ifda dossier 80 Position

The Gulf Crisis: An Unprecedented Opportunity for Palestinian Self-Determination 1

Local space A New Human Rights Consciousness (V Ramaswamy) I Women FirstFamily First (Margaret and Bill Ellis) 17 El terrilorio y la vida indigena como estrategia de defensa de la Amazonfa (COICA) 23 Indigenous Peoples and Environmentalists' First Summit: Iquitos Declaration 27 1.e developpement - modernisation: Miroir et 6cran (Mamadou Balla Traore) 20

inerecho ambiental o derecho a un ambiente vivible? (Jose Maria Borrero Navia)

Espace regional Surmonter la crise du Pan-africanisrne et dc I'unitt? dc 'Afrique noire (Bernard Founou Tchuigoua) Social Responsibility of Business in Africa (Daniel Smart Asante-Odame)

Global space Another L.ook at History (in Transition) (Andre Gunder Frank) 77

Television's Vital Role in Building a Sustainable Future (Duane Elgin) 85

Book reviews & News from the third system

This issue has been primed in 25,500 copies ISSN 02.54-3036

Book reviews

Doublespeak about Human Development? (Ignacy Sachs) Brian Urquhart & Erskine Childers, A World in Need of Leadership: Totnorro W'S United Nations

News from the third system A Charter for 1992'? The Asian Council for People's Culture Peru: ASPADERUC - Proyecto Enciclopedia Campesina Traditions pour dernain Liban/Palestine: L'Association Najdeh Isracl/Palestine: Alternative Information Centre Afrique: Inades-Formation India: Institute of Small Enterprises and Development Sri I-anka: The National Ngo Council Jamaica: The Association of Development Agencies The Other India Bookstore The African Academy of Sciences Relations intcrculturelles: des fleurs pour Orchidecs Ireland: Centre for Research and Documentation Canada: C11

Materials received for publication cover page 3

[Source: Share International Vol 9.

The Gulf Crisis: An Unprecedented Oppor- tunity for Palestinian Self-Determination

We r(1prodoce below the Sta tement o n t h e Gulf Crisis adopted in Cairo on 31 October 1990 by a group of scholars and citizens, including several contributors to the Dossier and the President of IFDA.

As scholars present here in Cairo at a meeting of the Global Civilization Project*, we feel i t appropriate to express our deepest concerns about the severe danger of major warfare arising out of the Gulf crisis, having had the benefit of illun~inating discussions with our Egyptian colleagues. Such a war would have ciitcistrophic effects for the peoples in the region and for the entire world.

' h e immediate crisis has been provoked by Iraq's aggression, conquest, and occupation of Kuwait on 2 August 1990. Hut this crisis is also the outcome of past policies, such as over-supplying the region with vast amounts of military equipment and, above all, applying double standards to regional problen~s. These double standards have been applied especially in relation to reacting to aggression, respecting the decisions of the United Nations, and upholding the rules and standards of international law. We believe that peace, justice and development in the Middle East, as elsewhere, depends on treating equals equally and not taking the U N Charter seriously only when i t suits wider geopolitical interests or when the threatening bchiivior involves oil, the lifeblood of the industrial order.

In this spirit, we believe that the Gulf crisis can be resolved peacefully and beneficially for the future of the region, if several steps are taken with the following framework:

1. The withdrawal of Iraqi forces from Kuwait, and beyond this, of all foreign forces deployed outside of their own territory, with particular attention to Saudi Arabia, the West Bank and Gaza, and Itbanon. The specific mechanisms of withdrawal, including timing, can be adjusted to circun~stanccs, but the principle of mutual and unconditional withdrawal must be acknowledged and upheld. Withdrawal of foreign forces should not be interpreted as precluding the establishment o f peacekeeping and stabilizing roles for regional forces or specific UN undertakings. It is imperative that all foreign civilians held against their will shall be immediately released;

* C f IFDA Dossier 74, pp63-70 and 77, pp89-92

1

2. The reliance, to the greatest extent possible, on the administrative capacities and authority of regional facilities to achieve withdrawal, especially with regard to the Gulf region. Such a regional approach should be accorded ample room tu evolve Flexible arrangements, but should also proceed in consultation with the orpins of the United Nations, and in particular the office of the Secretary Genertil;

3. The over-all importance for the whole region of promoting human rights iind dcniocraq in a manner consistent with respecting political independence and self- cicterniination, and to the extent appropriate, providing whatever facilities and supervision tire needed to ensure that free elections ;ire held in those countries that have suffered foreign occupation;

4. The solution of the Gulf crisis creates an unprecedented opportunity and establishes the political necessity for realizing self-determination on behalf of the Palestinian people, by which we understand to imply the creation of a Palestinian stiite by negotiations between the PLO and the suite of Israel;

5. The urgency of findinghhumane means for the permanent settlement and repatriation of all those persons who have been displaced by turbulence and violent conflict within the region during the past deciides;

6. The process herein proposed would be greatly assisted by convening a Middle 3 s t Peace and Security Conference consistingoof members o f the UN Security Council, the Arab states. the state of Israel, and the Palestine Liberation 0rg;inix:ition to play roles as appropriate consistent with the principles outlined above. In p;irticultir, the conference should explore various possible forms for u zone of peace in the region.

I'his statement is made in our capacity as individuals, but also reflects the spirit of our dialogue dedicated to finding long terms solutions for the problems of poverty, war, oppression and environmental decay. It is our firmest conviction that those who seek a better future must also express their vision in relation to specific current challenges to peace and justice. We will continue to work in our various societies for the realization of these principles and on behalf of the longer term goals to which we subscribe.

A New Human Rights Consciousness

by V Ramaswamy Unnayan, 3611A Garcha Road Calcutta 700 019, India

Abstract: liventlioyyli tlie term 'human @its' e~nbr[zces political, social (m(/ economic rights, it lui.'i bcen limited in practice to the Western notion o f politicill atrd individual rights. Political rig11t.s are tliiif separated/rom sociiil and economic righ~s'; /lie social order ~'liicli is nt tin' root of violations is not confronted. The empluisis w e n to individual rights leaves out t11e collective aspect of society. Above nil, it neglects cultural rights. A new conception o f ri~lits, o f law, is needed - one tlint /.S

1ioli.stic. A ncw d t i c is nnc~git1,y titiit is fundamentally based on the primacy of tin; rent as opposc(i to tile abstract; an clitic tlint sees humans in liarmonic interaction nit11 fellow 11timnn.s and n(l/i~rc I/ie role of traditional societies and indigenous peoples is important in arising t11i.s new consciousness.

Une nouvelle conscience des droits de l'homme

Una nueva conciencia de los derechos humanos

Rc.sumen: l-,'l con~.ep/o de 10,s "cli.,ri.~clio.s Iniinimos" eng/oh(i te(jriciimt.'ntt, a lo.'i cIcrcc11o.s politicos, sociulcs J vcoiwtnico~. I'.n c1 lndo prktico, este conccpto, M' lo I I O limitndo a I n nocibn accidental (11, 10s dereclws poljticos inilivicliialc'i. Los dvrccho.~ po1jtico.s lion sido, de cstu tnaiwra, .scj~arado'i (Ie 10,s derec1io.s soci(~lt,~s y-

(I'asa a la pAgina 16)

A New Human Rights Consciousness

In India, particularly following the 1975-77 emergency, there has been an upsurge of what is referred to here as "civil liberties" and "democratic rights" activism. There are a number of well-respected organisations involved in such work. But if one looks at the kinds of issues taken up by them, the kinds of ideas the leading activists advocate, one finds that their understanding of the term "rights" - human rights - embraces political, social and economic rights, where these are not seen sepiirutely from each other; that, basically, they arc calling for major socio- economic change.

Thus, for instance, such groups have done studies, published reports, and sometimes taken up public interest legal action, on issues relating to the exploitation of construction workers on the Asiad project in New Delhi, o r the Metro (subway) project in Calcutta, on eviction of urban squatters, on rural land ownership and alienation, on the socio-economic l'actors perpetuating poverty and violence against the disprivileged in rural India.

So, perhaps a holistic view of the concept of human rights is something one receives and internalises in this kind of milieu. And clearly, such a conception cannot be something isolated or merely specific to India; this is definitely part of a global current. O n e has heard that Amnesty is going through an intensive process of examination, towards redel'ini- lion of its role and work. At another level, recently an intern a t Asia Watch wrote me saying they were interested in looking at human rights issues relating to textile workers in Asia. The textile industry in Asia is a central part of the sweat shop-based, export-oriented industrialisation strategy being pursued and promoted in the Third World - the new international division of labour - which among other things sends garments to the poshest departmental stores in the West, though back home, labour, including women and very young children, are subject to

*V Riitnaswamy is a teacher and rig/us activist who works with Unnayan, a non- profit advocacy group.

inhuman working conditions. So, the intern wrote me that while Asia Watch's mandate does not permit them to take up socio-economic issues, they wished to focus on the protection of civil and political rights of these workers. This too, to my mind, is indicative both of the growing redefinition, as well as its limitations, of the conventional, Western understanding of human rights.

As a young student in London in the early eighties, struggling to develop a clear perspective in the face of the bombardment by notions of liberty and freedom, I had chanced upon a slim book Persecution: East and West. The author, Cosmas Desmond, had as a Franciscan priest working in South Africa, written the well-known The Discarded People, documenting the forced evictions of blacks and their dumping in arid, barren wastelands. After leaving the order, he had taken up a senior position with Amnesty, and then left following serious differences on matters of policy. Desmond had lucidly written about the roots of the idea of "human rights" in Western notions of indi~idual freedom and liberty, and how, in the face of the kind of ugly oppression practiced in South Africa - which also involves as a consequence the denial of civil and political rights to the majority of the people, but where this is part of a consciously devised, comprehensive social and economic order - merely focussing on civil o r political rights of individuals was somewhat academic. A forceful point Desmond had made, which still stands out in my memory, was that even when groups such as Amnesty campaigned for the release of specific political prisoners - like Nelson Mandela - for the prisoners themselves, their personal release and freedom is clearly secondary to the struggle against the larger oppression represented by the social order. By their very imprisonment they become symbols of the defiance and struggle against that tyranny.

This is not by any means to suggest that Amnesty's work is unimpor- tant. Their campaigns for the release of political prisoners, and against torture, must definitely be seen among the forces that have made such actions increasingly difficult to sustain. In a similar vein, the heroic publication of the report on the torture and murder of political prisoners in Brazil during the years of military dictatorship, Brasil: N~inca Mais, has perhaps helped to ensure that a national memory and resolve have been created whereby such inhumanity cannot easily be repeated.

Groups like Amnesty have consciously defined for themselves - a culturally specific consensus - a particular sphere of work and con- centrated on it. O n e criticism would be to say that even where violations of political and civil rights occur, these arc part of a social order that is conducive to, necessitates even, such violations. So, surely, one must at some point start addressing causal factors, o r o n e will be reduced to constantly fighting against something that continues to exist and even thrive. And within this larger strategy - of social change - groups like Amnesty can play their role; a division of labour and specialisation within a larger collective endeavour. This strcitfgic approach is lacking.

A more fundamental criticism is that the political rights being defended arc purely individual-oriented, and follow from a world view that sees social existence as being truncated into separate - political, economic - spheres. Completely missing therefore are aspects that have n o meaning unless social existence is seen as one composite whole: community, collective and cultural rinhts. I shall return to this point a little later.

Some years ago, a friend and I had gone to find out about the demolition of a large informal settlement housing the construction workers of one stretch of Calcutta's Metro project. That eventually lead to our doing a detailed study on the working conditions of the unskilled and semi-skilled workers on the entire project, along its 16 kms stretch. We found that all the relevant labour laws of the country were being blatantly and systematically violated, in what was after all a prestigious, government project, being undertaken in the heart of a major city. The authorities were aware of this, but were quite blase about it: such things happen, nothing to be done really. Some people initiated a public interest action based on the study and the court appointed a two-person team to look into the matter. After over a year the team submitted its report. They said that owing to the non-cooperation of the construction companies, they had been severely delayed in their work, and their findings were very limited. Even if they spoke to the workers themsel- ves, given their highly insecure working conditions, they would not win1 to displease their employers.

They concluded by expressing despair over their task in such a situation and saying that wha t was of greater importance was an examination ol

t h e structural roots of such exploitation, which, however, cannot be eliminated "either by public interest litigation, o r by righteous eloquence a n d reasoned expostulation...".

F o r s o m e years now I have also been involved in advocacy work o n housing issues, particularly in relation t o those w h o a r c compelled - by their poverty - t o live unauthorisedly o n pavements, a long sewage canals, a long railtracks and highways, under bridges and flyovers, and o n vacant public a n d private plots in a n d a round Calcutta. Such people live in set t lements - s o m e of which have been in existence for over forty years -

that a r c totally unserviced, unrecognised, lacking drinking water , drainage, sani tat ion, lighting. Very often people here, lacking a formal address, cannot receive mail, and cannot vote. They simply d o no t exist as far a s t h e public authori t ies a r c concerned, except insofar as they a r e periodically evicted - illegally, violating even the minimum d u e process that t h e laws specify - o n o n e pretext o r another . Such evictions, provided they follow d u e process, a r e l p l . T h e r e is n o legal obligation to resettle o r rehabilitate them. Such bulldozing, destruction of t h e livelihoods, aspirations, lives, of close t o a million people in Calcutta, is perfectly local. These people, consigned and condemned by society t o poverty, have n o recourse but t o live illegally; after all, being human o n e must have a place t o live. But they lack t h e "right" whereby they can have a legal place to live.

T h e examples o f t h e M e t r o project o r t h e "unrecognised" people of Calcutta may in fact b e generalised for the whole country. A n d this prompts s o m e questions. To what avail "law", when even where clear laws exist, they a r e systematically violated, where such violation itself has become institutionalised? What is "law", when qu i te legally, millions of people can b e m a d e non-people? What is this "law" a n d t h e legal process, based o n individual rights and redress, when it is millions upon millions of people - vast sections of society - w h o a r e t h e victims? T h e achievement of their b;isic human needs - food, clothing, shelter, decent wages and working conditions - is clearly t an tamount t o a fundament;!l restructuring of the society.

It is extremely quixotic, t o say t h e least, t o hold o n t o t h e individual- centercd not ion of rights and law in this kind of situation. What o n e is trying to a r g u e for is a new conception of rights, of law, that does not

dismiss o r negate the conventional individual-centered conception, but is wider, holistic. A conception that is not based on the fragmentation of rights - of life itself - into the political, the social, the economic, the cultural, etc, but which sees rights as being one composite whole; the right to live, and all that this means. And this is why, despite the conventional - fragmented - connotation of the term "human rights", one yet holds on to the term - for one is talking about rights that proceed from the very fact of one's being human. A right to be able to live: to have food, clothing, a place to live in peace, security and dignity, to build relations, to contribute towards building society, to interact with nature and one's fellow humans. T o be human is to be fully able to express one's humanity.

Three years ago, the world celebrated the fortieth anniversary of the proclamation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Why is this such a landmark event'? How seriously has this Declaration and its significance been comprehended? Unfortunately, this historic document has come to be seen purely in terms of individual freedoms and liberty. A historical understanding is lacking. Consequently, the very concept of h u m a n rights" has become severely diminished.

Rights don't suddenly appear out of the blue. They must be seen within the broader context of the evolution, through history, of society and economy. The notion of individual freedom and liberty provides the philosophical, ideological underpinning for capitalist development. As political scientist Ellen Wood has argued, this ideology clearly separates the "political" from the "economic", making possible the maximum development of purely juridical and political freedom and equality, without touching upon economic issues. The Western liberal tradition rests o n this separation. "Politics", "laws" and "rights" are therefore abstracted from their social-economic foundation, as if they are absolutes, existing by themselves.

The emptiness of such "political" rights in the kinds of contexts described earlier - construction workers, squatters - has already been emphasised. Let us look a t yet another dimension. Consider the case of large dam projects in India. It is estimated that since 1947, in all the major dam projects undertaken by the Indian government - Nehru's "temples" of modern India - over one million indigenous people have

been displaced from their homelands. (The Narmada Valley Dams Project, that is presently underway, and against which a strong people's movement has grown, is itself likely to eventually displace some two million people.) Despite resettlement plans, such displacement has invariably been the first step in the oustees' pauperisation, and utter social and economic marginalisation. They are the ones who have to pay the price of "progress", they are the throw-away people whose lives are unimportant as far as "development" decisions are concerned. They have been reduced to begging and prostitution - previously unknown in the tribal communities. With their displacement from their homelands to which they have organic tics - their sacred mother soil - the very existence o f a community, of a culture ceases. Culture is, quite simply, wiped out. This is nothing short of genocide. Do these people have a right to their culture? What kind of a "right" is this? Is it individually defined and enjoyedc? We are talking of community, collective rights, rights of a people. "Culture" is what makes humans human. It is what people together create and enrich generation after generation. Where is the individual in all o f this?

A social and economic order that gives rise to a political ideology of individual freedom and liberty by separating the political from all else, then gives rise to a relentless process where the ideology becomes larger than life, shapes life itself. It goes on to create humans in its image. As communications professor Jerome Lettvin powerfully expressed a t the Paris Unesco symposium on "Culture and Science" in 1971, the image of man propagated and then actualised is that of a determined mosaic of stimulus-response mechanisms, a programmable machine, a disas- semblablc clockwork. Just as social existence is fragmented into the political and the economic, with different standards obtaining in these two spheres, human life is then fragmented into so many separate parts.

But this necessarily means that notions such as group, feelings, relationships, sense, nature, culture - all that is undefinable, unquantil'i- able, sensual, but yet innately human - are wiped out. It is this real prospect of a brave new world, of the homogenised, consumptionist, human-machine, manipulated by corporate power centers, living in a ravaged and polluted environment, this dystopia that confronts us today, towards which we arc relentlessly heading. But it is also in us, as humans, to be fully human, to want to express our humanity in all its

myriad aspects, and thus to create an alternative future. Creating this future is t o become fully human.

