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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
COPY RIGHT © 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research
739
MAY 2013
VOL 5, NO 1
Policy Making and Is Impacts on Higher Education:
A Comparative Study of Iran and Pakistan in 21st Century
*Dr. Syed Mussawar Hussain Bukhari
**Muhammad Asim
*Associate Professor, Department of Political Science, Islamia University Bahawalpur, Adjunct
Research Fellow Faculty of Arts Monash University Australia
**Research Student and Lecturer Government Postgraduate College Ashgar Mall, Rawalpindi.
Abstract
Higher education policy is a core for generating professionalism in any country.
According to The Times Higher Education Supplement world ranking for 2008, there
are only two universities in Iran which got rank among top 400 universities of the
world (Acaemic Ranking of World Universities). These universities are the
University of Tehran and the Sharif University of Technology. On the other hand,
according to 2010 ranking of Quality Standard World University, there are just two
universities in Pakistan which got status of top 200 universities. There are also 11
universities of Pakistan in top 1000 universities of the world according to this
ranking. Quaid-e-Azam University, University of Karachi, National University of
Science and Technology and Institute of Space Technology are among them.
This study tries to find the answers of the questions that either higher
education policy is able to attain the international educational standards in Pakistan
and Iran or not. Similarly, it seeks the differences among Iranian And Pakistani
higher educational structure under same religious structure that how and why the
higher education system and policy of Iran is gaining its goals successfully in Iran
than the Pakistan when there is same consensus among basic believes and socio-
religious traditions, and what are the impacts of these differences on higher
education of the both societies.
National growth of a country can be obtained through generating skilled
huamn resource. Similarly, technological based growth can be obtaiend through
scientific knowledge. And for this purpose, higher education is considered to be an
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initial foot step. As higher education policy is a based for higher educaional research
and growth, every country try to achieve international standerds in this regard. As
there are only two universities in Iran which got rank among top 400 universities of
the world according to the Acaemic Ranking of World Universities 2008 and
according to 2010 ranking of Quality Standard World University, there are just two
universities in Pakistan which got status of top 200 universities, the question is, when
Pakistan go independence in 1947 and Iran got a totally changed political system after
Islamic Revolution of 1979, what are those aspects under same religious structure
which are becoming a reason of different higher education policies in both the
countries and what are their impacts.
Literature Review
N. Greston (2010), E. Anderson (2011), Keller (2008) and E. Heller (2011)
discuss the theme of policy making and higher education policy with highlighting its
essential need in any administrative. Their focus was on the questions that why and
how to design a policy with respect to the culture, traditions or the values of any
particular society.
Francis Fukuyama (1999) defines social capital in the meaning of collective
economic and democratic benefits of the society. He also describes how social capital
work in free market liberal democracy, how it measure, from where it is originated
and how social capital can be enhanced. On the other hand, Lynn Marie Mertz (2006)
presents the role of higher education in building strong social capital. Through
experimental research, she describes the facts that how low income students and
students from different races contribute in building social capital through higher
education.
Welch (2011), Riddick (2006) and Iraqi (2008) analyze an educational
environment of Asia with specific perspective of Indo-Pak sub-continent. For
highlighting British education policies, there is a work of Rao (1979), Aziz (1965),
Marriott (2006), McCully (1966) and Jayapalan (2000). Seth (2000), Pandey (2005)
and Hunter (1871) describes charactristics of British educational system while Jones
(2003) and W.Jones (1989) point out the different educational movements in British
India. Ikram (1992), Begum (1985) and Khan (2010) notify the Muslims educational
moverments in India while Hassan (2006), Muhammad (1999), Jaina (1965),
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Muhammad (2002), Ekbal (2009), Fatehpuri (1987) and Jaina (1965) talk about
Aligarh movement. Tabassum (2006) and Jaffrelot (2002) evaluate the impacts of
Deoband movement and smiliarly, Bano (2012) describes the reasons of establishing
Nava-tul-Ulama Lucknow, while Ali (1952) presented the history and objectives of
Anjuman Himayat-e-Islam Lahore.
Zajda (2007), Korsan (1974), Report of the Commission on National
Education (1959), Ministry of Education and Scientific Research (1971), The
Education Policy (1972), National Education Policy (1979), National Education
Policy and Implementation Programme (1992), National Education Policy: 1998-2010
(1998), Ministry of Education (2004), and National Education Policy: Citizen's
Recommendations & Suggestions (2008) presents the time to time educatioanl
policies in Pakistan regarding primary, middle, secondary, higher secondary and
higher education.
Abrahamian (2008), Maeterlinck (2012), Eisenstadt (2003), Harris (1994),
Ankerl (2000) and Jaffery (1981) defines the concept, meanings and characteristics of
civilization with special perspective of Persian. On the other hand, Curtis (2005)
mentions historical background of Persian civilization in different times.
Simon Blackburn (2008), Ferdinand de Saussure (1988), Jean Piaget (1968),
Michal Foucault (1966) and Alison Assiter (1995) define structure in the sense that, to
understand any system, it is must to analyze its environment. Similarly at other end,
J.G. Merquior (1987), Jacques Derrida (1966), Roland Barthes (1966), Martin
Heiddeger (2002) and Edmund Husserl (2002) define post-structuralist approach
against the structuralist approach. They argue that any system cannot be understand
just with observing its environment or culture but there is an intense need of studying
human behavior along with this.
Esposit (2002) descrbes the facts and reasons through wich Muslims adopted
two different ways under same religious structure during rule of Umayyad Caliph
Haroon Rashid. While Chehabi (1991) describes the reasons that why there is
diffrence between the institutional systems of Pakistan and Iran. And, he points out
the logical debates of Imam Jafar Sadiq and Imam Abu hanifa that drew the two
separate lines within Islam. Such separation became the reason of emerging two
major sects of Islam.
