chalons-sur-Marne in 451 455 - 475 : 9 emperors in 20 years; real power was General Riimer the Suebe; called the Kingmaker 475 - 476 Romulus Augustulus : called Augustulus because of his youth; exiled by Odoacer who became king; ending Western Roman Empire

Romania 1857 - 1866 Alexandru Ion Cuza : united Moldavia and Walachia as Romania subject to Ottoman Empire 1866 - 1914 Carol I : aided Russia in Russo-Turkish War and gained independence from Ottoman Empire at the Congress of Berlin; fought Balkan Wars; member of Hohenzollern family 1914 - 1927 Ferdinand I : joined Allies in WWI 1930 - 1940 Carol II : formed but later ended Fascist Iron Guard; abdicated when Germany invaded 1940 - 1944 Ion Antonescu : appointed premier by Carol II; joined Germany in invasion of USSR 1945 - 1965 Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej : head of Communist Party 1965 - 1989 Nicolae Ceausescu : fought rebellion beginning in Timisoara; executed with wife Elena on Christmas 1989 1990 - 1996, 2000-present Ion Iliescu : led National Salvation Front; restored democracy Russia Rurik Dynasty 862 - 879 Rurik : consolidated Slavic tribes at Novgorod; dynasty moved to Kiev in 972 988 - 1015 Saint Vladimir : baptism made Orthodox Christianity official Russian religion; married Byzantine Basil II's daughter Anne 1246 - 1263 Alexander Nevsky : prince of Novgorod; beat Swedes at Neva River; beat Teutonic Knights at Lake Peipus Estonia; mediated with Mongols 1462 - 1505 Ivan III the Great : acquired land from Lapland to Urals; invaded Lithuania; ruled like a Byzantine 1530 - 1584 Ivan IV the Terrible : son of Basil III; first crowned czar; convoked first national assembly; expanded to Volga River; became erratic and brutalTime of Troubles 1598 - 1605 Boris Godunov : regent for young czar Fyodor; became czar; first to banish people to Siberia; civil war against pretender to throne in Poland 1605 - 1606 False DmitriRomanov Dynasty 1613 - 1645 Michael Romanov : elected tsar by national assemby; established dynasty 1645 - 1676 Alexis I: lost war to Sweden; schism in Russian Orthodox Church 1682 - 1725 Peter I the Great : modernized and Westernized Russia; first shared throne with older half brother Ivan V; created first Russian navy; captured Azov from Turks on Black Sea; defeated Sweden in Battle of Poltava 1709; founded St. Petersburg 1725 - 1727 Catherine I : Peter's wife 1762 - 1796 Catherine II the Great : married Grand Duke Peter of Holstein who was overthrown by Imperial Guards; expanded serfdom; disbanded Cossack army after revolt; won two wars against Ottomans; annexed Crimea 1801 - 1825 Alexander I : introduced reforms; allied with Prussia but then France briefly; turned back Napoleon near Moscow; formed Holy Alliance with Austria and Prussia 1815 1825 - 1855 Nicholas I : suppressed Decembrist revolt of reformist army officers who favored his brother Constantine; wars against Iran; Poland; and Turkey 1855 - 1881 Alexander II : ended Crimean War with Treaty of Paris; abolished serfdom in 1861; reforms; sold Alaska to US in 1867; assassinated by bomb thrown in his carriage by People's Will revolutionaries 1881 - 1894 Alexander III : restored absolutism; persecuted Jews; joined France against Triple Alliance 1894 - 1917 Nicholas II : married German princess Alexandra; opposed democracy; lost Russo- Japanese War 1904; formed Duma; relied on mystic Rasputin; abdicated March 1917; executed by Bolsheviks July 16; 1918Provisional Government

1917 - 1917 Prince Georgi Lvov 1917 - 1917 Aleksandr Kerensky : provisional prime minister; suppressed Lenin's Bolshevik Party; who seized power October 25 1917; his troops refused to fight at Petrograd; lectured in USSoviet Union 1917 - 1922 Vladimir Ilich Lenin : in exile wrote What Is to Be Done? ; his Bolsheviks were opposed by Mensheviks; took power in second revolution in October 1918; he and Trotsky won civil war; made peace with Germans at Brest-Litovsk; issued New Economic Policy with mixed market; strokes in 1922 and 1923 1922 - 1953 Joseph Stalin : joined troka with Zinovyev and Kamenev after Lenin's death; sole leader by 1929; forced massive collectivization program; political purges; won in World War II 1953 - 1964 Nikita Khrushchev : battled for power with Malenkov and KGB head Beria; executed Beria; denounced Stalin; 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis 1964 - 1982 Leonid Brezhnev : shared power with Kosygin and