The reference to indigenous people is not intended to ron~anticise "traditions". That would be falling into the same ahistorical t rap o f the liberal ideology. Indigenous people, traditional communities, must be viewed completely, in terms of their way of life, their customs, their society, their dos and donts, their economy. I t is within this whole th:il individual attributes attain meaning. It does not make sense to pick up specific attributes, abstracted from the larger whole, a s if it existed by itself, and then label this as "good" o r "bad". Thus, much as we arc today becoming increasingly aware of the wealth - to the human heritage - of traditional societies - medicine, agriculture, social institu- tions, c e o l o e ~ - so is one aware of several negatives which are seen as things that must definitely be overcome - disease, oppression of women. other forms of inequality, damage to the environment.

All societies have evolved through history, and fashioned their soci:iI practice and culture. But today, given the simultaneous evolution ol human consciousness, it is definitely within human ability to consciously create a better future for ourselves.

It is in this context that one finds it necessary to understand the ecological process. Human beings have traditionally viewed themselves as being subject to the forces of nature. But today, following the industrial revolution, it is nature that is seen as being completely a1 man's mercy, it is nature that is in fact raped by man. And just as the perception of lack of control over nature created certain kinds o f human societies, nature today strikes back a t us, for we too have to live within the natural environment that we a re so profoundly destroying. The ''ecological perspective" involves seeing ourselves neither as being merely subject of nature, nor as being masters of nature. Neither nature, nor humans arc static objects. We necessarily affect the natural environmenl in the course of ou r social existence, and the environment affects us. T h e ecological perspective sees humans and nature in dynamic interaction with another. to the enrichment of both.

It is in this ecological sense, that humans live in society, but also creale society. I t is within ou r means, because o f our consciousness, to stru#le

to create a world that draws upon all the wealth of the human heritage, that learns from the evils of the past. This is no easy task. Nor is i t likely that such a task can be carried out successfully in an isolated manner in some remote corner of the globe. In an essay on law in the context o f an alternative development paradigm, in Papua New Guinea, the legal academic Yash Ghai describes how, prior to colonisation, Papua New Guinea was a constellation of numerous self-reliant and independent communities. Each had its own mode of social organisation and control in which power was widely dispersed, and there was a large element of popular participation in dispute resolution and decision- nia king. These features of social organisation were expressed in the customary law of the communities. The establishment of the colonial state meant an attack on the self-sufficiency of these communities and a disruption of their institutions. Law was clearly a coercive force which was used to establish colonial rule, deprive the people of Papua New Guinea of their basic rights and establish a regime of privilege for, and exploited by, the white immigrant community. Following independence in 1975, the country attempted to restructure its legal system, in the direction of a more indigenous jurisprudence in which customary beliefs and practices would have a greater role. But this attempt has only revealed the monumental dimension of such a task, where a small country, operating within a capitalist world, cannot, despite political will, give effect to the kind of society that is implied by this kind of legitl system, merely by changing the law.

~ h , '41 . . insightfully : points out that certain aspects of both substantive and procedural (Western) law represent the achievement of human society in reducing the arbitrary exercise of power and the securing of such human rights as we have. But the attempt to suffuse the existing legal system with new values must ultimately confront the reality that both the nature and organisation of the economy help to underpin the legal system, for the dominant economic groups find the old system congenial to their interests. The international linkages of a country serve to reinforce its old legal system, and the institutions o f higher education continue their role in the reproduction of the legal system. Ghai candidly concludes that "a concerted attack on the laws and the legal system is necessary to break their conservative hold and that means changing not merely the law but also the economy and the political system".

In 1989. much was made of the bicentennial of the French Revolution. Individual rights and liberty are the French Revolution's contribution to humanity. This is a notion that cannot be wiped out from human consciousness. But a human is not merely an individual. It is therefore equally the task, the challenge, o f humanity to go even further. And one may use the occasion of this bicentennial to assert that what one is witnessing today is the foregoing of a new consciousness, a new ethic; what we are living through today is as epoch-making as the French Revolution. A new ethic is s t ru~g l ina t o come alive. An ethic that sees humans in harmonic interaction with fellow humans and with nature; an ethic that fertilises human flowering in all its richness. But this new ethic can only flow from a new society and economy. And it is this new society that is also struggling to be born. Struggling against that dominant brave new world scenario.

Here one might g) back to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This too is rooted in individual rights, and the truncation of social existence into the political, economic, social, cultural, etc. This is evident from the subsequent drawing up, in 1976, o f the International Bill of Human Rights through the three instruments of the International Covenant o n Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the International Covenant o n Civil and Political Rights, and the Optional Protocol to the latter Covenant. This discourse too fails to posit a single, holistic vision o f "human rights". That notwithstanding, the significance of the Declaration lies in its elevation of the concept of human rights to a position of credibility, inviolability, exerting a positive moral force. Apart from this, if one actually examines in detail the 30 Articles of the Declaration, one finds within them the seeds of the birth of a new conception of rights.

Article 23 talks about the right to work, the right to just and favourable remuneration s o as to ensure an existence worthy of human dignity. Article 25 refers to the right to a standard of living adequate to health and well-being. Article 26 is about the right to education, where education shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial o r religious groups. Article 27 refers lo the right to freely participate in the cultural life of the community. And perhaps most significant, despite being so low down in the order, Article 28: "Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the

rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be realised". And finally, t h e recognition in Article 29 that "everyone has duties t o the community in which a lone the free and full development of his personality is possible".

Taking u p this challenge calls for being alive t o t h e challenge. being aware of what prevents us from becoming alive t o t h e challenge. While not ions of rights, a n ideology, a r e merely reflective of a social order , this ideology then s o totally defines and contains us that o n e is unable t o even think of alternatives that a r e rooted in a completely different way of viewing life. T h e "legal" destruction o f c o m n ~ u n i t y and cul ture is only o n e example of where this bind takes us. In essence, we a r e prevented from fully realising o u r humanity. Existing thought becomes a repressive trap, and it is from this t rap that w e have t o liberate ourselves. It is such a t rap that the conventional view of human rights confines us within. It is this t rap that will ruthlessly hurl us into that non-human dystopia. It is therefore o u r historic task t o explode the I q i t i m a c y of currently held definitions o f human rights. It a m o u n t s to cultural a n d intellectual incest, through wilfully negating, shut t ing ou t , new ideas - very old ideas, really - and alternative s t reams of conscious- ness. This self-imposed blindness will prevent us from doing what needs t o be d o n e t o avert disaster.

I t is in this light that t h e role of the South , t h e East , of traditional societies, of indigenous peoples, becomes particularly important in the building of a new society. Though marginalised in a world controlled, driven a n d shaped by t h e West/North, these a r e yet cultures which still possess - though not for very much longer - a different world view, a r e relatively free o f the fetters o f Western thinking. It is they, w h o because of this relative retent ion, this remnant o f ano ther cultural identity, can take t h e initiative in creating a new body of thought , and a new society, together with their fellow humans from t h e West/North. Incest can only be exploded with fresh blood.

Talking of traditional societies, o n e might reflect a bit o n t h e concept of "taboo", a term modern (read Western) society hurls as an epi thcl i l l

traditional societies. A form of madness. But what is a t aboo? It is merely a certain code of social conduct, that is meaningful, comprehen- sive, t o t h e participant within that social process. F o r t h e insider, the

taboo is not perceived as the kind of irrational restriction the modern society sees it to be. To reverse the situation, one could easily find taboos" in modern society. You shall not eat, if you do not have money. To want to eat, to have to eat, is something human, natural; but one is nevertheless, incomprehensibly, prevented from having food. We could appear to be equally arbitrary - to the outsider - on our social codes. But the real point is that the taboos of traditional societies arc relentlessly violated when their people come into contact with moder- nity. Indigenous people in Australia, to give an example, are selling off their homelands, their sacred sites to mining interests - when such an act would be inconceivable in their own community. O n e thus finds oneself asking the question: is it not safer for such taboos to exist? Must we, for instance, have destroyed the environment before realising that this should not have been done? Wouldn't a taboo have been more effective'?

These are non-questions really. Taboos arc violated in the course of a confrontation where power is unequally distributed. Retaining a tatxio is therefore synonymous with redressing the power imbalance. Holding on to sacred values means restructuring power relations. In this battle, not for power, but f l p i t ~ s t powerlessness, against being expendable, all kinds of resources need to be harnessed: all of the wisdom of one's ancestors, all of one's skills and brains. The conception of human rights that flows from being human, the struggle for these human rights in order to become fully human, will also necessarily involve taboo: the denial of the right to endanger humanity. A taboo against the destruc- tion of life, against the denial of the full expression and flowering of one's humanity. This taboo too will only be realised through one's battle to redress the power imbalance. But people will d o their utmost to achieve and defend this body of rights, this taboo, only when they clearly perceive the disaster that is the price of losing. It is only through such a deep understanding, and cherishing, of the notion of human rights, that the unavoidable battle to create a new society can be taken up. In this battle, the redefinition of the concept of human rights will be a major resource, given the legitimacy and moral authority com- manded by the term "human rights".

Yes, this new consciousness is surely, intangibly, imperceptibly growing. But we arc unable to realise this even when it stares us in the face, so

bound are we in fetters of labels and categories. Reading the Soviet novelist Chingiz Aitmatov's TtlC Day Lasts More than a Hundred Years, vividly convinced me that this current, this vision of a new society, of a new code of social existence, a new notion of human rights, is truly a universal urge. This novel, while appreciating the positive achieve- ments Soviet society has given to its peoples, is also simultaneously a profound critique of Stalinism's cultural insensitivity and consequent destructiveness, a celebration of tradition and culture, and a moving testament to the positive urge of people to fashion a tomorrow that draws upon what is seen as the best of yesterday and today.

In a similar vein, I was amazed to find, while reading A Turn in the South, V S Naipaul's sensitive account of his travels in the American South, that I identified with the feelings, aspirations and pains of characters whom one would otherwise dismiss on account of their conventional labels - right-wing, republican, etc. Here were people who in terms of the generalisation of their deepest aspirations, beliefs, values, one felt completely one with. For they were talking about a way of life that was being systeniatically eroded; about community; about cultural continuity; about local control; against being helpless victims of alien domination.

I am also told that beneath the upsurge of organised religion in the Soviet Union, too, there is a stirring for cultural moorings. So one has only to look around to discern this global current.

The eco lo~ ica l ethic has another lesson for us, which is that nature is enriched by diversity. The same fundamental human motivations and urges express themselves differently in different locales. Tolerance of, respect for - joy at - this difference and diversity is very niuch part of that new ethic that is growing. Where, the interaction between cultures is not any ugly, unequal confrontation resulting in domination and marginalisation, but a critical niultilateral dialogue that results in the enrichment of all. The right to be different, the right not to be homogenised, is equally part of the new vision of human rights.

The developing understanding of women's role in different societies, the understanding of the different forms of patriarchy, and most significantly the articulation of a new gender ethic - equal woman-man relations, the

right of women not to be a dispensable sex, the right of women to also contribute to and paiticipate in the human endeavour - is also v e n much part of the new consciousness.

Finally, this new ethic, this new vision of human rights is one that is fundamentally based on the primacy o f the real as opposed to the abstract. Abstracts, reductive reason, knowing no boundaries, respecting no barriers, and possessing no loyalties, proceeds to expend everything - people, women, nature, life itself, in its ruthless endless march. This is the cthic of "think globally, act locally". Of the centralised global corporate state that operates from everywhere. Of the global super- market where one can buy the same product from exactly the same corner of a shop that looks exactly the same as the one five thousand miles away. Of the world where with the death of culture, culture is preserved in museum collections - though one cannot rule out the pos- sibility of this being cornered by private collectors.

The primacy of the real, often fully human, of nature, which will mean the cherishing of sense, emotion, relationships, culture, beauty, necessarily involves the limiting of spheres of interaction. Little wonder then that the organising principles of the ecological society are decentralisation, local control, low-cncriy intensity, control over production processes, local resource use and regeneration. A world growing from the bottom upwards, and not a world of impositions. A world of the ethic: think locally, act globally. This is a vision of a world that is a blooming bouquet of flowers growing from many soils. Viewed in these terms, the struggle to achieve human rights, is synonymous with the on-going global, human endeavour for development, justice, equity, peace and ecological harmony. 0

Women First/Family First

by Margaret and K i l l Kllis Tranct, POB 567 Rangeley, M E 04970, USA

If there is anything constant about the Alternative and Transformation- al (A&T) movements of America and the world, it is that they are constantly in subtle change. Each year there are almost hidden trends which seem to foretell of greater movements to come. Early in 1980 we noted the increasing emphasis on "The Feminist Future" overtaking the past central concern of feminists for job equality which had spawned so many women's orpanizations durinp the 70,s. This same direction of drift is opening new areas for hopeful concern and exploration in the 90s.

First there is the rise of ecofcminism which adds a healthy portion of spirituality to the practical concerns ofjobs, money, respect, self-caring, and liberation. Ecofeminism places all humans beside all other life o n Earth in a web of interdependent relationships under the guidance of a creating universe. "Mother Earth" is given new meaning and new reverence. With ecofeminism, the feminist future steps beyond porlray- ing a pragmatic world in which nurturing, cooperation, partnering, peace and love replace dominance, materialism, competition, and war. Ecofen~inism contends that the feminist future is not to be an act of man but is rather recognition of natural and divine law.

A second trend in feminist movements is the rising stridency of the radical feminists as exemplified in Sonia Johnson's Going Out of Our Minds. T h e radical feminists see no hope from the past movement. In fact they argue that the feminists have merely perpetuated masculine patriarchy; feminists have been the unwitting tools of the patriarchs foregoing their own nurturing beings to give energy to male domination and be the formers of male hierarchies. Women, they say, must separate themselves totally from patriarchy and refuse to play the game. They must create a new mindset outside the male dominant and domineering

cul ture by refusing to recognize the dictates of t h e current social and economic society.

Ecofeminism and radical feminism a r e well recognized phenomena today; less well recognized in the alternative movements is t h e revival of gender. T h e potential of a world with gender was brought t o o u r a t t en t ion during a tour of alternative Japan. In a report o n that lour we wrote:

'erhaps there is n o area in which the Japn/Euro-American differences are greater than in the growing power of the Japanese consumer/feminist movement. Japanese women have little interest in surrendering thcir gender. Itven y o u ~ ~ p w o m e n defend the traditional role of mother, homemaker and woman. But they also recognize their power as consumers as have no people since the onslaught of capitalism with its emphasis on people as cogs in the process of production. Japanese women have set out to end the facelessness o f the consumer by establishin&ko-partnerships" with producers. 17eininist/con- sumer co-partnerships 100,000 strong hold girl-cotis rather than boy-cotts dicttiting to the producer wh;it shall be produced by what they buy rather than what they refuse to buy. A powerful economic power is hidden behind the sweet demeanor and smil in~faces of the kimono-clad housewives who, through their buying power. have taken more control of their lives, their culture and their economy than have their salary taking husbands toadying on the production lines and in the corporate offices.

Within t h e Euro-American cul ture the need for a reappraisal o f gender is a lso being recognized. S a m Keen of Psychology' Today points o u t that ' a soc ie ty!~ propensity for gentleness a n d compassion is in direct proport ion t o t h e a m o u n t of touch, sensuality, aesthet ic appreciat ion a n d caring sexuality it encourages". Studies such as those of psychiatrist Pe te r Barglow of Michael Reese Hospital and Medical Cente r in Chicago indicate that t h e lack o f early bonding may affect social development . Compar ing 1 1 0 children of affluent parents, half cared for full t ime by their mothers and half cared for in -home by non-parents because bo th parents worked, these researchers found that t h e children of absent mothers developed "avoidant a t tachment" even with their mothers and were unable to form close relationships o r sensitivity t o o t h e r humans la ter in life.

Cur ren t American cul ture encourages, a n d almost demands that t h e toma an (and man) lorsakc mothering and child care for m o r e sainful

occupations. Rather than searching for ways to strengthen the full time mothering the proposed solution for the two income family is even more, longer and better "professional" day care for latchkey children. This solution is right out o f Brave New World, 1984 o r Max Headroom where, the state, the school or the TV set is expected to substitute for the time of parenting in more compassionate cultures.

The need for the compassionate raising of our children confronts the desire for equal employment of women. Not the right to equality in employment but the fact of equal employment. It also brings from the shadows the concept of "mothering" in contrast to "parenting". Is there a natural law of mothering? Are women more capable of compassion and sensitivity than men? Arc they now more compassionate? If so, is the best path for society t o move more women into the work force o r make it easier for them 10 function as mothers and home builders? And for a world of peace should power reside in the power of industry o r in a new power of the home?

Women 3 World, the international feminist news magafine, answers these questions in the positive giving three reasons.

First is that women are rcsponsiblc, often single-handedly, tor the ~ ~ l l ' i i r c and hi'ippincss of most of the world's children. Secondly, they wield enormous power and influence over children. Thirdly, as victims of oppression within the family (and society) they ;ire uniquely placed to identify the systems and structures surrounding the child which deny her or him all sorts of freedoms including the freedom from deprivation, violence, psychological and physical abuse.

Articles in other publications such as the Christian Science Monitor and New Options and the organization of such groups as Mothers at Home, and Fathers as Parents, suggest that others see the need for mothering the next generation as the most crucial, tough least recognized, issue for our time.

But Id 's be careful not to turn back the clock to the male domineering societies against which we have made so much, and je t so little, progress. The {low of the feminist movement must be strengthened and moved on. Women must be seen as equal if not superior to men in meeting their own needs and the needs of society. A "feminist future"

should not come to mean a society in which every woman (and man) is employed outside the home. Yet, the trend, only in part due t o the successes of the feminist movement, has become just that.

The dawn of the industrial age saw women and children as well as men enslaved by the economic system. Workdays of 12, 16 o r more hours were the norm. The conditions o f work made the home, poor as it might be, the refuge which held the family together and remained the reason for working. The first half of this century saw the relationship of home to work change for the better. Children were freed to be educated and be at home; most women escaped from the confines of labor to have home and leisure and the freedom to nurture their children. T h e sweatshops of the past became congenial workplaces; and even men had their work hours reduced to a common 40 hours a week with paid vacations and holidays allowing them time for family and friends.

Since the middle of this century progress toward the leisure to build home and family has reversed. In spite of highly touted high tech- nologies reducing the need for boring and stultifying labor, the trend toward freedom and free time has reversed. Not only has the once talked of 35 hour work week disappeared from the political agenda, hut also the economic systenl is absorbing more and more of the time which was once the opportunity for family. Families, home and nurturing are now the leftovers of a passing age. The economic system is moving us back into the early days of the industrial revolution.