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Iqbal (1934) illustrates the phases of any religion with presenting the concept
regarding need of reconstructing religious thoughts in Islam. He also presents his
ideas about to follow the religion on rational bases than the so-called believes. But,
Pervez (1995) focuses upon the Iqbal’s theory of rationalization and explain it why
Ibal relates the concept of rationalization with sprituality and “Ijtehad”.
C.Vidler (1997) correlates the concept of higher education development with
the curiosity. He defines the relationship of curiosity with achievement, creativity and
anxiety. Then, he tests the success of any educational system with finding the answers
of question that how environment affect the ability. He also presents comparison
among cultural groups regarding success of an educational policy. On same pattern,
Krathwohl (2012) presents taxonomy of Benjamin Bloom (1956) which is actually a
classification of learning objectives within education.
Hensel (2012) describes universities environment before and after revolution
in Iran. He also highlights facts and figures that indicate literacy rate, employment
ratio and social developments. While Amini (2009) highlights the effects of Iranian
cultural revolution through which syllabus of all the higher education departments had
been islamized according to the teachings of Shia Islam. On the other hand,
Bahramitash (2012) presents the issue of gender equality in Iran. He describes views
of both the sides who are suppored Iranian revolution or not.
Higher Education Commission (2005) presents higher education scenerio in
Musharaf regime during 2001-02, 2002-03 and 2003-04. This report highlights the
achievements in this duration when at one side Higher Education Commission was
established and at other end, government was more focusing upon the developments
in higher education secotr.
Muller (2011) describes economic impacts of higher education policy in Iran
with highlighting view points of leftists and supporters of islamic revolution related to
economic opportunities, employement ratio and the process of urbanization.
Similarly, Surhone L. M. (2010) notices religious impacts of higher education in Iran.
He presents view points from both the sides, the leftists and the rightists. He
highlights the religious situation of higher education after Cultural Revolution of Iran
1980-88 throughly. On the other hand, Groot (2007) expresses the legislative process
in Iran with particular refrence to the higher education. He articulates both the view
points of social groups, those who are considering Islamized higher education is the
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best way for legislative process, and those who criticize the worth of “fatwa’s”
against the rules and regulations.
Bruce A.Thyer (2006) defines relationship among social work and social
welfare. He also describes that human behavior in any social environment is based on
the nature of relationship among social work and social welfare. Similarly, Dale
D.McConkey (2006) presents social structures with describing relationship among
social capital and personal freedom. He emphasizes on personal freedom in any
society that becomes a cause of builting a strong social capital due to having trust of
liberty. On the other hand, Dale D.McConkey (2008) highlights the relationship amon
social capital and the immagined community. He argues that a strong nationalism and
the best democatic environment can only be gotten through builting strong social
capital. While N.Basit (2012) relatees social capital with higher education and defines
the role of higher education in making social trust, solidarity, national cohesion,
patriotism and sense of responsibilities.
Introduction
Policy making is a pure administrative process that is a fundamental in each
organization; either its governmental or private. There can be difference between the
process and techniques of policy making in different organizations and societies, but
each organization and society has their own culture, traditions and values, which we
cannot exempt (Greston, 2010, P.05)(Levy, 1986, PP.222-224). Similarly, higher
education is a key to generate, develop and manage skill human resource in any
society. Policy making for higher education is also a prerequisite for utilizing
meaningful approaches in all the sectors of any nation’s development. Every country
get its skilled persons through universities and professional institutes, and design
higher education policy in such a manner that facilitate masses more and more
regarding attracting towards getting higher education (Heller, 2011, P.13).
As demand in getting higher education with the changing pattern of globalized
world, the question was going to be raised that what are the international standards for
higher education. For this purpose, UNESCO organized a world conference with five
stages regarding regional consultation in different countries. These regional
consultations were held in Havana (November 1996), Dakar (April 1997), Tokyo
(July 1997), Palermo (September 1997) and Beirut (March 1998). Finally, there were
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defined some standards for higher education that are accepted worldwide on October
09, 1998 in Paris (Brennam, 1997, P.171)(Yusuf, 2007, PP.620-622). There are as
follows:
1) Article 1 affirms that everyone have an equal opportunity regarding getting
higher education and learning within system throughout the life. Advance
knowledge with research must be provided. Cultural pluralism and diversities
must be eliminated through curriculum. Training of teachers should be
compulsory at all levels.
2) Article 2 says that ethical role of higher education must be nominated.
Cultural and social problems should be discussed and awareness should be
delivered. Analysis based study should be organized in a way that social,
political and cultural trends must be discussed and analyzed.
3) Article 3 shows equity of access for all as already defined in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights in 1949 that states that everyone has a right to
get education and specially higher education with no any discrimination.
4) Article 4 focuses upon enhancing women’s role in higher education promotion
and participation.
5) Article 5 emphasizes on delivering scientific based knowledge in all the fields
of science, arts and humanities.
6) Article 6 defines long term benefits and orientations regarding serving the
society after getting higher education.
7) Article 7 describes the need of co-operation with the international universities
and its students regarding sharing research and modern scientific knowledge.
8) Article 8 tells us about need of flexible higher education system rather than
traditional degrees, short courses or part time studies just.
9) Article 9 illustrates the value of critical thinking and creativity in higher
education.
10) Article 10 shows major concern to the needs of students.
11) Article 11 tells that even the concept of quality is varying country by country
but the higher education must be qualitative evaluative.
Every country set up their certain strategies for designing higher education
policy that might be helpful in generating skill human resource. For analyzing the
successful higher education policies, there must be a comparison between United
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States of America (as a super power in the 21
st century) and United Kingdom (as a
colonial power of the past) in the developed world, Turkey and Egypt as the liberal
Muslim civilizations, and China and India in Asia as emerging economies.