Podgorny briefly; developed Brezhnev Doctrine saying communist states can intervene in each other's affairs; detente with US; signed first SALT treaty 1982 - 1984 Yuri Andropov 1984 - 1985 Konstantin Chernenko 1985 - 1991 Mikhail Gorbachev : introduced restructuring perestroika and openness glasnost; withdrew troops from Afghanistan; won 1990 Nobel; survived 3-day 1991 coup but then resigned; allowed Baltic independenceDemocratic Russia 1991 - 2000 Boris Yeltsin : resisted August 1991 hard-line coup; elected Russian president; formed Commonwealth of Independent States; introduced free market reforms; Chechnya rebellion; defeated Zyuganov in 1996; Premier Chernomyrdin; cooperated with NATO 2000 - Vladimir Putin : appointed prime minister by Yeltsin in August 1999; led Russia against Chechnya; Unity bloc supported him Scotland 846 - 860 Kenneth I MacAlpin : traditional first Scottish king; conquered Pictish Kingdom; made capital at Scone; invaded Lothain 1034 - 1040 Duncan I : killed by Macbeth of Moray 1040 - 1057 Macbeth : murdered Duncan I; killed in battle by Malcolm Canmore in 1057 1093 - 1094 and 1095 - 1097 : Donald Bane; briefly deposed by nephew Duncan II 1124 - 1153 David I : failed to have niece Matilda enthroned in England 1165 - 1214 William the Lion : made alliance with French Louis VII; captured by English Henry II near Alnwick and assented to Treaty of Falaise acknowledging Henry as overlord; secured independence of Scottish church from pope; Richard surrendered claims for payment 1214 - 1249 Alexander II : supported barons against English John; Peace of York established boundary with England 1292 - 1296 John de Baliol : English Edward I selected him over Robert de Bruce VI as king; allied with France and captured by English 1306 - 1329 Robert I Bruce : deposed by English Edward I but reconquered most of Scotland within two years; defeated English at Battle of Bannockburn in 1314; made truce with Edward II but warred again with Edward III 1329 - 1371 David II Bruce : deposed by Edward de Baliol; allied with France and lost to English at Neville's Cross 1346; ransomed 1371 - 1390 Robert II : founded Stuart dynasty; twice regent for David II 1406 - 1437 James I : English prisoner 1406-1423; daughter married French Louis XI; assassinated by nobles 1437 - 1460 James II : Douglas family served as regent; stabbed William 8th earl of Douglas; entangled in War of Roses; killed in siege of Roxburgh Castle 1460 - 1488 James III : gained Orkney and Shetland islands by marrying Margaret of Denmark; imprisoned by brother Alexander Stewart duke of Albany; English captured Berwick; lost to nobles at Sauchieburn

1488 - 1513 James IV : supported Perkin Warbeck's claim to English throne; married Margaret Tudor, leading to English-Scottish union eventually; allied with France but lost to English at Battle of Flodden Field; patronized arts 1513 - 1542 James V : John Stewart duke of Albany became his protector; taken prisoner by stepdad Archibald 6th earl of Angus; refused to repudiate Catholicism and was routed by English Henry VIII at Solway Moss 1542 - 1567 Mary Queen of Scots (Mary Stuart) : married French Francis II, then Henry Stewart Lord Darnley; defeated revolt by brother James Stuart earl of Moray; Darnley murdered adviser David Rizzio; James Hepburn 4th earl of Bothwell had Darnley strangled and married Mary; lost to nobles; executed by Elizabeth I 1567 - 1625 James VI : became James I of Great Britain (see Great Britain list) Spain 1479-1516 Ferdinand V (with wife Isabella I) : empowered by Pope Sixtus IV to start Spanish Inquisition, led by Torquemada; funded Christopher Columbus 1516-1556 Charles I (Holy Roman Emperor Charles V) : 1552 Peace of Passau allowed Lutherans to exercise religion, reaffirmed by 1555 Peace of Augsburg; fought France and Ottomans 1556-1598 Philip II : Netherlands began fight for independence; destroyed Ottoman navy at Lepanto; became king of Portugal; Spanish Armada defeated by English 1588 1598-1621 Philip III : backed Austria in Thirty Years War; drove out last of the Moriscos 1621-1665 Philip IV : lost Netherlands in Treaty of Westphalia; ceded Roussillon to France in Treaty of the Pyrenees; patron of Velazquez, de Vega, and Calderon 1700 - 1746 Philip V (Philip of Anjou) : first Spanish Bourbon; grandson of Louis XIV of France; ascension led to War of the Spanish Succession 1759 - 1788 Charles III : conquered Two Sicilies (becoming Charles IV) 1788 - 1808 Charles IV : ceded Louisiana to France; navy destroyed at Trafalgar; influenced by wife Maria Louisa of Parma and paramour Manuel de Godoy; deposed by Napoleon 1808 - 1813 Joseph : brother of Napoleon 1814 - 1833 Ferdinand VII : arrested by father Charles IV; imprisoned by Napoleon; imprisoned during 1820 rebellion 1833 - 1868 Isabella II : Salic Law set aside; Carlists supporting her uncle Don Carlos defeated in 1839; mom Maria Christina; deposed in 1868 Revolution 1885 - 1923 Alphonso XIII : lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, Philippines, Sulu Islands, and Marianas in Spanish-American War 1923 - 1930 Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja : soldier; established military dictatorship but then became prime minister; suppressed Moroccan revolt; son founded Falange Party 1931 - 1936 Niceto Alcala Zamora : socialist president during Second Republic 1936 - 1939 Manuel Azana : fled to France after Nationalist victory in civil war; had little control over Republican generals such as Negrin (ousted in coup by Casado, who surrendered to Nationalists under Franco) 1939 - 1975 Francisco Franco : El caudillo; led Nationalist forces in Spanish Civil War 1975 - Juan Carlos I : grandson of Alphonso XIII; wife Sofia of Greece; 1978 constitution; son Prince Felipe is heir Sweden 1130 - 1156 Sverker : united Swedes and Goths; capital at Uppsala 1397 - 1523 Ruled by Denmark under Union of Kalmar; Riksdag parliament founded 1435 1523 - 1560 Gustav I Vasa : founded house of Vasa; freed Sweden from Danish Christian II 1604 - 1611 Charles IX : defeated Catholic nephew Polish Zygmunt III at Stangebro 1611 - 1632 Gustavus II Adolfphus the Lion of the North : entered Thirty Years' War to acquire Baltic states; killed at Battle of Lutzen 1632 - 1654 Christina : Axel Oxenstierna served as regent; supported lower estates against nobles and Council of the Realm; Thirty Years' War caused economic problems; influenced by

Descartes; never married; converted to Catholicism 1654 - 1660 Charles X Gustav : first of Palatinate dynasty; invaded Poland against cousin Jan II Kazimierz; allied with Brandenburg Frederick William and won at Warsaw; won lands from Danish Frederick II in Treaty of Roskilde; lost at Copenhagen 1660 - 1697 Charles XI : allied with French Louis XIV in Dutch Wars; lost land but regained most in Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye; wiped out public debt and strengthened military 1697 - 1718 Charles XII : fought Great Northern War 1700-1721; invaded Denmark, routed Russia at Narva Estonia, overran Poland; crushed by Russia; besieged at Stralsund; killed in Norway 1720 - 1751 Frederick I : wife Ulrika Eleonora abdicated for him; Hats wanted to regain land from Russia but Caps wanted peace; warred with Russia 1741-1743 1792 - 1809 Gustav IV Adolphus : lost land to Napoleon 1809 - 1818 Charles XIII : lost Finland to Russia 1809 but united with Norway 1814 1818 - 1844 Charles XIV John : fought in French Revolution and at Austerlitz; fought against France at Leipzig; obtained Norway from Denmark by Treaty of Kiel 1844 - 1859 Oscar I : second Bernadotte monarch; married granddaughter of Josephine de Beauharnais, wife of Napoleon 1859 - 1872 Charles XV : made Riksdag bicameral; instituted reforms; wrote poems 1872 - 1907 Oscar II : allowed Norwegian independence; arbitrated international disputes 1907 - 1950 Gustavus V : maintained neutrality in WWI and WWII 1950 - 1973 Gustav VI Adolph : authority on Chinese archaeology 1973 - Carl XVI Gustaf : king became figurehead only Yugoslavia Yugoslavia 1918 - 1921 Petar I : Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes established after WWI 1921 - 1934 Alexandar I : ruled as dictator; assassinated by Croatian separatist in Marseilles 1943 - 1980 Josep Broz Tito : led Partisans, rivals of Cetniks, during WWII; leader of Nonaligned nations 1997 - 2001 Slobodan Milosevic : president of Serbia 1989-1997; supported ethnic cleansing of Bosnian Serbs; signed Dayton Accords; tried in The Hague for war crimesCroatia 1990 - 1999 Franjo Tudjman : leader of Croatian Democratic Union; won independence for Croatia from Yugoslavia; fought Serb-controlled Krajina; signed Dayton Accords 2000 - present Stipe MesicBosnia and Herzegovina 1990 - 2001 Alija Izetbegovic : Muslim leader in Bosnian civil war; won independence for Bosnia from Yugoslavia; signed Dayton Accords