It is worse than that. I n the sweatshop days and up to the Reagan revolution there was a balancing between the worker and the corpora- tion. Even in the worst of time the worker's allegiance was to his family. WC worked not for love of the corporation but in order t o build a better life for ourselves and our families. Now the workers themselves arc moving society toward an all absorbing work life.

Anne Wilson Schacf and Diane Fassel write of this stark reality in Hooked on Work in New Age Journal (Feb 1988). Addiction, they contend, is not only a result of drugs; a corporation can be addictive. And it is to the advantage of the corporation to be so. Loyalty t o the organization has become the necessary purpose-for-being of the worker.

As these authors say, "As with any addictive substance, the o r g a n i ~ a - tion's benefits and bonuses become the controlling factor in the lives of employees ... addicts will stop at nothing for a fix ... individuals become preoccupied with maintaining the organization. Loyalty to the organiza- tion has become a substitute for living one's own life ... the best adjusted employees are the ones who come from dysfunctional homes and are willing to let the company become their families". And, they note, "Many of the magazines for career women, like Working Women and S a w appear to tout the profile of the workaholic women".

The social phenomena born of this corporate takeover of the family is the self-centered yuppie generation. Rather than working for home and family, the yuppie's life outside the office is a fantasy world of con- spicuous consumerism. Posh apartments, yachts and sports cars have become [he end rather than the means to the good life. T o be upward mobile is to see your work as the central focus of your life. All else can he fluff used only for proof that you arc making i t up the corporate ladder.

But, this too, like the feminist movement, is seeing signs of a new awakening. Alice Kahn, whose 1983 article in the San Francisco Chrot~icle, brought to public attention and coined the word "yuppie", in her new book My Life a s a Gal, sees seeds of change in her generation. She sees a rift between the yuppies who are having babies and those keeping their loyalties to lifestyle. "First", she writes, "let's get one thing straight: The yuppie was basically a woman. Men have been having it all - indulging themselves, being young and professional - for years. What was new was the gal in the suit and tie and attache...". The predictions of the yuppielfamily are hardly soul warming. Having a baby is, as Kahn puts it, perhaps just the latest fad. Rather than deep seated concern for society, environment and global problems, the yuppie parents may be niostly concerned with the Day Care-R-Us center and the program to get their children to Princeton.

The political manifestation of this new concern is already entering the arena in the United Statc.-i. Not only was the word "family" the key word in President Reagan's State of the Union message but also both left and right as well as the new era politicians are setting up technical fixes to win the votes of those faced with the challenge of trying to maintain

homes in face of the growing need for more time, effort and loyalty to the corporate sector. O n the right, Republican conservative Senator Orrin Hatch has introduced legislation for government regulation of day care centers. Liberal Democrat, Christopher Dodd on the left would go further and have the government support and provide the day care for working mothers. Congresswoman Pat Schroeder has gone on the "Great American Family Tour" to sell her family plan which would protect the jobs of working mothers and require employers to give workers 10 weeks of family leave to care for newborn babies o r seriously sick children.

Such political solutions d o not face up to the fundamental problem which is destroying family life in America - the demands of the economic system. Rather than solving the problem, they exacerbate it. They make it easier for the women (and men) to pass off parental responsibility to the state. They are saying to the family: We give you a place to put your children while you work; we give you 10 weeks to provide your child with parental love and attention; now there is no reason to spend time at home.

No society that puts its children and the family second can long exist. There is a need for a reappraisal of our value system. And the need for 1 cultural transition that puts family first. We could suggest governmen- tal policies which parallel the "most favored nation" concept. Programs which shift the economy toward putting the best our society can offer in the hands of the family. Projects that recognize that rearing gentler people is the first business to which the nation must attend. But though governmental policies, programs and projects may imply standards for ou r culture, it is in the hearts and souls of the people that culture is formed.

It is fortunate, as we have seen above, that the trend of the feminist movements is toward a new reverence for nurturing, mothering, and creating a cooperative loving social structure. The trend is right. Women arc taking the lead toward restructuring and restoring the role of the feminine to its rightful central position. It is equally fortunate that concern for the family is absorbing more attention from the mainstream as well as from the A&T movements. The synergy of these separate concerns may well see the emergence of a new social order with Women FirstFamily First. 0

Primer encuentro cumbre entre pueblos a istas indfgenas y ambient l '

El territorio y la vida indigena como estrategia de defensa de la Amazonia

COICA JirOn Almngro 6\4 Lima 11, Peru

1. Estamos aqui indigcnas y ambicnialistas porquc conipartimos un inter& comun: cl respcto por cl mundo quc nos ha tocado vivir y la conscn~ad6n dc cse mundo para una vida mcjor para la humanidad. El destrozo del mundo es una preocupaci6n humanists. Uno dc 10s puntos de atenci6n son 10s bosques ama7.6nicos y su conscrvaci6n.

Es claro quc la mayor prcocupacihn es d c parte dc 10s quc intcgramos esa biOsfera anlaz6nica: Los pueblos indigcnas, nucstros tcrriiorios y la Amazonfa, nos pcrtcncccmos, somos uno solo. Cualquier dcstrucci6n ;I

una p a n e afccta tambikn a la otra. Sc trata pues dc conscrvar y dc conservarnos; dc protegcr y dc protcgernos.

2. Dcsdc hacc niucho liempo nosoiros hemos vivido y usado cl bosquc sin danarlo. Lo hemos mancjado dc un modo total, integral y hemoh sido asi sus dcfensores duriintc siglos.

A mcdida quc sc nos ha ido dcbilitando como pucblos, tan~bikn la protccci(3n dc la Anlazoni'a ha sido mcnor. Ahora quc hcnios vuclto a fortaleccrnos a travcs dc nucstras organizaciones, volvemos a scr los principalcs protagonistas dc la defensa y custodia dc nuestro mcdio ambicnte ;iniaz6nico.

3. Si para todos los prcscntcs la prcocupaci6n es la conservacion, no cabc dud3 dc quc para nosotros es vital. Podria dccirsc quc cs una obligation gcncracional ascgurar cl destino dc nucstros pucblos.

Estamos en una cncrucijada hist6rica y dccisiva: o dcsparcccmos o sobrcvivimos juntos nucstros pueblos y cl bosquc.

Porquc cl bosquc no es un rccurso mds para nosotros, sino la vida misma.

Porquc cs nucstro unico lugar posible para vivir. Migrar cs morir como pucblo.

Porquc la Arnazonia es tambikn la unica hcrencia quc podcmos dq'ar a nucstros hijos.

Todo csto dcbc d a r k a ustcdcs la idea dc nucstra cn6rgica decision dc protcger cl bosque ama/Onico. Camino irrenunciable sin dudas ni rctroccso posiblc.

4. Sc ha venido explotando cl bosquc buscando la ganancia inmcdiata y cso cxigc sobrcxplotaci6n dc tal o cual rccurso, matando las posibilida- dcs del futuro.

Por lo contrario, 10s indigenas pcnsamos tanio en nobotros como en cl bosquc entcro. Tcncmos una ncccsidad profunda dc dikersidad c inlegridad cn nucstra relacion con cl bosquc.

5. A medida quc sc han ido hacicndo mds alarmantes 10s dcstruzos, la prcocupacihn nor la Amazonia se ha centrado exclusivamentc en la naluraleza sin prcocuparsc dc c6mo nos estaban dcstruycndo tanibikn a 10s ind@nas.

Sc ha invertido milloncs en parqucs y otras unidades d c conscrvaci6n cuya principal garantia han sido los gobiernos movidos por intcrcses pasajcros - quc pueden cambiar con un nucvo regimen. Asi, cl destino

dc la conscrvaci6n dcpendc dc la voluntad y dc la capacidad del Estado para haccrla. Per lo quc vcmos, csa garantia dc consewacihn es muy dkbil y pasajera.

6 . Lamentablcmcntc en cicrtos casos 10s parqucs y otras unidadcs dc conservaci6n han scrvido para imponcrnos una frontera mAs para nosotros; un nucvo arrinconamiento; un menor control dc nucstro espacio. A vcccs han resultado scr s6lo rcscrvas para proximas cxplotaciones en cl futuro del pctrdleo, oro, madcra, etc.

El parquc n o es una realidad como lo cs un puehlo. El parquc es una Icy, cambiablc, dcpcndicnte, violable.

7. Los criterios tkcnicos o cl interns cicntifico por si solos, constituycn una barrcra mucho mcnos eficaz que la dcfcnsa humana dc un pueblo con proycccidn dc futuro. Pcro la accidn conjunta d c ambos podria tcncr resultados mucho mils cfectivos.

8. Nucstra propucsta para la conscrvacidn no es otra pucs quc priorizar el reconodmicnio y rccomposiciAn dc 10s territories indigcnas a travks d c todas las formas Icgalcs quc scan posibles en cad8 p i s . Aniazonia que cst6 bajo conducci6n no dc un tkcnico o un funcionario aislados, sino d c todo un pueblo como columna firme para su consenraci6n y manejo, porquc en csio sc juega nuestra unica casa, nucstro unico futuro, nuestra vida misma.

Un territorio concebido como continuidad sin fisuras ni fraccionamiento, integro y diversificado pero cuya garantia juridica n o haga difercncia entrc sus divcrsos elcmenlos, tan amplio como sea ncccsario para ascgurar la vida correcta d e cada pueblo correspondiendo a su propia pcrcepci6n territorial d c ocupaci6n actual o traditional; un tcrritorio cuya conccpci6n y guia d e mancjo sea la propia cultura del pueblo que lo ha vivid0 y a1 que dcbc rcconoccrse la m6s amplia capacidad d c disposici6n y control sobrc sus rccursos. Como corresponde a un pueblo.

9. El territorio indigcna como cspacio mancjado cn forma inlegra y divcrsificada es conscrvacionista en su mejor sentido. No cs el conscr- vacionismo d c museo que tan Salso ha resultado. Es el uso integral, totalixador, en que precisamcntc todo se usa pero racionalmente.

La mayor critica quc hcmos recibido los pueblos i n d i p a s cs quc no usamos ni cxplotamos cl montc a fondo. Para nosotros csc cs cl nlcjor clogio y dcmostr;ici6n dc nucstra sabiduria hcrcdada. Porquc, prccisa- nicntc usamos todo cl bosquc, intcgramcnte, pcro con tal cuidado quc ni sc dan cuenta d c cllo.

10. No tcncmos cntonccs un manual, sino una cultura dc siglos. Es la cultura dc una rclacihn dc convivencia util con nucstros bosques, y quc dcbc constituir la guia dc cualquier accihn ambicntalista cn la Amaze- nia.

11. Nucstro conccpto dc tcrritorio suponc otra forma dc cntcndcr cl dcrccho y dc gcncrar nucvos dercchos. No solo cs cl dcrccho dc pueblos quc cstuvieron aqui dcsdc hacc siglos; tambi6n cs cl dcrccho dc las aguas, d c las plantas, dc Ios animalcs y dc todo scr vivicnte.

Un lidcr AshAninKa lo exprcs6 claramente, cuando reclam6 porque quisicron titular a su comunidad con un tcrritorio pcqucno dicicndo quc era poca gcntc; 61 sc dcfendi6 cxigiendo: Acaso Ios monos, las aves o las huanganas no nccesitan dc ticrra para vivir? Esa cs nucstra idea!

12. AdcniAs, cstc dcrccho a los territorios y conscrvaci6n indigcnas, no es superficial ni pasajcro. Es cl dcrccho para un pueblo quc con su vida y su cultura, convivirii con esc territorio por todas sus gcneraciones. Es una garanlia profunda y para sicmprc.

La garantia social y juridica a la sobrcvivcncia del bosque amazhnico cstuvo y dcbcrd cstar unida a nucstra pcrmanencia y sohrcvivcncia en cste plancta como pueblos indigcnas.

13. Estc dcrccho territorial indkcna sc irA consolidando como un eficaz instrumcnto dc conscrvacihn a medida quc sc nos vaya rcconocicndo no como grupos poblacionalcs sino como pueblos con dcrccho a la autodctcrminaci6n y a disponcr librcmcnte d c nucstros rccursos conformc a nucstra tradicihn y cultura, tal como sc vicnc dcfinicndo en lii Ortyni/iicion dc kis Nacioncs Unidas.

14. El hacer uso dc cstc derecho signif'ica para nosotros la exigcncia dc una rcprcsenlacihn dirccta como pueblos en cualquicr discusion y decision, nacioniil o internacioniil, politica o cicntif'ica, sohrc cl dcstino

d e la Amamnia cn condiciones que aseguren el rcspcto a nuestras iniciativas.

15. Aplicando con justicia estos criterios sc revelarh quc cl hnlbito de nuestra prcsencia en la Amamnia cs mucho mayor d c lo que se quierc hacer vcr a travds de politicas oficiales que rcduci6ndonos y disol- vidndonos nos presentan como minorias en extincihn.

Nucstra prcsencia real en la Amazonia y nucstra capacidad de conduc- ci6n d e su Suturo irh con~probando a medida que se vaya consiguiendo cl neccsario apoyo ideoldgico y solidario para abrir camino a la territorialidad y conscrvaci(jn imi@na con todas sus implicancias para cl Suturo d e la humanidad.

16. Por todo lo expuesto: por nuestra historia, por nuestra cultura y nuestras raices, por nuestra lucha indigena, por conserva toda la vida dc los bosqucs; es por 10 que proponcmos a 10s ambientalistas del mundo aliarsc a los pueblos indigenas en la dcfensa d c la Amazonia, a travds d e la acci6n conjunta para el logro del reconodmiento y conservacifin dc los tcrritorios indigenas como una propucsta cficaz para nucstro prop6sito comun: Darle un fui~wo mejor a 10 Amazonia 11 la hun~(;t~i(lad. Los invitamos a (Jar cse paso aqui y ahora.

Indigenous Peoples and Environmentalists' First Summit

Iquitos Declaration

Having met in the city of Iquitos 9-1 1 May 1990 between the Coordina- ting Body for Indigenous Peoples' Organizations of the Amazon Basin (COICA) and environmentalists and conservationist organizations lo analyzc the serious deterioration of the Amazon biosphere and look for joint alternatives.

We consider that the recognition of territories for indigenous people, to develop programs of management and conservation, is an essential alternative for the future of the Amazon.

\Ve recognize that we must look for adequate mechanisms to reach this objective, that include ways to channel international technical and financial resources.

We n'copize the importance of indigenous peoples own proposals for the management and conservation of the Amazon.

We recognize the need for actions o f diffusion, studies o r projects to advance the territorial and societal rights o f the indigenous peoples and the recognition of the value of their culture, according to the proposals o f COICA and the particular objectives of each environmental and conservationist organization.

We conclude that in order that these considerations he put into practice, i t is necessary to continue working as an Indigenous and Environ~?~cn- tolist Alliance for an Amazon for Humanity.

W e decide to make this joint work concrete through the formation of a provisional Coordinating Committee of the environmentalists who are present and COICA, t o continue analyzing and designing the best strategies for the defense of the indigenous Amazon. 0

Throughout utmost 500years since Coluttn- bus landed in the Atticricas, there are at li.'u~t two debts that are non-payahic: the economic debt of L U I ~ I I America and the debt con- traded by the North during five centuries of' domination. The I M t Game: Who owes whom, is U video with five parts: The pillag- ing from the discover)' to the IMF; The ileh tncchaiii,stns; From e a v tnotlq to recession; The consequences; and The alten~atives. / Â ¥ ~ I ~ / / . v / I Spanish, and Purtiifyiesc versions arc available. (To order, mite 10 Cl-,'GIP, Riia Senador Datlfas 80, Sold 201, 20031 Rio dc Janeiro; for more information: .YERPSJ-AL Rua da L.apa 180, Sala 1107, 20021 Rio dc Janeiro, RJ Brazil).

Le developpement - modernisation: Miroir et &ran

Contribution 2 ]'etude des structures anthropologiques ~ L I

dkveloppetnent

par Mamadou Balla Traore Univcrsitk dc Niamey, Faculty dcs Lcttrcs et Sciences Humaincs BP 418 Niamey, Niger

L'anthropologic cnscignc la presence des mythes d;ins toutcs les soci6tL'i p a s s e s et pr6scntcs. Lcs rkcits rnythiqucs, quellc quc soil lcur nature, fonclionncnt partout commc Vkritk ou comme Parole - fondement. Resultat d'un long processus de creation imaginairc, 1c paradoxc du mythc est d'etrc faux dans sa proprc reality et vrai dans l'imaginaire social qui lui donne un sens.

En d'autrcs tcrmcs, la vkrit6 d'un rkcit mythiquc, se vkrifie A son degri; d'cfficacit6 sociale. C'est probablcmcnt en ccla quc les nlythes ocdden- taux sont parvenus dc nos jours 2 surclasser ceux dcs autrcs soeiktks en realisant mat6ricllcmcnt cc qui rcleve ailleurs du clomainc des phantas- mcs.

La mythologie des sciences sociales cnscignc quc l'Antiquit6 curop6enne 6tait rkgic par la penscc cosmocentriquc; les soci6lks du Moycn-Age vivaicnt sous 1c signc d e la thtologie et Ics temps moderncs ont vu 1c triomphe d c la conception anthropoccntriquc. Les mythes cxpliquent comment les prodigicuses conquetcs dc la science ont cngendrk lcs mervcilleuses techniques actuelles acquiscs au prix dc nombrcux sacrifices et destructions prealables. E n brcf, si 1c rcste dc l'humanilk desire acckdcr A 1'8gc d c la raison triomphantc, ellc devra en~boi tcr Ie pas 2 1'Occidcnt en refaisant 1c meme parcours du comballant. Telle cst, en somme, la leson diffuske en direction dcs autres civilisations dcpuis l'avknemcnt dc la civilisation techniciennc occidcntale conlmc foycr d'irradiation du bonhcur univcrscl.

L'elargissemcnt du mythe du Progt'Cs, en tan1 qu'obsession d'unc modernit6 univcrscllc qui progressc dans lcs cspaccs dc conqu&te, s'cst fait 2 coups d'exclusions et d'assimilations.