Historically, Indo-Pak subcontinent was very weak in getting professional,
technical or higher education, especially Muslims of this region. Although Indus and
Aryan civilizations were technical minded of that time, but in recent history, before
British arrival, Muslims almost had said good bye to higher and technical education.
They had adopted a trend of getting enrollment in orthodox religious schools, while
Hindus continued their interest towards getting higher or technical education. In
result, after War of Independence 1857, Hindus at one side, had gotten government
jobs, and at second side, had also gotten favor of British government regarding their
innocence. At that time, Muslims were not able to show their soft image in front of
British government just because of educational lack. Sir Syed was the first Muslim
leader who emphasized on getting education, and advised Muslims to get education
regarding competing other nations. The schools of Ghazipur, Muradabad and Aligarh
were established just to promote education among the folds of the Muslims. His
publications, scientific society, and step towards Muhammadan Educational
Conference make the Muslims able to highlight in the society and in the mainstream
politics of British India. That was the plate form of Muhammadan Educational
Conference, which facilitated Muslims regarding playing their role into British Indian
politics under the flag of All India Muslim League, and led the Muslims movement
for attaining Pakistan in 1947 (Iraqi, 2008, PP.29-33)(Riddick, 2006, P.117-181).
During their rule, Britishers announced seven educational policies in different
terms. These terms were term of 1813-1835, term of 1835-1854, term of 1854-1884,
term of 1882-1904, term of 1904-1919, term of 1919-1929 and the term of 1929-1947
(Pandey, 2005, PP.23-73)(Rao, 1997, PP.91-103). After formation of Pakistan, there
was an educational conference, called in 1947, while there were 7 educational policies
which contain several recommendations regarding higher education. These
educational policies are announced in 1959, 1970, 1972, 1979, 1992, 1998, 2001,
2004 and 2008. University Grant commission (established in 1974) has been
converted into Higher Education Commission in 2002 that is still playing a vital role
in quality enhancement of higher education in all over the Pakistan as a central
regulatory authority (Khan, 2010, PP.32-53)(Zajda, 2007, PP.145-156).
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Contemporary Iran has its roots back to the great Persian civilization which
had been separated out on the areas of contemporary Egypt, Syria, Armenia, Pakistan
and India till Kashmir, Afghanistan and Palestine. It was one of the super powers in
the history, but its territory was altered due to the invasions of Greeks, Turks, Arabs,
Mongols, etc. Persian Empire was remained got changing time to time. It was the
journey of centuries which can be observed through studying different rules in Persia.
As literature of any civilization shows its non-formal face, educational system shows
formal face. Literature has no restrictions upon its writers, while education and
educational system is designed by the regulatory authorities. Therefore education and
educational system can be politicized while literature cannot be politicized because of
open publications.
Similarly, Persian civilization had its rich culture since pre-Islamic era. Even it
has been lost mostly but it covers two and a half millennia. Persian literature left its
impacts on those areas where Persian language had adopted like contemporary India,
Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Tajikistan and Central Asian
States (Abrahamian, 2008, P.02)(Ankerl, 2000, P.74)(Jaffery, 1981, P.08). After
conquest of Islam, there were several well-nominated Muslim scholars in Iran who
participated in the promotion of Islamic as well as modern and professional education
in the Persian society. Muhammad Bin Musa Al-Khuwarzmi (780-850, Imam Ali
Raza (765-818), Mansoor Hallaj (858-922), Firdowsi (940-1020), Nizam-ul-Mulk
Tusi (1018-1092), Umar Khayyam (1048-1131), Imam Ghazali (1058-1111), Saadi
Sherazi (1148-1283), Rumi (1207-1273) and Jami (1414-1492) were contributed
regarding delivering education and socialization of the masses.
Modern higher education was started in Iran from 1851 with the establishment
of Dar-ul-Fanoon and the Ministry of Science had been established in 1855 but after
the Islamic Revolution of 1979, a totally new system for higher education was
designed and implemented (Menashri, 1992, PP.113-140). According to critics,
Iranian Cultural Revolution and Islamization in 1980-88 worsely affected research in
the fields of science and technology, but according to 2011 survey, Iran has 40th
number in science productions and first number in scientific growth in all over the
world. In the end of Iran-Iraq war 1980-88, several new universities were established
in all over the Iran which offered several programs from graduation to doctoral, in
several fields, but there was more emphasize on medical and veterinary education.
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Now, the strength of university students was increased six times more than the Shah’s
overthrown time (Nadjmabadi, 2012, PP.174-176).
Policy Making and Its Impacts on Higher Education: A Comparative
Study of Pakistan and Iran in 21st Century
Geographically, Pakistan is located in a region which has directly influenced
by six civilizations. The people live in the territory of Pakistan has learnt different
socio-cultural and political gestures from experiencing impacts different civilizations.
For example, the weapon designing and making culture was inherited from the Greek
Civilization (Arbary, 1962, P.171). Feudalist culture is inherited from the Indus
Valley Civilization. The art of housing, dressing, jewelry and making-up is derived
from the Ganhara Civilization. The sense of superiority in society regarding caste
system is taken from the Aryan Civilization. The trend of constructing religious
places is a legacy of Central Asian Muslim Civilization. The concept of unity of
specific perspective of religion is extracted from Arab Muslim Civilization. And,
Persian Civilization is delivered huge literature and philosophy regarding almost each
aspect of social life. The current Pakistani social environment has been amalgamated
under such attribute of these six civilizations (Jansen, 1997, PP.05-49).
Basically Indo-Pak subcontinent had adopted Persian language as an official
language since Mughal Empire. All the official writings were presented in Persian
language. After British Raj in India, Hindi was adopted as an official language, firstly
in Sindh province in 1843 and secondly, in Punjab province in 1849 just to overcome
the influence of Persian civilization in this region. But, till today, Persian language
and culture has its deep roots within Afghanistan, India and Pakistan. It is understood
and still spoken in this region. Fine arts, music, literature and Urdu poetry like Nazms
shows great impact of it. Even (غزل) and Ghazal (قصیدہ) Qasida ,(هرثیہ) Marsia ,(نظن)
National anthem of Pakistan is also written in Persian language. Amir Khosro and
Umar Khayam of Iran and Allama Iqbal of Pakistan are considered as a bridge
between cultural and literature exchange for both the countries (Pollock, 2003, P.131).
Even, Pakistan and Iran are best neighboring countries and there historical
roots are almost same due to religion, culture, language and politics, but there is a
huge difference in educational system and development. Iran has 82% while Pakistan
has still just 58% literacy rate (Hassan, 2004, P.178). According to a survey, 3.5
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million students had enrolled in higher educational institutions in Iran, while this ratio
was 1.34 million in Pakistan (Hassan, 2004, P.179). Ministry of Science and
Technology and Ministry of health and Madical Scieces are directly supervised the
higher education in Iran, while Higher Education Commission (HEC) is over-looked
all the affairs of university education in Pakistan. The basic difference in higher
education policies is that, in Iran, after Cultural Revolution of 1980, higher
educational policy had been designed and initiated by Ayatullah Khomainai (the
founder of modern Islamic Republic of Iran), and still, this policy is same and
continue. On the other hand, Hihger Education Commission (HEC) was established in
2002 under the presidential ordinance, which replaced University Grant Commission
(UGC). HEC had responsibility to design higher education policy and system on
modern needs in Pakistan (Hassan, 2004, P.186). For this purpose, it has been
announced its two policies of 2004-05 and 2008-09 regarding development in higher
education in Pakistan (Ministry of Education and Training, 2008).
Constitutional Provisions
In the article 2 of Iranian Constitution, clause 2 emphasizes on public awareness and
socialization, clause 3, focuses upon free education for everyone at all the levels and
specially facilitation and promotion of higher education, and clause 4 encouraging
researchers with establishing new research institutes1. While, in the Pakistani
Constitution of 1973, article 22 provides safeguards for all the religious educational
institutions without any discrimination, article 24(e)(1) defines protection of
providing educational and medical aid to all the citizens, article 37(a) tells that state
will looking after economic and educational interests of backward communities in the
backward areas, article 37(b) provides free education till the secondary level, article
37(c) focuses upon the accessing towards higher education on the basis of merit,
article 37(f) emphasizes on educational training of the people regarding utilizing them
as a skilled human resource for the national interests, and article 38(d) illustrates
education in the list of basic necessities of life regarding providing to all the citizens2.
1 This information is availed from the lecture of Professor Jahan Bakhshi on the topic of “Educational
Administration” in Al-Mustafa International University in Qom city of Iran on May 05, 2012. 2 National assembly passed the constitution of 1973 on April 10, 1973. But, president approved it on
April 12, 1973.
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World Ranking of Universities
According to The Times Higher Education Supplement world ranking for
2008, there are only two universities in Iran which got rank among top 400
universities of the world (Acaemic Ranking of World Universities). There universities
are the University of Tehran and the Sharif University of Technology. On the other
hand, according to 2010 ranking of Quality Standard World University, there are just
two universities in Pakistan which got status of top 200 universities. There are also 11
universities of Pakistan in top 1000 universities of the world according to this ranking.
Quaid-e-Azam University, University of Karachi, National University of Science and
Technology and Institute of Space Technology are among them (Ilm ki dunya).
Structure of Higher Education in 21st Century
Here, we have to compare the structure of higher education in Iran and
Pakistan with the help of table.
Level of
Higher
Education
Iran Pakistan
Pre-
University
Course or
Test
This course is called Pesh-
Danishgahe. After getting upper
secondary education “Dabiristan”
, students take their one year for
getting preparation this course
and then, they are eligible for
appearing in an exam “Kankoor”
which passing is necessary for
getting admission in higher
education. This exam is called
Competitive National Entrance
Exam. Students, who pass the
Kankoor exam, get the degree
equivalent to the A-Level
(Hatami, 1996, P31).
After intermediate or A-Level,
there is an entry test for getting
higher education in universities
and medical colleges. National
Testing Service (NTS) organize
this test in after every three
months. But there are some
subjects in some universities,
which have not demanded for
passing National Aptitude Test
(NAT) (National Testing
Service in Pakistan).
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Bachelor
Degree
Bachelor degree or Karshanasai
is consisted of four years period,
in which students have to attend
the class from Saturday to
Thursday. Universities take funds
from the government. Therefore,
students have not paid any
amount for tuition and boarding
in these public universities. But,
Islamic Azad University has
taken all these dues (Hatami,
1996, P.42).
Before establishment of HEC in
2002, there was a trend of two
years graduation degree which
is still continue in degree
colleges. But, in 2003, there was
a start of four years graduation
honor degree in colleges and
universities which is
internationally recognized (IBP
USA Staff, 2008, P.114).
Master
Degree
Master degree or Karshanasai-e-
Arshad is consisted of 2 years
course work. There are three
universities, which are among
top 1000 universities of the
world according to SCImago
international ranking. There
universities are Tehran
University, Tarbiat Mudaris
University and Sharif University
(Hatami, 1996, P.47).
Master degree contains two
years. There are two universities
which are among top 200
international universities and
there are 11 other universities
which are among top 1000
international universities (IBP
USA Staff, 2008, P.117).
M.Phil M.Phil degree is affered here to
parallelize domestic two years
graduation degree according to
international standered.