La mission dite civilisatrice avail pour objcctif proclam6 dc souslrairc les populations conquiscs 2 l'cnipire dc leurs mythes en les faisant acckdcr "aux lun~i?rcs dc la raison triomphantc", honncur d c la civilisation judko-chrkticnne. Pour cela, la consecration d'une com- posante fondamentalc du i i ~ y i he dii Piq@.s, 2 savoir 1c d6vcloppemcnt cxponcnticl dcs forces productivcs, dcvient un projct 2 realiser. C'cst en cc scns, quc la diffusion planktairc du mythc du dkveloppcmcnt qui consistc 2 avanccr vers 1'6iat actuel dcs societks occidentalcs cst chargee dc connolations fascinanics, likes 2 la conception cschatologiquc du temps.

E n Afriquc, dcpuis trois deccnnics environ, on ne cessc d c rcnouvelcr les "strategies de developpcmcnt", on multiplic les approchcs ditcs nouvellcs, on reformule les principes qui fondent la pratique afin d c tcnir comptc, seniblc-t-il, dcs spheres d'anormalitk. Malgrk Ie constant depoussieragc dcs idccs, prcsquc piirtout, sur Ie continent, lcs promesses d c , la "divinit6 dtvcloppcmcnt" s'kloignent dcs lieux supposks recevoir scs bicnfaits.

Lc discours sur la n~odcrnisalion dcs pays africains est en crise. Non pas d c son proprc point d c vuc, mais du fait dc son incapacity 3 dkbouchcr sur dcs niodhles opkratoircs, pouvant prcndre cn charge lcs conceptions africaines du progr?s.

Lcs echecs, en depit des injections considkrables dc capitaux et d~ bonnes volontes, mkritent d'etre analyses sous l'angle d'unc anthropolo- gic rcspcclucusc d c la dynamiquc culturellc des sociktks.

Le discours et la pratique du "devcloppcment" constituent, dc nos jours, 1'axe principal dcs relations interculturcllcs. Us mcttcnt cn presence, d e

ou d c force, dcs univers culturds diffkrcnts par 1c mouvcmcnl d c transfer! d c toutes series: capitaux, technologies, valcurs, experts etc.

11 sc trouvc ccpendant quc 1c phknom?ne appele "ddvcloppcmcnt", commc Ics rcprcScnttitions sur Icsqucllcs i l sc fondc, nc son1 nullcmcnt

tninsculturellcs. Cela apparait avec evidence dcis I'instant ou I'on s'cffurce d c fairc entrcr e n lignc d e comptc les nitionalit6s e t les logiqucs socialcs autres qu'occidentaies. Le discours e t Ics actions d 'accompagnement apparaisscnt dds lors pour c c qu'ils son t rkellcmcnt: miroir e t &ran. E n effet, ki distance qui skpare Ics bonncs intentions sur 1c dkveloppement e t la reality du dkveloppement d u sous-dkveloppc- ment posent des series d'interrogations incontournahlcs.

Les moclciles d c dkveloppcment proposes aux pays africains, e n tan1 q u e technique d'inspiration positivistc, tout e n pretendant sc borner 2 ' e x a m e n des faits, kchoucnt. N o n pas par manque d e performance, mais s implemcnt parce qu'ils negligent 1c fait fondamental d c I'cxistencc des valeurs culturellcs, qui, seulc, d o n n c u n sens 2 la mult i tude indkfinie des interventions des sciences e t des techniques s u r l 'cnvironncment huniain.

La rigucur scicntifique n'cst pas e n question. Elle d e n ~ e u r e m e m e indispensable; mais l'csprit d c rigucur do i l rencontrcr les adhesions sociales pour pouvoir s 'kpanouir dans u n c conjugaison capable d e produi rc dcs transformations positives.

Not re travail envisage (JCS methodcs d'invcstigation mct tan t e n lun~ifcre, Ics prksupposks rachks dcs "b2tisscurs" actuels d e la moderni t6 unidimcnsionncllc, d c nlontrer les errcurs d'orientation, e t d'indiqucr e n fin d e c o m p t c dcs directions susccptiblcs d c rcdonner aux sod6l6s africaincs, e t sahklicnncs e n particulier, Ics possibilitks d'une nouvelle aven turc humaine largcrncnt d6termined par dcs choix appropr ies qui restaurent 1c sens d u respect d c leur identitk culturellc.

D a n s cet o r d r e d'idees, il parail indispensable d c ronipre 1c ccrcle vicicux des usages ktablis, d c definir les (Slerncnts d 'unc nouvcllc pedagogic des relations intcrculturelles, scule capable d c rcndrc 2 ' in tel l igence 1e sens d 'une coopkration qui n e serait plus unidimension- nclle, mais plurielle.

La moderni t6 unidimcnsionnclle est parvenue h convcrtir ci 2 I'airc admct t re son jugenient d c valour e n jusement d c realitk. E l lc a rnis au point un arsenal irnpressionnant d c mklhodcs d'intcrvcntion - miroir c l &ran 2 la fois - pour convaincrc par la magic dcs objets m a t k r i d s e t

du discours accompagnateur, que 1e d6veloppcmcnt qui y conduit exisle, qu'il pcut etre realise, et qu'il doit ctre realise. au prix d'un apprcntis- sage rigoureux et dc renoncements m6ritoircs.

Une tellc conception gcneralement, partagcc par unc partie dcs klites dominantes du Tiers Monde, ne r6siste pas 2 l'analyse car, si 1c d2vcloppement cst pcrqu comme synonyme de l'imposition dc valcurs particuli?rcs 3 1'Europe rcvetucs du mantcau dc l'universalit6, c'est dire quc 1c maintien cffcctif des idcntitds culturclles autrcs devient impos- sible 5 long terme. O n oublic trop souvcnt que les valcurs suppos6cs conduire 2 la modernit6 agissenl sur un autrc monde e t non, comnic le pretend 1c discours dominant, sur un monde "moins avanc6". I1 s'agit d'un univcrs socialcmcnt, culturellcmcnt et institutionnellcmcnt different. Or, c'est par la destruction d'unc tellc altkritd quc doit s'effectuer ' a v ~ n c m e n t dc I'figc d'or escompt6.

En fait, 1c d6vcloppemcnt qui doit prkparcr l'avcincment dc la modernit6 pluriclle, n'est pas, contraircment 2 l'opinion gkn6ralement diffuskc, un facteur d e civilisation qui doit s'etcndrc scion 1c schema du darwinisme social d'un modele sociktal A un autrc. Pas plus d'ailleurs qu'il ne saurait Etre rcduit 3 unc valorisation essentiellcment quantitative du p rogrh humain. Cctle vision du discours dominant se ramcine aux postulats suivants:

- 1c d6veloppcment consiste A avanccr vcrs l'6tat actuel dcs socidtks occidcntalcs; - les soci616s en cssai dc d6vcloppcment n'y parviendront qu'2 condition d'61imincr les vestiges sociaux, politiqucs, culturels ou religicux des dpoqucs pass6es.

Quand 1c discours s'empare dc tous les signes apparentes de changc- mcnt ct les prescnte comme les prcuves du d6vcloppcment, tout sc passe finalemcnt commc si I'cxistcnce du d6veloppemcnt/modernit6 e n tant qu'idkal suffisait A alimenter la confiance en la possibilit6 d e 1c diffuser en tan1 que tel au rcstc du monde. C'est en cela que la "divinil6 d6vcloppcmcnt" transcende ce qui sc fait en son nom. A cc titre, ellc est au-dessus d c la notion d'bchec.

Le paradoxe, sinon l'effct magique du discours sur le d6veloppcment, e n s'auto-lkgitimant, 6tablit une rkciprocitd entre la demande du Tiers

Monde et l'offre des pays industricls. une telle representation contribue i faire la reality en s'y substituant. Ellc construit unc "surr&ilit6", qui usurpc la place d c la rcaliti, en justifiant la poursuite dcs actions cntrepriscs. I1 se produit d6s lors un veritable renversement d c pcrspcctives: au lieu que la reprdsentation soit le reflet d c la rLalitd, elle dcvient l'aune A laquclle est soumisc la realitk.

Dans les pays cn essai d c modernisation occidcntale, cellc-ci sc priscntc dc dcux manieres: d'unc part comme un objectif (iddal, mythc) i atteindre, et d'autre part, commc un mobilisation des rcssources censdes assurer 1c proccssus du d6veloppemcnt au fur et a mesurc d e sa progression.

Mais la succession dcs plans, dcvenant de plus en plus poursuite d'un mythe qui sc dcrobe, nous assistons un peu partout au recul de l'utopic du rattrapage dcs pays industricls. Avcc lcs moddes actucls d e d6vclop- pcmcnt, 1c proccssus s'cst finalcmcnt substitud A l'objectif, pour d6tenir en quclque sortc 1c monopolc dc la visibility. Nous sommcs c n realit6 en presence d'un veritable renversement dialcctiquc.

Lcs echccs rkpetcs dc la construction d'une modernit6 A I'occidcntalc, vont-ils conduirc un jour i un rc'vcil dcs consciences, qui va boulcverscr l'ordre des paradigmcs, invcrscr les sens, desorganiser l'assemblagc minutieux d e la reprksentation des choses, d6vorer les mythcs inap- propriks, pour construire un champ semantiquc r6cllemcnt nouvcau et susceptible d'engendrer un contcxte qui tienne compte d c la dimension plurielle du d6veloppcmcnt?

Le drame d e la modernity venue d'ailleurs est que ses effets contribuent davantagc 2 la disorganisation du tissu social endogkne, A l'expropria- lion des savoir locaux et h I'accroisscmcnt d'unc mis6rc sodalc qui nc se mesure pas a l'aune dcs paramktrcs g6ndralcment rctenus par 1c discours dominant.

Lcs paramktrcs donncnt en g6n6ral valcur A cc qui n'en a pas dans la plupart dcs cultures sounlises a la modernisation occidcntalc. Ccttc transposition mdcaniquc d c signification 2 dcs univcrs sociaux diffkrcnts a 6vidcmmcnt pour cons6quencc la destruction d c l'dquilibrc nature1 dcs pcuplcs, engcndrant ainsi une s6ric d c conflits et d c d6chircmcnts lies

A la prolif6ration du dksordre g6nh-6 par l'implantation d'unc cos- mologic materialistc dont on cherche 2 universaliser les mythcs.

Si 1c changcmcnt social opdrd cn Europe trouve son fondcment dans lc principe d'efficacitk cxpkrimentd par les sociktks europkennes au cours d c leur longuc histoire, 1e transfert du module A dcs univcrs difl'krents n'a pas pcrmis d'ohtcnir les cffets rechcrch6s.

Lcs experiences dc transfer! dc m o d d c de developpemcnt enscigncnt que l'kchcc cst inclus dans la pretention a l'cfficacitk, puisqu'on mcsure 1c succLs des actions cntreprises a des normes que les contextcs sociaux ou cllcs sont appliqukcs invalidcnt. A cc titre, on peut dire que les rates du d6vcloppemcnt sont 1c resultat d'unc illusion culturclle qui repose ici sur 1c principc d'une idcntitd unique d c genre humain.

S'intcrroger d c facon syst6matiquc sur les pr6supposes, qui fondcnt et justifient Ie d6vcloppemcnt a l'occidentale, rcvient en quelquc sortc A remettrc cn question Ies paradigmcs qui fixent les conditions d c possibilitk d c sa realisation cn dchors d c 1'Occidcnt. Douter d c la possibility d'un d6veloppcment unilindaire conduit a rcfuscr la projcc- lion des phantasn~es avoues e t a nc rctcnir seulcment que Ies masques.

Les promoteurs du modele dominant d c ddveloppemcnt sont persuades qu'il n'a autrc ambition que l'cfficacit6 qui lui permct d c dkcouvrir 1c myst6rc apparent dcs choses tcllcs qu'clles sont donnkcs dans leur reality matkriclle, dc triomphcr des blocages inutilcs. C'cst pr6cis6mcnt cctte conception mkcanistc qui fait problume et qui cxplique pcut-etre pourquoi la modernisation dcs autrcs sociktks dans 1c cadre d c 'curovision s'cst traduitc d c manicre gdn6ralc par la constitution cl la rdpdtition des spheres d'anormalitk.

Lcs sciences sociales d c manicre genkralc, et l'anthropologie en particulicr, enseigncnt que 1c domainc humain cst tout enticr constituk par dcs faits-valcurs, a iravcrs lesqucls s'incarncnt, sc malerialiscnt lcs intentions et les projets humains. La mentality positivistc qui imprcgnc Ics strategies dc devcloppcmcnt 6cononiique et social, sous 1c prktcxic d c ne rctcnir que les faits en dcn~curant sourde ct avcugle aux significations, portc en clle-mcmc les gcrmcs d c l ichee . I1 existc une inlclligibilit6 proprc des faits sod;iux. A cc litre, il convient dc preciser

quc les soci6tc's nc sc comprenncnt pas 2 partir des ohjets, niais plutot, cc sont les ohjets qui, en dkpit des apparences, son1 compris en fonction des societiss.

L'Occident a trouvk dans Ies sciences et les techniques, les moyens dc sa prospkritd ct dc sa puissance conqu6rante. Mais rarcment les fondements idkologiques dc cclles-ci ont 6t6 intcrrogks A la lumikrc dcs indications quc d'autres civilisations pcuvent lui fournir. En rkalitc', cclles-ci, tout en empruntant 2 I'Occident les outils dc sa prosperit6 mat~r ie l lc , nc partagcant pas pour autant les prc'suppos6s qui lcs fondcnt.

DC mcmc on oublic trop souvcnt quc chaque moment important dans 1e d6veloppcmcnt d'une culture impliquc unc nouvelle convergence des significations, un regroupcmcnt dcs valcurs. Cctte rc'alit6 commandc la comprkhension des processus sociaux et m6ritc pour ccla dc trouvcr une place particulikrc dans Ics stratkgics dc ddveloppcmcnt 6conomiquc e t social.

Lc ph6nomknc appel6 d6vcloppement a trop longtemps 616 I'affaire dcs c'conomistcs et dcs tcchniciens. La sublimation dc la science c'conomique et dc la technique sc suffisant 2 clles-memcs cxplique bicn des m6savcnturcs rcncontr6cs. En accordant peu d c place au concept dc culture dans 1'6tude des relations intcrnationales, on s'cst priv6 d'un des aspects fondamcntaux d e processus dc transformation socialc, la divcrsit6 culturcllc 6tant un dcs phc'nomkncs les plus dvidcnts dans 1c d6veloppcmcnt dc I'hommc.

Lc moment cst done vcnu pour lcs pays africains dc s'lnterrogcr sur les raisons qui cxpliquent pourquoi l;i plupart des rcm2des proposks pour vaincre 1c sous-d6veloppemcnt ne font que I'aggraver c l pourquoi cette causalit6 cumulative dc choix (inappropriks) ct si Ientc A transformer les manihrcs dc penser autrement Ie paradisme du changement social.

L'analysc dcs structures anthropologiqucs du d6vcloppemcnt serail plus pcrtinente si d i e partait d c donnc'cs historiqucs. Pour cela il est indispensable d c disposcr dc points dc rcpkrc quc sculc pcut fournir

une chronologic susceptible d'kclairer I'cnchaincmcnt logique pernicttiint d'6valucr 5 leur juste mcsurc Ics faits sociaux rctcnus.

Cettc etude en partant des modLlcs sociktaux predominant dans les pays du Sahel h la veille d c la colonisation s'cfforcc dc clkgager Ics ruptures et les continuit6s quc 1c processus colonial va imposer aux socie tk dominies (impact dc la cosmologie mat6rielle occidcntalc).

L'autrc volet dc I'analysc sera consacre 3 la recherche d'autres voies dc d6veloppcnicnt cn mesurc d c prcndrc cn charge les vkritablcs probl?mcs dcs hommcs et dcs fcmmcs du Sahcl en pr6servant leur identity culturcllc, tout moddc dc d6vcloppcnicnt, laut-il 1c rappclcr, doit Ctrc l'expression dc la conl'iancc quo 1'on portc aux valeurs proprcs 2 unc culture donnke. Ccla nc consliluc pas sculcment un but i attcindrc mais a i l partic inlkyxntc du processus d c devcloppemcnt lui-mcmc.

Quelques postulats utiles pour evitcr ccrtaincs voics ou la pcnskc pourrail s9Cgiirer:

- cherchcr 2 promouvoir un autrc (J6'vcloppcmcnt, c'cst admcttrc au depart qu'aucun mod?le dc devcloppcmcnt nc pcut pr6tcndrc A la validilk universclle; - prcndre en cornplc la n6cessii6 cl'une diversity dc dkvcloppemcnt signific quc Ies objcctifs du dkvcloppemcnt cl Jcs mani2res d'y parvcnir doivcnt f i r e d6tcrminkes cn fonction dcs donnkcs culturclles: ccs objcctifs ne pcuvent a r c ni imposes ni 61abores du dchors; - 1c "d~vcloppcn~cnt" nc saurait Ctrc r6duit i un scul aspect dc la vie socialc, il doit au contrairc prcndrc en consideration l'cnsemblc dc ses composantcs consues commc lcs 6lements constitutil's d'un systLmc symbolique.

Cettc recherche anthropologiquc sollicitera I'apport d c l'histoire et d c l'6conomie. Dans ccttc perspective, ellc cherchcra i privilkgier une kpistkmologic dc la convergence commc substitut St unc 6pistkmologic d e dissociation. Cc faisant, la specialisation sc trouverait cnrichic par ' intcrdkpcndancc et la solidaritk disciplinaircs grace auxqucllcs sc noue ]'unit6 du savoir. 0

6Derecho ambiental o derecho a un ambiente vivible?

nor Jose Maria Rorrero Navia Funclacidn para la Invcstigaci6n y Protccddn del Mcdio Ambicntc Apartado A6rco 2741 Cilli, Colombia

Environmental Right o r Right t o a Livable Environment?

Abstract: The environtnent(11 rig11t was traditionnall\' understood as tlic protection oftlie environment itself. However, tlie Jiir~~lamental value n~l~icli is /lie object of /lie lcg[iI protection is in fuel the protection o f tlie human rig/;/ to a livable environment. Most Latin American countries lack the necessary structures to exercise environinen- / ( I / rigltts. Tlie mitlior discusses time factors explaining tliis: tile cn'vi.s of the h, tlie limits of environmental law itself; /lie oppositions to it. The exerci.se of tlie right to environment is dctc~rtnined ly the political stnictnre, /lie style o f development, and the socio-ci~ltumi context. It implies t11e end of poverty, injustice and war. It is wit11 fiocinl justice tliat the ecological debt will be reimbursed.

Droit d e I'environnement o u droit ii un environnement vivable?

(Suite cn pnge 50)

i,Derecho ambiental o derecho a un ambiente vivible?

no Ambientitil susceptibles dc protcc- ciOn jurfclica y cuya violticiOn o pertur- bacicjn la Icy dcbcra castigar. Aunquc correspondicnics a una misma categorfa luridica, constituyen nxinifestacioncs dilcrcnles:

ii . HI dcrccho hurnano bfisico a quc la vidii y la salud personales no scan lesionadas o pucstiis cn pcligro coma con.secucncia del dcicrioro cimbienial, o dc lesiones c impactos i l l iin~bienle.

h. F.1 dcrccho a un razonnblc nivcl dc calicltid amhicntal. El Cdcligo FcolOgico Colomhiano (Dccrcto 28 1 1 dc 1974) conscigrii en su artfculo 7' csic dcrccho: T o d a persona ticnc dcrecho ci disfrutar dc un an~bicnte sano".

En muchos casos las :ictivickides con- tiiminadoras potencialmcntc n1i.s pcli- grosas rcsulltin scr tiquelkis en liis cuales no se identifica inn~cdiatamcnte su efeclo negative) en cl ambicnic y los sercs humanos. Talcs cfcctos cstfin relacionados con la latcncia y acumula- cion.

El proceso dc acumuliici6n signified, en efecto, que micntras la dcscarga aisluda del polutantc pucdc scr inofensiva cn a l y n o s casos, la sunia dc talcs descar- gas, proccdcntes dc un:i o varias afucn- tcs, puede proclucir una ;icun~uliitivii iimenaza contra el anlhicntc y l;] salud. Un kigo, por cjemplo, pucdc lintilmentc 'morir" a consccucncia dc un;i continuti y cicumuliitiva lluvia iicicla.

c. P.1 dcrccho a clisl'ruttir dc un razona- blc nivcl dc c~iilidiid amhicntal. Como consccucnciii dirccia del reconocin~iento

de este dcrccho result;ir;in ilicitiis tiqucl- a s acciones que, cxentas de cl'cctos peligrosos para la salud o vida hunianas. cveniualmcnie priven a Ins ciudadanos del uso y goce del palrin~onio timbicn- tal.

Esta exprcsidn del Derccho I Iunlano Ambiental dificre de la anterior por cuanio el objcto dc su protccciOn no cs lti villa ni la salud humanas, sino cl dcrccho a disfrutar de un amplio rango de usos del pairimonio ambiental clue podria scr limitado o intcrferido por agenics contanlinantes o imp;iclos timbicntales.

d. 13 dcrecho a proieger la propiedad privadi.1 dc cvcniuiiles dafios causados por contiin~inacidn o pcrturbiiciOn an?bicntales provoc;idas por tcrccros.

<'.Fn qu6 mcdida se ejcrcen y son prole- gidas o rcspctadas cstus nx)dalidadcs del Dcrecho I Iumano Amhicn~iil? iCufilcs son las limitacioncs cxistcntcs en Colombia, p;irticularmcntc, y en cl Tcrccr Mundo, cn general, para @ran- lizar cl ejcrcicio pleno dc los Derechos Ambientales? Y, finalmenie, 6por qu6 y para que insistir en cl rcspeto por Ios dereclios ambientales, por la calidad dc vida, "en cstos ticmpos sombrfos" (Gutierrcz Correal, I., 1988) dc ciscsin- iitos cotidianos, genocidos y violaci61i sistcm2tica dc los dcrcchos humanos biisicos?

(.DC que herramicnias Icgalcs, institucio- nales y poli'tiras disponcn los pueblos dc

America Latina para propiciar la protcc- ciOn y cjercicio de 10s Dcrcchos Am- bicntalcs? Para responder a los requeri- mientos econOn~icos, sociales y cultura- les de crecientes pohl;iciones y garan- tizar, al n ~ i s n ~ o ticmpo, el ejercicio de sus derechos ambientales en cl marco dc poli'ticas de conservacion de 10s sistcmas ecol6gicos bAsicos, prutecci6n ~imbiental y desarrollu sostenible?

Aunquc no cxiste uniformidad en cuanto al grado de evoluci6n y dcsarrol- 10 dc la legislaci[jn an~biental en los pafscs del continente, en general, la mayorfa Ciirece de niccanisn~os estruc- turales para propiciar adecuadamcntc el cjcrcicio dc los derechos an1bicnt;ilcs. Salvo excepdoncs, las herramicnias legales y polfticas disponibles en los pafses dc America Latina no son cfec- tivns para responder a las crccicntcs anicnaxas contra la vida hum;ina, el amhientc y la biocenosis. Tres P iictores contribuycn a provocar cstas carencias:

El primero corresponde a la crisis experinlentada por ki ley o rax6n jurf- dica en America Latina; el segundo, a las propias lin~itaciones del Derecho Ambiental y oposiciones que dcbc enfrentar con otros cuerpos normativos del derecho traditional; y el terccro, est5 constituido tanto por Ios obst5culos estructurales que oponcn los sistemas sociocon6micos vigentes a la gesti6n ambiental como por 1;1 falta dc voluntad polftica para enfrcntar talcs obstAculos.

1.1.1 Crisis de la ratio juris

i. Un mayor o menor grado cl hombre atinoamer~cano ha perdido su confian-

za en la racionalidad jurfdica conm el instrument0 m & adecuado para dirimir los conflictos sociales y garantizar el ejercicio de sus dcrcchos humanos, econon~icos y polfticos. " ...y no s6lo en el derecho entendido como Icy vigcnte - que seria lo dc menos - sino en cl fen6n1eno jurfdico mismo, cntcndido con10 posibilidad de cstructuraci6n de una cocxistencia en libertad, con paz social y politic;^, no estAtica - por s u p - esto - pcro capaz de dinan~izarsc sin acudir a la violencia" (ZatTaroni, R. 1982).

1.a crisis dc la r a r h jurfdica es una crisis global del poder que se cxtici~dc al Hstado y sus institucioncs, incapaces de gtirantizar cl ejcrcicio picno de derechos econOmicos, civilcs y hunlunos. re6rican1ente la raz6n jurfdica dcbc estiniular la denlocratizaci6n dc la gcsti6n public;^ y ascgurar cl cjcrcicio de sus dcrechos ;I tndos Ins ciudadanos.

En la prActica, cl Estado y sus institu- ciones se revelan incapaces para garan- tiziir cl cumplimiento y respcto dc tales dcrechos, cediendo a las presioncs dc sectores hegem6nicos quienes, en su celo para perpetuar privilegios, esgrimcn estrategias que redundan en omisiones, dilaciones o violacihn de dcrechos ciudadanos.

Fn 10s casos m5s extremes, a 10s blo- ques dc poder y sectores hegem61iicos les basta un ejercicio por Id Cuerza de sus pretensioncs: la oscur~dad poli'tica y la barbaric tecnol6gica devicnen cn su perfil ontol6gico. En el esplcndor dc una Nueva Edad Media el consenso juri'dico CS chatiirra pretecnolOgica,

cspecialniente euando se trata de ejer- cer los derechos de gandes nlayorias. (l3orrero Navia, 1987). Asi', toda la conlple,ja estruciura del hrnialismo jun'dico se dcsmorona y su espacio dc racionalidad es arrebatado por la ano- niia y la barbaric.

ii. Las clases hegen16nicas estfin n-ias conipronietidas que las clases subalter- nas cn las ncciones contra 10s derechos anihicntalcs. Y al tiempo que tiencn mayor responsabilidad en las violaciones a los derechos timhientales y acciones antierol6gicas, tanihien tiencn mayor inlluencia cn 121 genesis y aplicaci(jn de la normativa ambicntal. A su turno, las clases suhalicrnas participan cn las practicas contra cl anlbiente en ltinto que actores drtim5ticos dc la pohrezti ahsoluta, y 1115s que dc csta ultima, del proceso de produccibn dc la pobrezu que cn An~kricti 1,atina resultii dc unu inecjuircitiva distribuci(jn de lti riqueza y cl iiigcso.

Dc recienie Sormaei6n, cl derecho amhientai ha estado operando marginal- niente, cuiindo no cn cl vueio. En tcinto que heredero dc disperses disposiciones sobre el uso y explotacihn de los rccur- sos niituralcs, cl Rerecho Anibiental hii sido en la prfictica jun'dica de America Latina un instrun-icnto auxiliar dc poliei'a para asegurar cl exclusivisn-io caciquista y cl control burocritico sobre los recur- sos y patrimonio puhlicos. Operando mfis como filtro burocrfitico quc con10 rnecanisnio adminisir;itivo, las piexas dc li\ legiisaci6n ambiental cxistentc han

sido ajenas a la protecci(5n del derccho humano amhicntal o derecho a 1:1 calidad an~hicntal o \ida sana.

En tanto que cxpresi61i del Dcrecho Publico, cl Derccho Amhienial rara- n-ientc ha sido usado como herramienta para la planeaci6n del desarrollo. Y en su ejercicio normtitivo no hii currcspon- dido a un enfoquc I'uncional y holi'stico que, al establecer un vi'nculo bisico entre ecologia-politics-dcrecho, Ie con- vierta en cl instrumento adecuado par8 legitiniar y poncr en niarcha polflicas dc dcsarrollo sostcniblc.

El derecho traditional tiern-ic a conser- var Sornias que, cn su mayor pane, sc formaron en los Siglos XVII y XIX, cuando no en cl derecho de la antigua Roma. For cllo. en algunos easos se nlanifiesta cntcramente incapaz dc adecuarse a las aspiraciones norn-iativas dc la socicdad actual. (Novoa Montreal, 1965)

1-n tanio quc normat iva renovcidora dc a s relaciones hombre-naluralczti-so- eicdad, cl derecho an~bienttil cncuentr;i oposiciones cn el dcrecho tradicion:il con cl cual dehe coexistir. Estiis oposici- ones se registrar! principalmentc con cl derccho civil y con cierlas regulaciones del derecho publico.

rcgidos. durunte la mayor pane dc la historia de Occidcntc por cl derccho civil, en el cual prevalcce un cr~tcrio privativista que otorga ail dueno o posc- edor del suelo, dominio inminente. real y potencial sobre cl suhsuelo, el am- b i e n t ~ y las aguas. I< l dcrecho amhicn- tal, por cl contrario, consagra pr~ncipios dc derccho publico y propicdtid comun en relacidn con cl ambientc, los recur- sos naturales, las apuas, la flora, la fauna, el espacio aereo, etc.

ii. La tcndcncia en algunas legislacioncs agrariiis hii sido Savorcccr liis coloniza- cioncs esponi:inc;is cn detrimcnto dc los bosques y sistemx ecol(5gicos iisociados a las selvas hun~edas tropicales y laderas del hosque prcmontano. 121 pr5cticii de clarco y qucn~a para amplicir la fronte- ra agri'cola y cstablccer una "mcjora" como requisite previo a la adjudication, lcgilimrt la colonizaci6n espont5ne;i cn la niaiyoria dc las legislaciones agr;irias dc America Latin;).

ReSracttirios a una reforma agraria integral los sectores hcgcrn6nicos dc los pafscs liitinoan1cricanos han propiciaiio los programas de coloni~acicjn y exten- sion de la frontera agri'coki como una alternativa sociopoli'tica part1 resolver, al nlisn~o ticmpo, Ins prcsiones y dcman- das de campesinos pohres sin ticrra a quienes han localizado en las laderas del bosque prcniontano, en Ins hun~cdales o en Areas de los bosqucs tropicales. Mientras minorias de las cliiscs hegcn~o- nicas poseen y explotan las n~cjores ticrras cultivables, la colonizaci611 'expom5neau o "dirigida" dc los hosqucs tropicales ha devenido en n~ectinismo para agudizar la desigualdad econcjmica, Savoreccr los privilegios y la concentra-

ci6n de riqueza a costa dc nuevas y mayores tcnsiones sobre los anicn:iz:idos hosques y ecosisten~as tropiculcs.

i i i . L1 cjercicio dc las sobcranias ncicion- tiles fund;ido en 10s iimitados conceptos de fronteras gcopoliticas es susceptible de afectar, en algunos casos, la gcsti611 ambientcil y mancjo ecosist6mico en provincias hiogeogriticas y biomas cuya transnacionalidad o univcrsalidtHJ ohli- gun a lai aplicaci6n dc principios ergo atlines de rcsponsabilidad ecolcjgica con~partida por pueblos y naciones, n15s alia dc convcnciontiles li'milcs gcopoli'ti- cos.

1.2. Liniitaciones a1 e.jercicio pleno de los derechos arnhientales

F.n principio, cl cjercicio o no de los Dcrechos Ambientales estarA deter- miniido por la efectividad global del sistema: ki estructura poli'tica, cl eslilo de desarrollo, las particularidades so- ciales y culturalcs. Para ser efectivos, tanto los principios como las norn1;is del Derccho Ambiental dehen ucon~pafiarse dc can~bios institucionciles y dc for- talecimiento en las ciipacicliidcs poli'tica,

institutional y adn~inistri'itiv;~ para agcn- ciiir la gcsti6n an~bientiil.

Menester es reconoccr que 10s obst5cu- los para cl ejercicio plcno dc los dcrech- os an~bieniales son, cn u l t ~ n ~ a instancia, 1113s poli'tico-estructurales que juridicos. Sin embargo, un sistema de Derecho Ambient:il l6gico y coherente pucdc contribuir al agencian?icnto de favora- blcs cambios y fisuras en Ia "lateridad" dc lei estructura sociopoli'tica, propici;in- do as< nuevos espacios al ejcrcicio dc 10s dcrechos.

Porque debenlos conlprenclcr que l;i Icy no es una eslructura csiiicionana. Por cl contrario, es un instrunlcnto dc poder que se ejerce en un espiicio dc I'uer7.a~ en conllicto. Un prolongiido proceso dc luchiis socialcs y poli'ticas precede ;il reconocimicnto dc todo clerecho. Y cuando la ley lo consagra solcn~ncn~ente y dcclara su protecci6n ergn omnes, no se deriva dc till solem- nidiid un ejercicio pleno y libre dc cscollos. Contr(~rio s e s n , Ins tituliircs del dcrecho debcriin enfrcntar presion- CS, fucrzi'is o desplazan~ientos que sistematicamente limitan o nicgan su ejercicio y legi'timo goce. Por cllo, para garantizar su cunipliniiento y respcto, los titularcs de un dcrecho estrirhn siernprc expuestos a evcntualcs ciipiti.s d'tninutio. Porque el derecho es y sera sienlpre una conquista, en ocasiones rnuy difi'cil de consolidar. Conquista que una vez lograda en un cspacio y ticm- pos del cucrpo social, dcbc scr ci l mis- mo ticn~po la herranlienta ideal para veneer las oposiciones, conciliar Ios conflictos y mit ipr las violacioncs.

1.2.1. Una c o p dc vctzeno p r o todos 11cna

J.luvias m5.s icidas que cl vinagrc cacn como brasas ardicntes sobre 10s par- rales, bosques y naranjales. Los cielos dcvuelven a la tierra el vcneno rccibido. Ilesde las cloticas y alc;intiirill:is urb;m;is, dcsde 10s can~pos n~onocullurales, desdc Ios cuatro puntos cardinales, Ios vcncnos tluycn h;icia la atn16sl'cra, hacia Ios ri'os y occanos del pliinc~ii. Abrumadorcs volunlenes de clorollu~icirhonos, mcihii- no y dioxide de rarbono ahogiin la atm6sfcra y alniacenan calor en las capas pr(5xinias a la supcrficic dc la tierra. 1.a inccsante combusti6n a alias temperaturas emite a la atn~osfcra, cada ano, rnAs dc 20 millones dc toneladas nletricas dc oxidii nitricu, compuesto decisivo en la gcneraci6n del smog y la lluvia icida. El efecto "invernadcro" no es unii anlcnaza futura, es el inmeclialo prescnte. HI calcntamicnto global dc la atnl(>sfcra ha comenzado ya: cuatro dc 10s ultimos veranos han sido 10s nlas calurosos del siglo. Durante 1988, liis sequi'as en China y los I<stados Unidos o las inundaciones en Iianglladesh o Colombia son sus dramaticas cxpresion- CS.

L 1 "agujero" en la Antirtida, eventualcs hendiduras en el Artico y perdidas en

la capa de ofono que protege a la Biost'era de los rtiyos ultravioletas, representan una de las m5s serias amenazas jamas enfrentadas por la vida desde su upiiricih sobrc la tierra.

Aunque todo us0 o produceion de clorofluorc~irbonos fuese suspendido hoy, su impticto devastador sobre la cap;] prolcctora del ozono continuarfa durtinte 15 anos: es el tienlpo promedio que estos gases requieren para viajar" dcsde la superficie de la tierra hasta la estratosfera e iniciar las reaccioncs qufmicas que, en presencia dc ki lur solar y crisitilcs dc hielo, destruyen dos molcculas dc ozono por recicci(\n para transforn~arlcs en tres molecultis cor- rientes de ox@no.

Los boSques tropicalcs, los m;is ricos ccosisten~as dc la bioslerti, habitats de la mGs conipleja diversidad gen6tira, estan sicndo dcstruidos al esciilofritinte ritmo de seis acres por minute. Once millones dc hcctfircas picrdc anualmentc la selva tropical.

Tanto la iutura expansion de la ex- plotacibn niadcrcra con10 10s inaplara- bles requerimienios de crccicntes poblu- clones por combustible - tiproximacki- mente la mitad de la pobliici(5n mun- dial usa la Iena como su unica fuente dc con~bustible - hacen dc la defores- taci6n global de la ticrra una inexorable realidiid.

Solo una btirbiirie y una irradonalidiid sin Ifmites podrfiiii tiii1entiz:ir e incluso destruir 10s bosques tropiciilcs clue representan 50 millones dc anus dc evoluciOn inintcrrunipida dc lii biosicra.

Sin embargo, en regioncs c o n ~ o Nepal. Malasia o Tailandia, las selvas podrfan desaparcccr en un plazo dc 20 anos. F,n el sudcste asiatico un 70 por cicnto dc las especies silvestres ha desaparecido.