Students, who have been earned
two years bechalor degree, got a
degree of M.Phil after their
master. On the other hand,
students who have earned four
years graduation degree, get
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admission in M.Phil after
complete their graduation honor
degree. For getting admission in
M.Phil, National Testing
Service (NTS) organizes an
exam, called General Aptitude
Test (GAT). Candidates who
pass it, are eligible for getting
an admission in M.Phil (IBP
USA Staff, 2008, P.119).
PhD Doctorate, Karshanasai-e-Arshad
Napayvastah or Doctra is the
highest research degree which
has 3 years duration. Its
admission can be gotten through
passing an entry test. There were
120,000 PhD degree holders in
2012 (Soofi, 2012, P.211-212).
Doctorate degree is consisted of
minimum 3 years in all the
universities (IBP USA Staff,
2008, P.119).
Higher Education Policy in 21st Century
Although, Iran is following same higher education policy in 21st century which
was announced during Iran’s Cultural Revolution by Imam Khumaini. Same
theocratic ideology and philosophy is reflecting till now. But on the other hand,
Pakistan has announced its educational policies in 1947, 1959, 1970, 1972, 1979,
1992 and 1998 in 20th
century. But, in 21st century, Pakistan has announced three
educational policies in 2001-02, 2004-05 and in 2008-09. The educational policies of
2001-02 and 2004-05 have been designed without considering any higher educational
regulatory authority at federal level like HEC. On the other hand, the policy of 2008-
09 was a first policy which considered the value and role of HEC. The basic
objectives of educational policies of 2001-02 and 2004-05 are same regarding higher
education and given as followed:
There will be universalization in education and literature.
Job opportunities will be created for graduates from mainstream affiliated
Madaris.
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There will be an improvement in education quality, curriculum and
competency based examination system.
There will be innovative approaches for students counseling.
There will be an enhancement of Public-Private partnership in higher
education sector (Ministry of Education, March 2004).
As recent educational policy introduced in 2008-09, so we have to compare
suggestions regarding higher education with higher educational policy of Iran which
has already been described in Iran’s Cultural Revolution 1980-88.
Higher Educational Policy of
Pakistan in 21st Century
(According to the National Educational Policy
2008)
Higher Educational Policy of
Iran in 21st Century
(According to Iran’s Cultural Revolution 1980-
88)
There should be an accomplishment of
dream regarding achieving education
based economy into reality (Minstry of
Finance).
There will acquired self based economy
into reality with adopting Islamic
teachings and principles (Seggie, 2009,
P.21).
Facilitations will be provided in the
universities for crafting new knowledge
through research (Ministry of Finance).
Research facilitations will be delivered to
all over the universities for exploring new
horizons of knowledge with respecting
Islamic and Persian culture (Seggie,
2009, P.22).
Highly qualified staff will hire in the
universities (Ministry of Finance).
Highly qualified staff with purified from
foreign influence, has been and will be
hired in the universities (Seggie, 2009,
P.22).
Local and domestic issues will also
discuss in the newly designed syllabus of
the universities (Ministry of Finance).
Under the light of Quran and Sunnah,
local and domestic issues will be
discussed in all the subjects, taught in the
universities (Seggie, 2009, P.24).
Higher educational institutes will play
their role as “think tanks” for presenting
With respecting Iranian interests,
Universities and research institutes will
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new ideas on current problems and issues
(Ministry of Finance).
play their role as “think tanks” for
presenting new ideas on current problems
and issues (Seggie, 2009, P.26).
As higher education is a source of
innovation, universities and colleges must
participate at local, national and
international level regarding sharing
expertise and experts opinions (Ministry
of Finance).
Universities will be seminars, workshops
and debate based source of exploring
knowledge and it will have preferably
sharing and co-operation of expertise
with the Muslim world (Seggie, 2009,
P.26).
Opportunities regarding sharing new
ideas and research with international
communities and universities will be
provided (Ministry of Finance).
International conferences will be held
regarding sharing new research with
international community with
highlighting Iranian perspective in that
specific field (Seggie, 2009, P.26).
To analysis Pakistani and Iranian higher education policies, we have to use
structuralist and post-structuralist approach along with using educational
psychological tests.
Under the paradigm of structuralist approach, we have to construct Pakistani
and Iranian society on religious bases. The religion is an only source in these
countries regarding designing environment and culture. Both the countries have
banded in mutual historical religious relations. People are the follower of Islam. Even
sects are somewhat different but the basics of religion are same. Pakistan has a
majority of Sunni sect followers while Shia sect also exists here with an
overwhelming majority that cannot be ignore. Similarly, even Shia sect has
dominance in an Iranian society but the followers of Sunni sect are also in a large
number. Religion was the only base of Pakistan’s formation in 1947 and Iranian
revolution in 1979 (BlackBurn, 2008, P.978)(Harris, 1988, P.34)(Piaget, 1968,
P.06)(Foucalt, 1966, P.12). But, to analyze the existence of differences in both the
societies under same religious structure, we have to understand Post-Structuralist
approach.
With considering this approach, we can easily differentiate among the
functioning and gestures of Pakistani and Iranian societies. Although the religious
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structure is the same but the behavior of the masses is going towards major change
under the rule of Umayyad Caliph Haroon Rashid. At the concept of “Ijtehad”, the
Muslim Ummah had been divided into two major sects with open eye. Ones were
followed Imam Jafar Sadiq who belongs from the holy family of Prophet Muhammad
PBUH. Imam Abu Hanifa was his pupil but due to some sort of different
interpretations upon the teaching of Islam according the modern needs, a vast
majority was following him. There were lots of debates among Imam Jafar Sadiq and
Imam Abu Hanifa on religious issues. Sometimes agreement was finalized and
sometimes there was difference in opinion but people had been observed two ways
within religion regarding some specific issue. Now, there was an open choice for
following any way where a person was satisfied. Such debates and different opinions
on same religious issues diversify Muslims regarding adopting two different
behaviors. And these behaviors were declared as two major sects of Islam. The
followers of Imam Jafar Sadiq are called Ahl-e-Tashie while the followers of Imam
Abu Hanifa are called Ahl-e-Sunnat (Esposit, 2000, PP.122-125).