Aden~Gs de los danos dircctos, la des- trueci6n a gran escala dc los bosques tropicales acarreara cl cnipohrecimicnto y erosion de suelos, stilini/aci6n, lti

scdimcntaci6n de cn~balses, cursos dc agua y zonas costeras, sequi'as e inun- daciones, cambios en los niicruclimas. loctiles. el ineremento del dioxide dc carbono y dc la polucion gencriil dc lii

atn1Osfera.

l desierto avanza y 10s suclus dc la tierra se empobrccen. Miis del 95 por ciento dc la superficie tcrrcsire lottil dc tierras aridas y scmi5ridas cnfrenta serins r ics~os de deserLiiicaci(3n. Un 00 por cicnto dc las licrriis Aricliis csti'i sul'ricndo severas perdidas cn sus nive- lcs dc productividad biol(jyica, 1ind;indo en lus cnticas condicioncs dc Ia dcscr- tilicaci~jn. Un 35 por ciento dc locliis !as tierras del pkineta esta cxpucstii a unii eventual dcsertilic;ici(\n. l-:l desicrto cst ti ivanzando: cl Sahara sc ha extcncliclo sobre un 80 por cicnto del sub-S;ih;irii iilricano.

r'ntrc 1986 y 1988, 3.176.000 tonekidas dc btisurti iiieron cnviadas desdc los pai'scs industrializados hacia 15 paiscs del Terccr Mundo. I .OS 3.800 tonekidus de desechos toxicos arrojados en proxi- midades dc un puerio en Nigeriii o Iris 3.000 toneladas dc ceniras tOxiciis que provenientes dc un incinerador c11 1,'il;idelphia fueron d ~ p ( > ~ i t t i d a ~ en I Iaiti', rcprcsen~iin solo unii cifr:: mi'nima del

volunien global dc hasuras, pcligrosas, metales pcsados y otros tOxicos quc anualn~cnte "exportan" los pafscs ccntra- Ics a los poises pobres del Tercero Mundo.

En una decada, la poblaci(51i urbana del Tcrcer hlundo duplicara a l;! dc los pafscs postindustrialcs. I a n~itad dc la poblaci6n mundial vivira en asentaniicn- 10s urbanos. donde sc produce11 Ios niayores volu~iicnes dc biisurii, dcscchos qufmicos y aguas scrvidiis. Qircntcs dc adecu;icia intriiestructura siinit;iria y sin altern;itiv;is socioanibicntiiles y tccn(\lo- gicas. las ciudades del 'I'crccr Muncio sohrevivir5n como esccn;irios dc agudos conflictos socit'~les y p;itologi'us iin~hicn- tales, cntrc cl h;icin;iniiento, lei pohrcz:~ n1;isiv;i y cl terror colcctivo.

Y l;) copii dc vcnciio es copiosiin~cnic, colmada por la barbaric niilitarisla. 17n nucstro pliinctti, niis dc mil niillones dc d(j1iires son ditiriamcntc dilap~cliiclos en presupuesto niilitiir. Un 25 por cicnto dc la comuniciiid ciciitfiica iritcrnacioii;il trahiija para incrcmcntar la capiicidad dcstructivii del arsciiiil helico. Y no solo l ciencia sirve a la barbaric: scscnt;~ millones dc seres hunianos cmplciin su tienlpo Iaborul cn ocupacioncs reliicioii- adiis con iictivicliicics n~ilitares. Suhcon- tincntcs y rcgiones coriio, Cciitro AmC- rica o cl sudcste asiiitico no pocir;in recupcriirse en decadiis dc los c;iltistr(j- ficos cfcctos umbientalcs inducidos por 121s gucrras.

A lii illuCfl~ dc id hioecnosi.~, c u i i l l ~ l ~ ya no sc escucha cl canto dc un ruise- nor solicitario, ni cl zun~bido dc unit iibeja, ni los runiorcs sinf6nicos del

bosque, cl sobrcvivicntc hotno s~zpiens inflan~ari sus pulmones con di6xido dc carbono, su sangrc rebosari dc icido sulfurico y su orgullo tecnok'igico reven- tar6 dc detritus.

1.a Comisi6n Mundial sohrc Anibientc y Desarrollo en su rcporte dc 1987 Nmr.stro Fiituro Coiniin iilirnia que cl detcrioro ecol6gco sc ha convertido en unii forma dc supcrvivencia para los pai'scs del Terccr Mundo. At rapdos en ;is exigcncias dc lii impiigable deuda extcrnii, la cai'dii en los precios de las nititerias prinias en cl nicrcado inter- n;icion;il, los ajusles cad2 vcz 1115s dih'ciles inipuestos por cl I'ondo Monc- tiirio Intcrnacioniil. los pafscs dc AmZ- rica I iit111;i no cncucntriin l;is vfiis ascgurar su desiirrollo sostcnihlc. 1'eor aun, las demandas financieras inter- nacionalcs han propiciado mayorcs y ni5s numerosas prcsioncs sobrc Ios ya sobrccxplotiidos rccursos niiluralcs y ecosisten~as. (13orrero Navia, 1087).

C;iiiipcsinos sin ticrra, pescadores pohrcs, colonos y otros pobres dc la tierra conlornian lu cIr;ini5tica legion dc tiiltidorcs dc Srboles, invasorcs dc par- qucs naturalcs, pesciidorcs cic coriilcs, cleprcdadores dc tortugas y sus hucvos, ciizi~dorcs y tr;ilic;irites ;il n~enudco dc ejen~plarcs unices dc lii fauna y flor;~ tropicalcs. h i , cl detcrioro ecologico ha dcvcnido en vi'a dc supcrvivcncia.

1.a historia ccol6gica cie America I.;iiina es la cr~jnica dc la explotacicjn dc su p:~lrinionio a~iibient;il. Dcsdc ticmpos oie

lu colonizaci6n, Ios lcrritorios de ultra- mar fueron para las monarqui'as euro- peas inagotablcs despensas de mineralcs, maderas y especies prcciosas. 1.a ex- plotaci6n y cl pillaje constituycron paradigmas dc la relaci(5n hombre- an~biente en los ticmpos coloniales. Esta kjgica no experiment6 cambios significa- tivos con la independencia y cl adveni- miento de las republicas: el eje hege- m6nico del control colonial devino en el poder de grandes corporaciones y monopolies internacionales cnraizados con intereses dc grupos nacionales, para quienes la oferta ambiental del con- tincnte solo reprcsentaba une fuente de enriquecin~iento, meta mis all5 dc la cual no habfa ningun;i consideraci6n ecol6gica.

I ,egislacionesambient ales"blandas" para atraer la inversion externa desde Ins pafses centrales dondc, dc otra pane, 10s controles y standarcs anibicntales no pern~iten sociali~ar los costos ambien- tales y de pesticides hacia los pafses del Tcrcer Mundo, son ejemplos de poli'ti- cas antiecologicas. A traves dc ellas han sido deterioradns vastos sistcm;is ecol0- gicos y se ha conlpron~etido severa- mentc tanto cl ejercicio de 10s derechos ambientales como las posibilidades de desarrollo sostenible para 10s pueblos latinoamericanos.

El proceso de production de la pobreza que asegura al mismo tiempo cl enri- quecimiento y podcr dc liis ckises hegc- monicas, es una de las mayores causas del deterioro ambiental y el m5s sig- nificativo obst5culo para el ejercicio de Ins derechos an~bientales.

1a pobreza de los pueblos del "I'ercer Mundo es sistemiticamente producida. Aunquc su deuda externa afecta cri'tica- mcnte la vida dc millones de sercs humanos, la inlbrn~acion existcntc es lin~itada y no se coniprendcn la grave- dad, complejidad y catastr6ficas con- secuencias del problcma. En muchos pafses, los pagos anuales por servicio de la dcuda y capital superan el total dc las sumas rccibidas por conccpio de ayuda externa y nucvos prestamos.

En los pai'ses centrales persiste la idea de que 10s flujos dc capitales vienen dc Ins pai'ses ricos hacia 10s pai'ses pobrcs para ayudar a estos ultimos cn su desarrollo y lucha contra la pohre~a. El10 quiz5 fue una vcrdad relativa dicz afios air& porquc en la prescnte decii- da 10s exportadorcs dc capital ha11 sido los pafses del Tercer Mundo, 10s cuales se han cn1pobrecido y limitado cada vex n15s su capacidad dc acumulaci6n, 211

exportar a los paises centrales los mil- lonarios p a p s de su deuda externa. (Environnlental Policy Institute, 1989)

Que los pai'ses pobrcs exporten capital a los ricos no es asunto nuevo. Ilurante centurias 10s pai'ses pcrif6ricos expor- taron su capital ambiental a 10s pafses centrales. For ello la "deuda ccol6gica" (Rarco Vargas V. 1989) adquirida por el None con el Sur la verdadcra d e ~ d i i externa en el orden econ6mico inter- national.

1.2..?, La rupliira del vincula vivicnic

Cuatro mil anos de cultura accidental se fundtiron en el reconocimiento ergn omnes de la radical dilerencia existentc

entre el ser humano, especic unica, y Ins restantes seres vivos de la bi(5sScra. Una ontologi'a legitinlada a [raves del sojuzgan~iento que la especie humana habia ejcreido sobre la naturalcza y los restantes seres vivos. Sojuzgamiento quc, en la mitad del Siglo XIX, materi- alizaba todo el h i t o del ingcnio hun~a- no cn tamo tecnologi'a y capacidad para intervcnir Ins procesos dc la naturalcza.

LPor qud y para quc cambiar los para- digmas que inspiraron una dtica y una antropologi'a eficientc? <",Acaso la espe- cie hurnana no habia den~ostrado cn exceso su superioridad en cl control y dominio sobre la naturaleza? LPor qud infringir una dolorosa capitis diinimitio a1 status dc la condition humana y corroer la inlagcn de la propia iden- tidad?

El extraiian~iento fue la respucsta de la cultura accidental a una revolucirin tc6rica que no solo convocaba a una nucva concepcidn de lo human0 sino al reconocimiento y necesidad del vi'nculo vivicnte hon~bre-naturaleza. Un extrafia- miento cada vez mas profundo, cada vcz n ~ a s lejano. En la alienaci6n de natura cl homo sapiens mitigaba cl dolor de una herida abierta y todavia sangrante: al extender los prodigies dc la artificializacirin se h i ~ o histdricamente posiblc la prueba material de la difercn- cia. El scr human0 habfa edificado su habitat "artificial" allendc los procesos nalurales y coronado dc poder 10s utcnsilios dc su tccnologia. Allcnde natura, la cspccie unica hahi'a accedido a I:) difercncia y al ilin~itado poder que esa diferencia 1c conl'eri'a suficienies para calcinar en un hongo atoniico los

cicn milloncs dc afios dc la cvolucion biol6gica sobre la tierra y dcvolvcr, dc una vez y para siempre, toda la herrum- brc histdrica y el polvo y las cenizas a a nada.

Bookchin (1982) refiere la cxistcncia de "sociedades orginicas" prchistcjricas no jerarquizadas en las cualcs las difcrcn- cias dc sexo, cdad y experiencias eran consideradas meras cxprcsiones de la "unidad cn la diversidad" o dc la "uni- dad en la difercncia". Los seres hunla- nos en talcs culturas no se auioestima- ban "10s rcyes dc la crcacih~", ni supe- riores o inferiores a las otras cspecies vivicntes. Se reconocian simplenlentc cn la "naturalcza". (Iradualmcnte las sociedades "organicas" cmpczaron a desarrollar formas dc estratificaci6n y diferenciaci~n, quebrantando su unidad original: la expansion de la esfcra "civil" sociopoli'tica, indujo una predomin:intc posici6n dc los hon~hres n ~ a s vicjos sobre las mujeres y Ios j6vcnes.

L,a nocirin de una con~unicliid hunlana "no jerarquizada" in illo tctnpore podria militar en el mito del "buen s;ilvaje": la n~emoria diluye las maculas y heridas del pasado y dste devicne en paradig- ma. Si bien la racionalidad normativa es condicion sine qua non del linaje huma- no, menester es reconocer que la evolu- cidn, iortuosa en alto "ado, dc los imperatives 6ticos corresponde cast cxclusivamente a las sociedadcs histori- cas.

Allcnde la especulaciOn hisi6ric;i sobre sociedcidcs no jerarqui~adas, lo cicrto es que tanto las jcrarqufas poli'iicas, so- citiles o econ6n1icas en las socicdades

histc'iricas conlo su establecin~iento no resultaron del primado de la razon analitica. La reflexion filos6fica sobre la materia no ha logrado remediar las carencias de 10s fil6sofos para el ejer- cicio del gobierno, ni las limitaciones filos6ficas de algunos hombres de gobierno. A la somhra de las lirnitacion- es de 6stos ultin~os, experirnentada socialn~ente conlo ;iusencia dc la r;iz6n analitica, la "razon instrumental" devino en instrumento hegcm6nico de las sociedades hist6ricas: en un extremo las jerarquias "irracionales", en cl otro, 121

'razon instrumental", y enlre elkis, en un espacio de resiliencias cada vcz n15s estrecho, las crisis dc lii biocenosis.

De otra pane, la agrcsi6n extra o intrtiespecificti ha sido una constante en la evolucidn human;!. Mas que un ideario moral, el control social dc la agresion ha sido una opcracicjn ttcnica. Elica y ley positiva ha11 propiciado cambios tccnolOgicos y dcspliiztimicntos estrat6gicos en la "cconomia politicii dc la agresion". l'ero la agresi6n no ha disminuido ni tampoco destiparccido. For cl contrario, se han diversificado sus expresiones y sofisticado sus procedi- mientos. Pero al agedir al an~biente (atmosfera, ribs, mares, bosques, aguas, diversidad biolc'igica) se atenta directa y gravemente contra la base biofisica que haee posible la vida. ?.Con10 ex- plicar cntonces que tal agresic'in sea producida por la raz(5n instrumental al interior dc las practicas sociales y eco- n6micas?

121s aceioncs ecocidas no resultan cx- clusivan~ente de una irracionalidad precipitada en el telos tome y ciego de

sus desipios contra ki bicjsfcra. Sino, por el contrario, dc la propia raz6n analitica al servicio dc la barbaric. Cuando la fi'sica nuclear o la cibernttica son empleadas para mejorar la capaci- dad dcstructiva dc las armas, tenernos un caso ejemplar de la razcjn analftica operando como razOn instrumcnial al scrvicio dc la barbaric.

1.a instrumcntaci6n tecnolOgica "cligee" cicrtiis vias y/o proccdin1ientos. Quc estas resullen no cornputibles ccologica- mcnte es cl resultado del complcju proceso social quc propicia la "clccci(5n" y puesta en nlarcha dc un n~cciinismo o procedimicnto tccnolOgico que provo- cti tensiones o impactos ncg;itivos ill

ambiente. Que las socieclades histdricas hayan preferido, al interior (Jc sus prActicas cientificas y IecnolOgicas, cmplcar las armas nucleares, los vchi- culos a combustion o los pesticiclas, en lugar de promover las apliciicioncs lie la ~11~rgi';i solar, los vehiculos no con- t a m i n a n t ~ ~ o la agricultura orgzinica, es cl tcstimonio dc una voluntad sockil e histc'iricamenie lcgitimiida. (Borrcro Navia, 1987)

Pero los costos an~bientales dc tal raz(5n instrumental, c(;put mortinn del niircisis- mo antroproccntrico, hoy timcnazan por igual, en un efecto humerang a loda la biosfcra y a la fan~ilia humana. ?,Y quikn paga 10s costos ambientales de l:i

razon instrun~ental?

2.0. IIacia el ejercicio pleno de los derechos ambientales en una so- ciedad ecolOgica

' a ra garantizar el ejercicio picno dc Ios derechos ambientales debcren~os super-

ar la probem absoluta de amplias niayori'as, la Salta de justicia social y la guerra. La deuda ecol6gica, verdadera mcdida de la crisis ambicntal, debera pagarse con la vieja moneda de la justicia social.

Una sola es el agua del planeta. Una sola agua fluyc por el mundo. Una sola ugua niitigti nuestra scd, sos[iene la vida y es niotivo constante dc alegn'd y sensualidad para todos Ins seres vivien- tes. Una sola es tanibiCn Gaia, nuestro planctti. Uno solo cs nuestro cornprom- iso por el ascenso espiritual hunxino y su florecin~icnto en cl cosmos.

L,a Dcclaraci6n de Estocolmo suscrita en 1972 por 113 pai'scs miembros dc las Naciones Unidas Sue un paso decisivo para consolidar la solidaridad pkincta- ria con el ser humano y la bicjsfera. La DeclaraciOn asegur0 formalmcnte una adhcsidn dc la comunid;id i111ern;icinn;il con:

HI reconocimicnto del dcrecho a un an~bicnte sano coma un dcrecho humu- no biisico;

L1 solen1ne eompromiso de la ciencia y la tecnologi'a en la idcntificaci6n dc 10s riesgos tccnolOgicos que iinlenaccn cl an~bientc, en la soluci6n dc 10s problemas anlbicntalcs y por cl bienes- tar coniun dc la humanidad;

La formulaci6n dc un criicrio legal internacion;il en rclaci6n con la respon- sabilidad y compensaci6n por los dafios ambicntales y la contaminacidn;

La pronioci6n dcl desarrollo social y econdniico como requisite bfisico pars garantizar a 10s seres hunlanos una vivible n~orada y un adecuado anibicnte laboral:

I a protection global del pkineta y la biosl'cra.

3.0 Capu f mortum

Scri'a tan scncillo pcnsar glubaln~entc y h;icer dc nuestros pequcfios espacios individuales csccnarios planetarios. Serfs tan sencillo suspender 10s multiniillona- rios dcspiil'tirros en armamento, desiruc- ci6n y nluerte. Tan scncillo invcrtir csas sunias en cducaci(j11. iilinicnto, vivicnd;~ y calidad de vidii para Ios pueblos pobres. Y tan scncillo evitar la ra/(>n instrumental sojuzgadora y propiciar practicas organicas cnlazadas con la licrra.

Scria tan scncillo si luviCscmos la vo- lunnid dc hciccrlo: si nueslra voluntad fuesc un;i rcspucsia a la confus16n y a lii violencia. Pcro acasu qucrcmos h;icerlo? Vivc en nosotros ki fucrm del dcsco? Y cuiil CS su dirccciOn? 0

Hdward (ioldsmilh. "Towards a Biosphcric Ktliic", The Eco1osT.t (Vol 19, No 2. M:irch! April 1989).