As both the societies of Pakistan and Iran cannot leave this religious structure,
they cannot design their institutions and policies with exempting such structure. So,
higher education policy will also affect with such structural paradigm. But, the
behavior of the policies’ designing depends upon the behavior and gestures of the
masses. Such behavior is also constructed the culture as well as institutional
functioning. And this is the basic theme of post-structuralist approach. According to
post-structuralists perspective, without analyzing the different behaviors of the masses
regarding their institutionalization under the same religious structure, we cannot
compare any policy of Pakistan and Iran. As we know that the basic difference in the
behaviors regarding following and practicing religion was highly started from the age
of Imam Jafar Sadiq ( and Imam Abu Hanifa (اهام جعفر صادق ( The .(اهام ابو حنیفہ
behaviors development with following one of the Imam can be observed openly in all
over the social attitudes even with practicing same religion. Majority of the
population in Iran following Imam Jafar Sadiq school of thought while there are also
the followers of Imam Abu Hanifa in the provinces of Kurdistan (کردستان) and
Seestan-o-Balochistan (سیستان و بلوچستان) with overwhelming majority. Similarly, there
is a vast majority of the followers of Imam Abu Hanifa but the followers of Imam
Jafar Sadiq are also in a big number (Chehabi, 1991, PP.69-72).
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As political, economic, social and legal policies have been designed under the
religious structure in both the countries, similarly the higher education policy also
designed according to the will and behavior of the masses under the religious
structure. Now the question is that when both the policies are developed under the
same religious structure then why Iranian higher education policy is looked pragmatic
while there is lack of Pakistanism in the higher education of Pakistan. The answer of
this question is the concept of rationalization which is given by Allama Iqbal in his
book “The Reconstruction of Religious Thoughts in Islam” (Iqbal, 1934, P.104). This
concept is actually a challenge to dogma. Because, he urges for the following of
religion in a true sense. For this purpose, he quotes the Quranic versus of Surah
Rehman which is explained by Muhmmad Asad that:
“Oo groups of giants and human beings, walk out if you can from the banks of lands
and the skies. And, without power, you cannot walk out” (Asad)
Now at one the side, there is a concept of rationalization with post-
structuralists perspective, while at the other end, there are the educational
psychological tests of Benjamin Bloom and Derek C.Vidler which judge the trends of
society. Benjamin Bloom presented its taxonomy in 1956 which is actually a
classification of learning objectives within education. The taxonomy of Bloom
divides into three domains. These are cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Every
domain has its certain level of skills and these domains create more holistic form of
education (Krathwohi). Similalry, Derek C.Vidler correlates the concept of higher
education development with the curiosity. He defines the relationship of curiosity
with achievement, creativity and anxiety. Then, he tests the success of any
educational system with finding the answers of question that how environment affect
the ability. He also presents comparison among cultural groups regarding success of
an educational policy (Vidler, 1997, P.129).
Now, with the help of Iqbal’s theory of reconstruction and educational
psychological tests through Bloom’s taxonomy and Derek C.Vidler’s concept of
curiosity, when we compare Iranian and Pakistani higher education policy in 21st
century, we find some results in both the societies with personal observation as well.
As religion have dominant role in the policy making process regarding higher
education in both the countries, the success of the higher education policy can be
measured through the practically implementation of Iqbal’s philosophy regarding
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reconstruction of religious thoughts. To analysis Iranian and Pakistani higher
education policies, we appreciate Iranian higher education policy that is designed
according to the behaviors and the needs of the masses. While Pakistani higher
education policy is still trying to follow higher education system of the western world
besides the designing of its own. That’s why, the National Educational Policies are
still based on “Will” and “Should”.
As Bloom’s Taxonomy presents level of learning and these are acquiring and
recalling, comprehending, applying, analyzing and synthesizing. The common
practicing of Pakistani higher education policy is just basing on the acquiring and
recalling skill, and comprehending skill even in 21st century. There is a huge lack of
applying skill, analyzing skill and synthesizing skill. On the other hand, Iranian higher
education policy fulfills all the five skills regarding character building of the students.
And, we can conclude that the concept of social welfare is only availed through the
skills of applying, analyzing and synthesizing. Iranian students, even there are male or
female, have totally free education from the government that facilitate them to utilize
their skills for the better of their country with full potential. There higher education
policy does not differentiate among male and female and this is an awesome example
of gender equality in socio-economic setup as well as in higher education sector. If
there is 85% employment ratio and more than 70% educated women are associated
with the profession of teaching, then we can easily estimated that the Persian society
is going towards gaining status of applying, analyzing and synthesizing higher
education for the social welfare of the masses. Educated women are doing jobs in
public and private sectors without any discrimination. Even there is no any social
hurdle regarding establishing their own way of earning. Several educated women are
taxi driver and facilitate international tourists and “Zaireen” with usually English
conversation (Fathi, 1985, P.166).
Similarly, during analyzing the concept of curiosity, given by Derek C.Viler,
we can observe that the social level of curiosity regarding gaining higher education in
Pakistan is usually blanked. Higher education policy does not facilitate regarding
promoting relationship between curiosity and achievement, curiosity and creativity,
and curiosity and anxiety. So, the Pakistani higher education policy is not able to
socialize Pakistani society regarding gaining ideal social status for their masses. As
higher education policy of Pakistan does not generate the sense of curiosity due to
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having an irrational attribute of copying foreign educational systems, Derek’s
question regarding how environment affect ability, is attained negative marking
(Liaqat, 2012, PP.118-131). Because, according to Simon BlackBurn, environment is
created with the mutual combination of culture and behavior (BlackBurn, 2008, P.03).