Timothy C Weiskcl, "The 1icologic:il Les- sons of the Past: An Anthropology o f l~nvironn~ental Decline", The Ecolo@ (Vol 19, No 3, MayIJunc 1989).

William D T<uckelshaus, "Toward a Sus- tainable World, Scientific American (New York, Special Issue, Scplembcr 1989).

World Commission on Knvironn~mt and Development. Our Common l%nirt7 (New York: Oxford University Press, 10x7).

Wiliam C dark. "Managing Planet Liar- th", Scientific American (New York. Special Issue. September 1089)

//''iit-'til~': I'\'lracio con pcrfffi.si(jti (/c "/'.'l dcrcchu a iifi utnbicti~c s m , 1111 ~ I T ~ I V I ~ hiit~iotio hasico" U I Curios A. Manitia C. & Edgur Varclu 11. (coinpl, Dcrcchos liiii~'~;i~ios ! ~ixidcrniiJ:id /Cull, Colonihin: I'crs~ncr~a .Municipal, l W / /y).757-1 -4;

(Suite dc 1.1 page 37)

The XI I World Coti/rrence of t/ie If'i)rld I'iiliircs LS;;~dies Federation it1 eolliiboraiion with the Centre (,'atala lie I'ro.\/~ecrh~~, A d - vancing Democracy iiiid Participation: Challenges lor tlie Future will he held it! Karcelonu, 17-21 September 1 W . ' 1 7 1 ~ Conference is intended to contribute to u rejl(~ction and advance on future forms o f democracy' and participiiiion; /?rninote l / ~ e r~ri~fl i igc of k f io~de(yc of\(/ r~ /vr i t~ fc 'c ( : : (>)id i n to model fiinire-oncnu'd modes o f dcitio- crocy and p(iriici{iation ( ( . ' n i t i v Um',\c'o ill' Caialutya Mullordi 2A.5, O C S O . ~ ~ liarcelorul .Y/iUitl).

it'cla dossier SO janvicr/mars 1901 cspacc rcgioiiiil

Surmonter la crise du Pan-africanisme et de l'unit6 de 1'Afrique noire

par Bernard Founou Tchuigoua Forum du Tiers Mondc BP 3501 Dakar, Stin$iil

Overcoming the Crisis of Pan Africanism and Africa's Unity

Ab.~tract: IIaving looked back at the rising and wiming of Pan Afnciinixin and Ntgritude and their differences, the aintlior examines the factors tliat led to tlie cun-cnt crisis: capitalism and the size of nations; the effects of the anti-Van Africanist strategy of the center; the cotn~~r~;(ioriziition of the ruling dimes and the State; and the v(ipenes.s of the conceptual framework:. Tiyitrg to rzn.snler the nliiil is t o be done" (jiiestion, the aiitlwr suggests to reject the idea o f the Jbrmation of (i

single nation in a foreseeable future and to accept to pose concrete problems in a sii11-rqionnl framework. None of the trends in 111e global mu/(~tions wliic11 div

underway will per se facilitate Africa's unity. Yet, unity in democracy is more necessniy than ever.

Superar la crisis del Pan-Africanismo y de la unidad del Africa negra

Bernard Founou Tchuigoua

Surmonter la crise du Pan-africanisme et de 'unite de 19Afrique noire

Tout nationalisle africain dc la fin dcs annees 1950, nourri dcs textcs sur l'unitk culturcllc cl historiquc des Nkgro-africains et dcs declarations dcs diffkrcnts congres du Pan-africain. se reprksentait I'Afriquc noire, sinon toute I'Afriquc, conimc unic et prosperc bicn avant la fin du XXc si?clc. C'cst qu'5 partir dc 1947 Nkruniah amcna progrcssivemcnt toutc a jcuncssc africainc militante a croirc avcc lui que la formation d'un h a t federal africain serait la suite logiquc du mouvcmcnt dc liberation nationale. La fiction senlble tres prochc dc la r6alii6 entre 1957 et 1963. Dcpuis, l'cuphoric a cede la place au dksenchantemcnt, car les problemes que l'unit6 dcvait contribucr 3 r6soudrc: dksastre 6cono- mique, repression politique, dksarroi culturcl, s'accentuent. Le sentiment quc la division du continent en pctits 6tats jouc un role csscntiel dans cc processus retail surface. Le mouvcmcnt Pan-africaniste peut rcprcndrc. Pour kviter unc sccondc crisc qui pourrait lui Ctrc filial, un effort d c rcconccptualisittion, qui ticnnc comptc des chiingenient'i inlcrvcnus dans les pratiques et dans les idces, cst nd'ccssairc. Lcs tli?nies 3 abordcr sont nombrcux, car la question cst complexc, plus complexc quc n'oni pens6 les pionnicrs, qu'ils soicnt penscurs, hommes d'Etat ou responsablcs dc niouvemcnts dc masse. Parmi ccs themes, une attention spkcialc dcvra t t r e accordkc a l'analysc sans complaisance du pass6. En revanche, 1c dkbat et Faction devront sc soutcnir davantage. Cet article, qui est unc contribution au dkbat sur 1c pass6 et 3 l'csquisse d'unc problkmatique nouvcllc, commence par un rappel d c I'essor e t du dticlin du mouvcmcnt Pan-alricanistc sc poursuit par I'analyse dcs facteurs dc !a crise avant d'aborder Ie "que faire?".

1 . Essor et crise du Pan-africanisme

Dans l'csprit dcs pionnicrs du Pan-africanismc, parmi lesquels Marcus Gamey, apotrc du retour dcs Afro-amkricains vers I'Afriquc, 1c continent africain n'ktait pcuplk quc dc Noirs, qui formaicnt "unc

nation". Lc Pan-africanismc 6tait pour cux synonymc dc la doctrine de 1'Etat noir. O n pcut en (later la naissancc au Premier Congres tcnu 2 Paris en 1919 par des intcllcctuels nkgro-amkricains mais preside par Blaise Diagne. 11 riclamait l ' igaliti racialc, c'cst-2-dire, en fait, I'tSlimination de la discrimination raciulc h I'Qard dcs Noirs duns les pays capitalistcs et done la possibilitk pour cux d'acckder aux classes supiricurcs. Puis, dans Ics ann6es 1930, allait sc former un courant d c pcnsie pan-nfcgrc, la Nigritude, qui pour dcux raisons, nc communiqua pas viritablcmcnt avcc 1c Pan-africanisme.

Pour les ihCoricicns dc la Nigritude, et surtoul pour Scnghor, I'inddpen- dance n'est pas unc condition incontournable d c la r6tmcrgencc du Noir et du N6gro-afrieain comme sujet actif de I'histoirc locale, rtgionalc cl mondialc. Ccttc r6tmcrgcncc suppose seulcment la reconnaissance par I'Occident du fait quc la culture occidcntalc et la culture ncgro-africainc sont compl6mentaires.

La dcuxi&me raison cst d'ordrc theorique. La Nigritude envisage les cultures conime dcs invariants hisioriqucs absolus, les Cldrnents constitutifs d c chacunc d'cllc s'itant eristallisis A un moment donnk, du fait d'une stSrie dc circonstanccs dans Iesqucllcs I'cnvironncmcnl physique jouc un role csscnticl. Dans cettc conception, la rtvolulion culturellc like 2 la revolution iconomiquc quc connul 1'Europc du XVIc au XVIIlc sicclc cst un phcnomknc marginal. "la rationalitd" prksentee conimc caractkristiquc dc 1'Europe i tant n i c en G r k e (la raisun cst hcll2ne). Malgrk son caracHirc tres an~bigu, la Nkgritudc avait avanck une id6c intkressante pour Ics Pan-africanistcs: l'cxistcncc d'un fond culturcl commun au-del2 d c la diversity.

L'apport d c Chcikh Anta Diop qui puhlia unc s i r ic d'ouvragcs dkcisifs entrc 1955 e t 1960 cst surtout d'ordrc historique. I1 soutcnait quc I'unit6 culturcllc cxistc, mais quc c'cst la connaissancc dc son originc historiquc qui pcut 1c mieux tclaircr 1c combat pour l'unitk politiquc; quc 13uiitk culturcllc plonge ses radtics dans une histoirc commune dont les menioircs unt pcrdu lcs traces, mais quc la recherche patience du savant met 3 jour; quc hi com~nun;iutL cultureilc proviefit du mondc dc 1'Egyptc pharaoniquc qui 6tait aussi 1'Egvptc nwe. 11 ktablit ainsi quc Ics Noirs on1 et6 i I'originc d c la plus ancicnnc civilisation du mondc situ6 d 1'Oucst dc 1'Indc et dc la Chine. A la these d c la cornplkmcn-

taritd. il opposait ccllc dc l'antdrioritd dc la civilisation nhgre, et faisait dkriver la prdtcndue "raison blanche" dc la "raison nQrc".

Si la NQritudc cst apparuc aux militants des mouvements nationalistcs des anndcs 1950 comme une iddologic plutdt d6n1obilisatrice du fait dcs positions dc son representant africain par excellence, Leopold Skdar Senghor, par contre les theses d e Chcikh Anta Diop ont influence indubitablcmcnt ccs mouvcments notamment dans les colonies fran- qaises. D e l'annec dc l'indepcndance du Ghana (1957) 5 la forn~ation d c ' O U A (19631, 1c Pan-africanisme connut une grande pkriodc d'illusions qui Cut vdcue conlmc la phase du "ddcollage" du mouvemcnt unitaire: la thdorie, les actions dcs mouvcments populaires (syndicats e t partis nationalistes, mouvements dc gucrre, mouvcmcnts dcs fcmmes d c ...) e t lcs politiqucs unitaircs s'entrccroisaicnt. Nyercre proclama sa volonid d c retarder la date dc l'indkpcndancc dc son pays pour quc I'union avec 1c Kenya et 1'Ouganda sc realise, Nkrumah, Skkou Tour6 et Modibo Keita tcntercnt d c former avec l'union Ghana-Guinke-Mali, 1c noyau des Etats-Unis d'Afrique, malgrk son hktkrogdnkitd, 1c groupc dit d c Casablanca adopta unc chartc prkconisant la formation d'un Etat htoycn Commun ctc ... Ajoutons que la luttc pour l'dgalitd dcs droits rcmportait d c grandcs victoires aux Etats-Unis.

Mais paralli?lement, les forces anti-unitaircs 6taicnt 2 1'oeuvre, car Ie mouvcmcnt ktait ddstabilisant pour lcs intkrets d c certaincs puissances occidcntalcs cl des compradorcs politiqucs locaux. Pour dvilcr unc confrontation qui cut tournd d l'avantagc des anti-fdddralistcs, 1c compromis d c 1963 aboutit 2 la formation d c 1'OUA et 2 la sacralisa- lion dcs frontiercs t r a c k s par la colonisation. Ainsi la fondalion d c ' O U A fut un moment dc la crisc et non de I'cssor du mouvcmcnt pan- africaniste, comme pouvaicnt 1c fairc penser lcs discours inauguraux, celui d c Nkrumah compris. A la crisc d c l'unit6 s'est supcrposke la crisc conjoncturcllc globale actuellc qui est un moment de la longue crisc dc ddveloppement que connail le continent dcpuis le XVIc sieclc. Mais la crise de I'unitd dtait-elle indvitable?

2. Les facteurs

Le syst2me mondial dans lequel 1'Afriquc est insdrkc dcpuis 1c XVIe sikcle a-t-il bcsoin d'Etats d c grandcs dimensions en population ou en

autrcs ressourccs pour son fonctionnernent? Lcs conflits majcurs du systemc favorisent-ils l'unitk? Lcs classes dirigeantcs locales pouvaient- dies se sacrificr pour rkaliser l'unitb? La thkoric nc coniportc-1-ellc pas ses propres faiblcsscs? Ccttc panic cst consacrk aux theses sur ces questions crucialcs.

Lcs pays oii cst ni5c la rkvolution industriellc devaicnt n6ccssaircmcnt c u e dotes dc rcssources nCccssaircs 2 la sid6rurgie et avoir unc population suffisammcnt nombreuse pour disposer d'un march6 inlkricur en expansion. (Lcs conditions ont 6t6 rcmplies cn Angletcrrc, et en France). Mais dks que cc noyau a kt6 constitute, son dkvcloppc- men! n'a exig6 ni un agrandisscment territorial, ni quc Ies pays pkriphkriqucs qui lcurs son1 lies soicnt dc zrandcs dimensions. En ct'fet, contraircment A cc qui se passail dans les systkmcs prkcapitalisles ou 1c pouvoir politiquc dcvait conirfilcr toute la population productrice du surplus et parfois les marches, 1c systkmc capitalisle s'accommodc facilcmcnt dc la dispersion du pouvoir politiquc, ou la suppose nicmc 5 condition qu'une ou plusieurs bourgeoisies dominantcs cxcrcent 1c contrOle sur I'cnscmble (Sconomiquc.

Dans ccs conditions, 1c combat pour l'unitk africainc nc pcut pas trouvcr fdcilcment dcs arguments en favour d'unc rkvolution economiquc cl sociale capitalistc. C'cst pourquoi la problkmatiquc de la cooperation cl (Svcntucllement dc l'intkgration 6conomique s'cst facilcmcnt substitu6 2 cellc de l'unit6; mais clle sc heurte au nko-lib6ralismc qui s'opposc 2 la formation dc zones 6conomiqucs protkgkcs. Dans cctte optique, la colonisation postkricure A la revolution industriellc s'explique plus par les conflits d'intkrkts entrc bourgeoisies du centre que par unc contradiction interne au mode dc production capitaliste (comme par excmple la baisse tcndcnticlle du laux dc profit).

I1 nc dkcoulc pas dc cc qui prkcfcdc quc 1c systcmc capitaliste en tan1 quc tcl cst contre la formation de grands Etats. Sinon. comment

cxpliqucr l'cxistence d'Etats de la taillc des USA, du Japon, d c I'Inde, dc l'lndonesic, du Nigeria? Neanmoins, dans dcs circonstances histori- qucs donn6cs, dcs bourgeoisies centrales peuvcnt opter pour des strategies visant systdmatiquement a cmpechcr l'unitk politiquc diins unc ou plusicurs parties dc la periphdric. L'Afrique a ctd victimc d'une tellc stralkgic, notammcnt dc la part dc la France et aujourd'hui dc la C E E La France nc s'cst pas contentee dc ddmantelcr les "Fedkrations" dc la pkriodc colonialc et d c Iegucr a un pays commc 1c Senegal 1c problcmc gambien. mais d i e a soutcnu activcmcnt les guerrcs dc secession au Nigeria et a u Zaire. D c plus d i e a tiss6 avec chacune dc ses colonies des relations dc dependancc cxtrEmcmcnt fortc.1 Nous ne prktendons pas quc 1'Anglcterre est plus favorable aux unions quc la France, puisqu'en fait ;ivcc Ics Conventions dc Lome, c'cst toute I'Europc d e 'Oucs t maintenant qui prockdc a unc sortc dc nco-colonisation collcclivc. En cffel, si en prindpc, I'adhilsion a la Convention a t volontaire, 1e refus d'un Etat sub-saharicn dc la signcr cst interpret6 par la C E E commc unc attitude hostile, impliquant I'impossibilitd d'acckdcr aux "avantagcs". Ccttc interprdtation sc comprcnd dans la mcsurc ou cc son1 les Etats Ics plus disposes au dkveloppcmcnt dcs relations Sud- Sud aux depens des relations vcrticalcs qui se montrent lcs plus reservds: Nkruinah portait un jugement sc'verc sur les accords franco- iifricains dits dc cooperation et la Convention dc Yaounde sign& 1c lendemain d c l'accession des pays a I'independancc; I'Angola n'a adhere a la Convention d c Lomk quc lorsqu'il s'cst avkr6 quc c'ktait unc condition ncccssairc a tout pays sub-saharicn desirant avoir dcs relations sttiblcs avcc la CEE.

Lcs pays du centre capitalisle disposent d c deux armes redoutablcs: 1c systkn~c financier international grace auqucl ils pcuvcnt cndettcr les pays et ainsi contr6lcr leur politiquc dconomiquc ct l'avancc, ou plut61 1c pouvoir d c creation tcchnologique qui Icur pcrmct d c c r k r constam- men1 dcs besoins a la pkriphkrie. La plupart dcs Etats sub-sahuricns son1 incapables dc boucler lcurs budget sans aide extericure. Ainsi, cn 1987, 1c flux d'Aidc publique au ddvcloppcmcnt (APD) kquivalait a 8,3% du PNB e t duns d c nombreux pays il (Stait supkricur au deficit des finances publiqucs. Lc processus dc contr6lc dcononiique par 1c levier financier a d 6 pratiqud d e manicrc caricaturalc dans la zone Franc. Lc FM1 et la Banque Mondialc coopkrcnt dc plus en plus avec dcs institutions ct mecanismcs financiers bilatdraux. Dans la gcstion d c

la dcttc, et dans la politique dc stabilisation, les Etats du centre et lcs transnationales financifcrcs rcconnaisscnt unc place spkcialc au FM1 et a la Banque Mondialc. La coordination supranationale dcs prets a l'ajustement structure1 ne signifie kvidemment pas quc la transition unitaire est amorcke, mais confirme Ie fait quc l'unit6 n'cst pas n6cessaire au capitalisme.

Si lcs strategies dc divisions mcn6cs par 1'Europc ont r6ussi a cent pour i m s cux- cent, une panic d c la rcsponsabilite en incombe aux Afric' '

mcmes. Apr6s l'agc d'or du nationalisme pan-africanistc, 1'Afrique cst entree dans unc phase de repression extreme, repression qui a sterilise lcs energies crkatrices. Les regimes neo-coloniaux ont rkduit 1c nationa- lismc a neant. I1 suffit d c constater quc dans la plupart dcs pays, cc sont dcs individus dont lcs noms dtaient totalemcnt inconnus avant leur arriv6c au pouvoir qui son1 aux commandos. 11s sont plus pr6occup6s par l'accumulation individuellc (2 l'cxt6ricur ou dans l'immobilicr ou l'import-export) que par 1c dkveloppemcnt des pays. Avec la pratiquc dcs regimes militaircs et dcs partis uniqucs, d c la corruption syst6mati- que dcs responsablcs dcs mouvemcnts dc jcunes, quand cc ne sont pas lcs assassinats, le processus dc gknkration dc grands hommes dont 1'Afrique a plus que jamais bcsoin est bloquk (plus bloque quc pendant la colonisation).