But, due to irrationality among assessment of culture and behavior, the correct
construction of environment is not possible. And, in this stage, abilities of the masses
cannot be affected and this is the actual fact for higher education sector of Pakistan
regarding un-availing successful status (Liaqat, 2012, PP.130-131).
For analyzing economic impacts of higher education, we use the concept of
curiosity by the Derek C.Vedler, We find that Iran has self based economy but its
higher education is playing a vital role in its economic development. Iran is
generating skill talented human resource each year from its universities due to
curiostic behavior regarding achievement and creativity which at one side, has a
modern knowledge and at another side, has realization about religious as well as
Persian norms and values. So, when they have inserted such students into the
economic infrastructure of the country, they pay their full intention with patriotism for
their country. And, this is a big drawback of Pakistani higher education system where
our domestic and religious norms are usually neglected during delivering higher
education in universities. This is usually in private sector in Pakistan. But, in iran,
even Islamic Azad is a private university where anyone can get admission with paying
fee, have strict checks over its syllabus. In 2011, Supreme leader (Rehbar-e-
Muazzam) of Iran, Khamnai warned administration of Islamic Azad University
regarding westernization of its syllabus in different subjects. He ordered for change it
within limited time otherwise its affiliation will be canceled. This type of restriction
cannot find in the higher education structure of Pakistan. There is just a case of Al-
Khair University in Azad Jammu and Kashmir which initiated several illegal
affiliations of colleges in all over the Pakistan regarding delivering higher education.
The situation became worse when these campuses and colleges were not recognized
by HEC and when students were gone for getting job, they were refused. On huge
protest, HEC cancelled recognition of Al-Khair University, but now after a strict
agreement, it has been re-recognize by HEC (Muller, 2011, PP.18-21)(Higher
Education Commission, 2005)(Aminpoor).
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During analyzing religious impacts of higher education in both countries, we
observe that, in comparing with Pakistan, Iranian higher education leaves lot of
religious impacts on students. Here, they have learnt a lot about their religious values
during completion of degrees. Iranian youth is more theocratic as their parents who
fought for Islamic Republic. On the other hand, Pakistani higher education has no
such rigidity in its course work regarding promotion of Islamic values. Even there are
some specific subjects in degrees in which we compare some topics with Islamic
norms but they are general. Its impacts cannot be affected society. After graduation,
Islamiat is not compulsory. Even the syllabus of graduation is not contained such
topics which would be a cause of proper religious socialization of students. While,
Iranian higher education is purely Islamized and there is a strict orders by the
government and the supreme leader that either there is public or private university but
there will not be any compromise on westernization and communism against the
teachings of Islam. So, according to the educational psychological test of Derek
C.Vidler, such environment fully affects abilities of the masses. People act in their
daily routine life whatever they learn or get. Their educational system forces them to
behave in a way which is according to the religion along with the national as well as
their cultural interest (Surhone, 2010, P.32)(Liaqat, 2012, P.130)(Vidler, 1997, P.12).
Similarly, during legally and politically analyzing higher education policies of
Pakistan and Iran, we find that there must be a check of central government over
higher education system and higher education policy as in Iran where all the
universities have checked by Ministry of Science and Technology. On the other hand,
there are two types of universities in Pakistan. Some are regulated by the HEC and
some are by the higher education department of the provinces. For example, if Islamia
University Bahawalpur or Sargodha University is regulated by the HEC then the
Lahore Leads University or University of Central Punjab is regulated by the Higher
Education Department of Punjab. So, there is difference in higher education policy as
well as difference in infrastructure over regulations and checks. Iran has no such
differences where all the universities and research institutes have same policy,
announced by the central government. And, their policy is still same as announced
during Iranian Cultural Revolution 1980-88 (Groot, 2007, P.113).
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Higher Education and Its Impacts on Social Capital in Pakistan and
Iran
As Francis Fukuyama (1999) presents his view about social capital as collective
economic and democratic benefits of any society (Fukuyama, 1999, P.03). While
Lynda Judson Hanifan (1960) describes it as a good will, generating after starting
discussions at rural school community centers (Field, 2003, P.02). Similarly, Jane
Jacobs (1961) defines it in a relationship nature among urbanized people with their
neighbors (Field, 2003, P.02), and James S.Coleman (1988) finds it in the social
discussions which moved the ideas towards the level of academic debates (Field,
2003, P.02).
It is universal principle in each and every society that it interacts socially,
economically, religiously, legally, politically, institutionally and culturally, social
capital builds only when interaction among societal fellows get trust and trustworthy
among each other. According to James S.Coleman, education is a foremost source of
building strong social capital because every social issue and discussion becomes a
part of academic debate through education. This procedure promotes the symbols pf
social solidarity and solutions of mutual problems through education that further
enhances the productivity of social capital (Field, 2003, P.05).
On the other hand, Michael Woolcock, with the co-ordination of World Bank
(2001) presents his report that what are the three levels of social capital in any society.
These levels are bonding, bridging and linking.
1) Bonding social capital means the relationship among close people, like close
friends, family and neighbors. Such relations have strong ties (Putnam, 2002,
P.59).
2) Bridging social capital means to develop the relationship among like-minded
people. There can be loose friends or workmates where your relationship
nature is consisted off according to needs or duties (Putnam, 2002, P.60).
3) Linking social capital means to develop relationship outside the community.
There are those people who are unlike, out of family or community, or belong
from other professions or interests (Putnam, 2002, PP.60-61).
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During analyzing Pakistani and Iranian Society, when we observe these three
levels of social capital, we get the results that:
1) Iranian people have strong binding in their relationship at national level. There
is only 6% population of Kurdistan and Seestan-o-Balochistan. But, due to
some strict religious laws about creating harmony among followers of Sunni
and Shia sect of Islam, such differences are going to be eliminated time to
time (Crane, 2008, P.110).
2) Pakistani society is widely divied into linguistic communities. According to
UNESCO Report (2006), People have no strong sense of unity as a Pakistani
nation in Pakistan, but they trust usually on their linguistic community
fellows. There are just 5% educated communities who do not feel any kind of
hesitation in developing relationship with other linguistic communities in
Pakistan (Principles and General Objectives of Education).
Now the question is, why social capital is declining in Pakistan but strong in
Iran. There are two studies on measuring social capital in Pakistan and Iran. In
Pakistani study (2010), the sample was those highly educated people who live in
Dubai for their own business or jobs and far, from their homes. And, their 90%
income is also returned back to their home. And, the 2nd
study was based on the
sample of Sardasht 1 young adult students (2011) who were students as well as had
participated in social networks (Touski). There are 5 testing terms which were asked.
Social trust means what is the trust level of a person towards its nation fellows.
“Strengthen the Sense of Responsibility as a Nation” means what is their feeling
regarding contributing their services for the nation. “Social Cohesion and Solidarity
Promotion means to find out the level of mutual understand among citizens as a
nation. “Participation in Decision Making” means how they feel that they can
participate in decision making process. And, “Common Tendency towards getting
education” means general orientations regarding getting education in the nation.
1 Sardasht is a city of Kurdistan Province of Iran which is Consisted of Sunni Population.
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We have some results regarding measuring social capital in both the societies. These
results are as follows:
Indicators Pakistan Iran
Social Trust 22% 75%
Strengthen the Sense of
Responsibility as a Nation
16% 80%
Social Cohesion and
Solidarity Promotion
12% 87%
Participation in Decision
Making
7% 61%
Common Tendency
towards getting Education
19% 83%
As these survey reports showing 19% and 83% tendency towards getting
education in Pakistan and Iran respectively, Tehmina N.Basit (2012) and Sally
Omlinson (2012) define that there is only an higher education on equal basis that
increase social trust among the citizens of any country. There is only an higher
education which can become a cause of converting ethnicity into nationalism that
further enhance social cohesion and solidarity. Through higher education, citizens
polish their selves as a skilled human resource as well as become able to participate in
decision making process (Basit, 2012, PP.36-37).
Now we have to analyze these points according to the nature of Pakistani and
Iranian society. Robert Putnam defines three major reasons of declining social capital
in any society. These are political and civic engagement, informed social ties, and,
tolerance and trust (Putnam, 2002, PP.15-20).
1) Political and Civic Engagement
With reference to Pakistani society, we observe that voting turnout,
political awareness and grass root political activities are all down and having
some sort of anomic nature. There was 44% turnout in elections 2008 (The
Express Tribune). On the other hand, during personally visit by-elections 2012
of Isfahan and Mashad, we observed that Iranian people have lot of trust on
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their political system and they participate actively. Turnout ratio in by-
elections 2012 was 64% in Iran (The Christian Science Monitor).
2) Informed Social Ties
In 1975, Pakistani people entertained their friends at home 15 times
almost every year, but in 21st century, this ratio reduced very much, and now
people entertain their friends 5 times usually every year at home
(Development 2.0). On the other hand, Iranian culture is covering with mutual
discussion and parties usually at home or public places. During our research
visit to Iran, it is generally analyzed such situations at homes, public offices or
places of recreation. And, according to Shia sect believes, informal social ties
for preaching religion was also an attribute of Aimma-Karaam and several
Mujtahideens (prominent religious scholars) (Crane, 2008, P.111).
3) Tolerance and Trust
Although, we observe tolerance and trust among Iranian people very
much, but according to Robert Putnam, tolerance and trust are just an
indicators of economic prosperity of any society. Dishonesty and distrust are
only the indicators of economic backwardness of any society (Putnam, 2003,
P.22). So, we observe tolerance and trust among Iranian people because there
is 85% employment rate and 99% literacy rate (Crane, 2008, P.111). And,
Pakistani people have lack of trust and tolerance in their relations due because
of economic backwardness and unemployment ratio and 51% literacy rate that
is very low (Development 2.0).
Iranian political system has been re-designed after Islamic revolution of 1979
where all the previous structures had been winded-up. Since then, there are just 30
years which are consisted of an actual story of development in Iran. On the other
hand, Pakistan has more than 60 years of its birth but there is still lack of strong
higher education policy. Recent policy of 2008-09 is just consisted off the words
“must” and “will” also. But, Iranian higher education policy is same as announced
during the Cultural Revolution of Iran 1980-88. Iran is molding itself with modern
needs of times but beautifully attached with its socio-religious structure with
respecting behavior and the psychology of the masses. This attachment is facilitating
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it regarding attaining the status of achievement and creativity with reconstructing
ideals. And, higher education policy is pre-requisite for it.
If there will be a domestic or international threat regarding generating ethnic conflict
within the folds of country, then scholars always argue to control the education on
parallel bases by the government. Because, there is only a tool of education which can
generate patriotism and solidarity in the nation. Iran, after Islamic Revolution, is
following same policy where higher educational structure is same for all over the
country without any local or gender discrimination. But, on the other hand, in
Pakistan, firstly there are social barriers regarding gender discrimination, and
secondly there are still differences among the syllabus of provincial or federal
universities. Due to HEC recognized universities and provinces recognized
universities, even there is so much similar but the policy of the university is created
influences upon the myth of higher education. The value of degree is usually
considered with the location and the name of university, not by the talent. And, this is
the wrong psychological trend in Pakistan. So, there is must be a state-controlled
parallel higher education policy as in Iran with equal funding at every place. This is
the only way, when Pakistan can be able to compete with the international standards
of higher education policy.
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