L'Europe assume une rcsponsabilitk particulikre dans cette situation. Sans son aide financicre, mais aussi technique, technique d c repression comprise, certaincs parties d c 1'Afrique pourraient fonder unc demo- cratie libdratrice qui pcrmcttraii aux forces du progres d c s'organiser et d 'cnt raher les peuplcs pour l'unitk e t le dkveloppemcnt. Commc 1c craignait Chcikh Anta Diop, l'instabilitk et la repression ktaicnt en germe dans la politiquc n6o-coloniale. La nouvclle tactique consiste, 6crivait-il, 2 oricnter et 2 canaliser 1c nationalisme sur dcs structures non socialistes ent rahant "la proliferation de petits Etats dictatoriaux sans liens organiques 6ph6mfcrcs, atfliges d'une faiblcssc chroniquc, gouvernks par la terreur 3 l'aide d'unc police hypertrophidc, mais sous domination kconomique dc l'dtrangcr qui tirerait ainsi les ficcllcs a partir d'unc ambassadc ..."2 C'cst cc qui s'cst produit pour 1'essenticl.

Lit penskc pan-africanistc etait influenckc par 1c marxismc. O r I'approchc marxistc cn sciences socialcs a et6 trop longtemps tronqukc par 1c fait que Marx avail considere quc cc sont les rapports dc production, qui, par I'intcrmediairc des classes sociales, sont Ics niotcurs de I'histoirc, tout au moins en dcrnicre analyse. L'autrc partic dc la proposition, A savoir 1c role mobilisateur dcs ideologies au-delA dcs liniitcs dcs classes etait laissec dans l'ombrc. Pourtant d2s I'cnlrc deux gucrrcs niondiales, Weber reprenant Marx insistait sur cc role dcs ideologies dans l'histoirc. O r Ics ideologies sent dcs inventions qui sont cf'ficaccs si un recl important leur correspond. C'cst cc qui s'cst pass6 avec 1c Pan-africanismc. L'idce scion laqucllc la race et pas sculcnient I'anti-radsmc pcut t t r e un theme dc mobilisation progrcssistc a 616 acceptec par 1c nationalisme radical d te sa formulation. (Unc dcs raisons sans doute pour laqucllc la pensec socialisic n'a pas pu pkn6trcr aux Etats-Unis provient dc cc que, I'aspcct racial dcs probl2mes etait considere comme sans signification. Mcmc cn Afrique du Sud, la controvcrse sur I'efficacitk dc la race commc sujct historiquc important divisc Ics combattanis dc I'aparthcid. Pourtant il cst evident quc Ie mouvcment d c la conscience noire a 616 un accel6rateur essential d c la luttc dans cc pays).

Mais la race cst une notion cxccssivcmcnt dangereusc A manicr; d i e cst plus cfl'icaccmcnt cxploitkc par les forces reactionnaircs quc par les forces progrcssistes. C'cst pourquoi un niouvcmcnt A caracttrc racial nc pcut avoir dc signification historiquc positive que si prcmitrcmcnt, cctte race est rkellcment victimc dc discrimination evidente ct s'il poursuit dcs objectifs A caracthrc universel, c'est-A-dire s'il luttc pour un monde (Jans lequcl la discrimination racialc doil disparailrc au profit d c l'humain. Hors d c cette probKirnatiquc, la portc cst ouverte A toutcs Ics fantaisics. Lc Pan-nkgrisme se justific done par la place faitc aux Noirs dans 1c systCmc mondialc aclucl et la noblesse dc ses objcctiis.

C.'est dire que 1c courant progrcssistc dcvra se dkmarquer du couranl racistc dans Ie Pan-africanismc. En ctTct, un mouven~cnl pan-airicunibtc qui nc fcrait pas une analyse des contradictions qui travcrscnt nos sociktks devicnt facilcmcnt un rouagc du syst2me rkprcssif. Dans 1c pass6 ccttc clarification a fail dkfaut: ainsi, o n lrouvc chcz des Pan-

africanistcs dcs analyses tres critiques dcs pays africains, que l'on nc rctrouve pas dans leurs kcrits thkoriques sur la nkccssitc de I'unitt africaine; or un Etat nc pcut avoir 2 regard du Pan-africanisn~c qu'unc attitude qui rcfl?te la pratiquc intcrne. En sommc, la pcnskc pan- africanistc cllc-mCmc est rcst6c pour I'essentiel au nivcau ou d i e f lai l avant I'indkpcndance. La Chartc dc I 'OUA a ellc aussi contribute sans doute ii cc rccul, car si 1c principc d c I'intangibilite dcs frontikres colonialcs a limit6 les conflits intcr-ktatiqucs et offcrt unc rkfercnce pour les rkglcr, ellc a par centre bloquk la reflexion sur 1c track dcs frontitircs colonialcs; r6flcxion nkccs-iairc ?i la rclance dcs niouvcmcnts uni~aircs. O n pcut allcr plus loin et nlcttre cn evidence dcs incohkrcnccs dans la politique nationalisle pan-africaniste dc Nkrumah, qui ne voyait pas quc 1c capitalisme en tant que tel n'klail pas un factcur d'unitt et quo l'cndettcmcnt public cxttericur cxccssif gag6 dc surcroit sur I'cxportation du cacao, pouvait cn conlpromcttrc considkrablcnlcnt 1c projet.

L'insuflisance dc la formulation th6orique a conduit ?i unc situation paradoxale: 1c Pan-africanismc radical sc nourrit dc la nkgritudc qu'il accuse par aillcurs d'etre une idkologic d3int6gration a I'Occident plut6t que d'unitte africainc!

3. Que faire?

La reflexion dcvrait porter sur la notion d e nation africainc ou d c nation nkgrc. I1 faut rejctcr l'idtec dc la formation d'une sculc nation dans un avcnir pr6visible et accepter d c poser Ics probl2mcs concrcts dans les cadres sous-rkgionaux. L'unitte ne significrait pas n6cessaircmcnl la formation d'un scul Etat f6dteral cl une seule nation. L'cxprcssion "nation africaine" dtesigncrait un ensemble d'Etats partagcant un certain n o n ~ h r e d'idkaux et de valeurs. comnle par excmple la democratic, la solidaritte, la justice sociale, et l'autonomie par rapport a l'cxttericur. Lc mouvcmcnt dc substitution dcs relations horizontalcs ou inlrii-afric;iincs aux relations Nord-Sud, oblige dans cc cadre 3 d6veloppcr les flux dc toutcs natures cntrc les Emit, nationaux dc la grande nation. Introduirc dans la thkoric la dkmocraic commc objectif d c mouvcmcnt pan-al'ri- caniste cst esseniiel. Si, en cffct 1e rattrapage (Sconomiquc e t tech- nologique nc pcut etre realise, sinon dans plusicurs siticles (et encore?), 1c raitrapiigc dkmocratiquc cst davantagc ?i notre portcc, ii condiiiun

quc les actcurs - a commencer par 1c groupc dirigcant cl son Etat - veuillent joucr 1e jeu.

DC plus, il faut mettrc la thkorie cn relation avec l'evolution du systkme mondial. Avcc I'6croulemcnt dcs Etats a idkologic marxistc monopolistc en Europe dc 1'Est et en Union Sovi6tiquc, mais i l apparait pr6- somptucux d c parler des perspectives mondiales.3 Pour y voir plus clair, examinons d'abord la situation jusqu'en 1989. Nous rctenons cinq tendances principales:

La domination des forces du march6 dans tous lcs domaincs, 1c culturel e t 1e social compris: tout travail qui ne produit pas d c marchandisc cfficaccment est cK-valoris6, comme cst dCvaloris6 aussi 1c service public au profit du privk.

La deregulation touche particuli&rcment 1c systemc financier et le contrat d c travail: la speculation financiere sc developpc cn m t m c t e n ~ p s quc lc slatut du travaillcur se degrade.

L'instabilitk du systknlc global dkcoulc d c I'incfficacitk grandissantc dcs politiqucs 6conomiqucs pour deux raisons: la pertc d c l'hkgdmonic amkricainc qui etait un 61kmcnt stabilisatcur donnant 1c ton cn matikrc d c politiquc monktairc et tarifairc; et l'6mcrgcncc d e 1'Europe ocdden- talc et du Japon commc deux autrcs poles.

L'ecart tcchnologiquc cntrc 1c centre et la pkriphkrie se crcusc encore davantagc avcc l'apparition d'unc nouvelle gknkration: nuclkairc, tcch- niqucs dc I'cspacc, d'exploration de fonds sous-marins, d c luttc contrc a pollution, etc ...

La grande diversification a la pdriphkrie du syst6me kconomique (Nouvcaux pays industriels, Quart Mondc ctc). L'Afrique noire est au has d c 1'6chcllc a la p6riph6ric. Cc sous continent qui fut d'abord r6scrve d c main d'ocuvrc du XVIc au XVIIIe sikcle, cnsuite d e matieres premieres, d'6ncrgic et d c produits alimcntaircs, scmble avoir perdu tout utilit6 pour 1c systkmc global. Lcs marches internes des pays sont ktroits car lcs rcvcnus moycns sont irks bas. C'cst dire que meme pour passer du statut du Quart Monde a celui du Tiers Mondc, l'unite s'impose en Afriquc. Les probl2mes h rksoudre sont si importants, que l'int6gration 6conomiquc, sans unit6 politiquc est line formule st6rile.

DC manicre gendrale, aucunc des tendances n'est spontan6mcnt favorable a l'unit6 africaine. E l k s indiqucnt par contre clairemcnt quc Ie temps travaillc contre e lk .

La fin du systcime lkniniste en Europe d c 1'Est ct en URSS est-il unc condition favorable a l'unitk, se demandent certains. Dans une ccrtainc mesure, oui; si la consequence en est la dkmocratisation cn Afriquc. Dans ce cas en effct, les mouvements nationalisles pan-africanistcs pourront exposer leurs points d e vue. Mais si 1'Europe occidcntalc nc retire pas son appui aux regimes r6pressifs, les ehangemcnts a 1'Est ne profitcront pas aux mouvements nationalistcs dans un avcnir immediat.

Ccs tendances mcttent en evidence la ndcessit6 d c l'unite ct 1c fait quc Ie temps travaille contre l'unit6 africainc: une Europe plus forte n'encouragcra pas davantagc l'unite dc I'Afriquc noire; la "main invisible" du systi?tne financier international y rcndra dc plus en plus inefficaces les prdtenducs politiqucs d c stabilisation, tandis quc la creation technologiquc sera d e moins en moins A la portcc mkmc dcs grands Etats du Tiers Monde.

E n definitive 1e changcment vers l'unit6 devra se Saire contre lcs tendances fortes du sysikmc. Mais sans democratic interne 2 chaquc Etat membre, il n'y aura pas d'unitd. Qucl systcme economique sera 1c plus approprie?

La question d c la place du capitalisme dans 1'Afriquc unie n'a pas dtd abordde dircctemcnt. On pensait que 1c capitalismc est gaspillage cl injustice et 1c capitalisme d'Etat (planifik) efficacitk ct justice. O r s'il est vrai qu'a niveau dc d~veloppement egal, la justice socialc est cffectivement mieux assurec dans une soci6t6 a capitalisme d'Etat ou 1'Etat a une legititnit6 historique que dans une soci6t6 capitaliste, il n'cn est pas d e meme en cc qui concernc l'efficacitd. Lc ndo-libkralismc propose d'accepter la thkologie du marchk, qui est l'idkologic 6cono- mique du capit a 1" isme.

Nous devons tircr Ics lecons d c l'histoirc. L'economie du Pan-africa- nisme sera pendant longtemps une economic mixte: le capitalisme d'Etat coexistant avcc 1c capitalisme privd, l'dconomie coopdrative e t l'kcono- mic familialc (celle-ci surtout en milieu rural). Trois 6lemcnts dcvront

cn fonder 1c fonctionnemcnt: 1c plan, 1c march6 et la morale. Par morale nous cntcndons l'cnsemble des comportcmcnts qui ticnnent comptc dcs intkrds dc I'autre, et done qui acceptent et souticnncnt Ics politiyucs dc reduction des inkgalit& kconomiques, politiques et culturcllcs cntrc individus, regions, Etats; dcs politiqucs dc I'cndctte- merit puis dc l'ajustcnient dit structurcl. Lcs 6conomies africaines, cn crise dc dCvcloppement dcpuis plusicurs sieclcs, son1 entrees dans une phase dc baissc dc productivitk i d l e que 1c probl2nie dc ki crisc du continent cst pos6c. Le nko-libkralismc qui cst iniposb n'cst pas line politique inspirkc par dcs faits d'cxperience, niais par l'ideologic contrc la propriktk publiquc et 1c plan, dans un continent ou 1c privk se partage cntrc lcs STN et une poignkc dcs amis dcs prksidents. Les dktracteurs dc la planification oublicnt quc la nouvclle approchc chcrchcra un kquilihrc cntre plan, march6 et dkn~ocratic et tiendra conlpte dc critcres d'cfficacitk dans la gcstion dcs cntrcpriscs publiqucs. 11s oublicnt quc Ics 6conomics aujourd'hui soumiscs 2 la Pi~ri~slroikd ont des bases qui lcur permcttent dc dkcollcr. En somnle les probltmcs son1 irks complexes: tout dogmatisme est mauvais conseiller dans unc pkriodc comme celle quc nous travcrsons. On sait quc la dkmocratic sera un concept clef ties annkcs 1990 et quc si nous n'y prenons g;irde, i l pourruit nous 6loigncr des d6bats sur 1'6conomie ct l'unilk pour pcu qu'on I'isolc du dtbat sur 1c dLvcloppcmcnl global. 0

Notes

Social Responsibility of Business in Africa

b! Daniel Smart Asante-Odame LycCc Issa Koronibk BP 222 Niiiniey, Nigcr

La responsabilitk sociale des entreprises en Afrique

La responsabiliclad social de las empresas e n Africa

Resumen: I",stc arti'ciilo pre,siwiii en primer lii,q(ir el conci,p/o Ins condicionc~s ilc In respon.s~i11ilidiid social dc /as empresas. 1,iiep exumina tilipinm lie 111s cxpivit'n- tins ~'ricntici.~ y nota cii.~rt(i.s mnrnazas miles qite /as (vnj~resiis liiicen pi'siir .5olire Iii .socit7cidd y cl mrdio mnhiente: desapuricih de In selvii tropical; cotit(iminaci(jii indii.striiil timplian'icnte ciiii.~~id[i por las pvqm~nus y tnedias cnipivsris th'l ".\i,ctor infonnnl"; piic.stii en el mercddo tie proiiiicto.5 p e l i p o v pura 1o.s con.sii/niil~es, etc. I¥ - antor mgien,, en conclusih, (pie l(,.\ Iii~tnbi't", politico\ xciin !i:nidos por rr'ipotz'iubli~s dc 1ii.v conseciicncii~.~ lie sç. ncciones; qiic i 'O~nizcici(5n l ie In i'niilni.1 Africanci organize un p-npo (/c rivbcijo se encargntl de i.,liibor(ir recornendticionex (1 coflo lmgo piiivo: ,v amJ 1i1.v g o l ~ i ~ ~ r n o . ~ ndop/en politicus para la iitilizncihn y In conscrrficih lie 1o.i recursov.

Daniel Smart Asante-Odame

Social Responsibil

One of the cardinal points of Our Co~~imon Future.1 a report issued by the World Qimn~ission on Ilnvironment and Development (the Brundtland Report), is cnvironn~entiil conservation and protection biiscd on "sustainable developmcn~". Business concerns - among other users of the environment - have been called upon to respect and maintain the environment in a healthy and halanced state so as to continue to exploit its resources for their very survival.

This cl.'irion c~ill could not have been made at a better time especially in Africa where, for so long, business hiis solely been pre-occupied with profit making to the virtual neglect o f their responsibility toward the environment in particular and society in general.

The social responsibility concept was coined in the early 70s in the American society by a comhiniition of consumer- ists, shareholders and a host of other piirties who were suddenly exposed to a broad spectre of societal ills contrast- ed with ;in apparent pre-occupiition of business enlcrpriscs with profit. The focal point was the reciprocity between business and the con~munity it lies within. Business should not only nlaiiu- facture or render a service, but it should also contribute to the physical and human well-heing of the communi- ty. The argument went as far as de- m:inding that firms set goals in the

ity of Business in Africa

64

same nay that they set business goals.

In Africa, on the other hand, the 70s were marked by rapid industrialimtion programmes through import-substitution strategies by newly-independent coun- tries desirous, inter alia, of drastically cutting down on imports from the industrialized world and s a v i n g t h e much needed foreign exch;ingc. While attractive incentives were included in the various investment laws aimed at luring foreign investment, there was virtually no statement made on the environmen- tal and social responsibilities o f such i ~ l v e ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ n t . While resource depleiion was considered a decisively important issue by industrialized countries' stiin- dards and dictates a constant monitoring of resource utilization, it could hardly be described s d by the newly-indepen- dent African countries. T o them, the question was not of preserving their reservoir of natural resources, but maintaining their very existence.

7 7 I he situation has hardly changed today - three decades after independence - and i t is even worsened by the ever- increasing debt burden and the persis- tent lowering of living standards. To the minority of African countries, these natural resources are their only means ol' gneratin@hcidly-needed export earnings commonly used to service their external debts and to maintain their fragile economic structures. Social responsibility or not, forests need to he

depleted in order to earn foreign ex- change from timber exports, industries may pollute the air we breathe or the water we drink, so long as they may increase export earnings, structural adjustment programmes have to be pursued even if they lead to mass displacement of people from their natural habitat, foreign debts necd to be liquidated and eventually, mouths must be fed. These and other factors have combined to cast a long shiidow of threat to human existence, flora and fauna on the continent. It is against this background that an integrated and co- ordinated action aimed at reversing the trend needs to be pursued in the light of the a\v:ireness creiited as a result o f the recent dumping of foreign toxic wastes on the continent of Africii.

'Ibis article examines the concept of social responsibility at the business level in Africa by identifying some of the social and environmental problems associated with certain business activities and which necd urgent attention. Fur- thermore, it will propose ways and means by which business enterprises in Africa could possibly be made to fulfil their social responsibility goals as well as the role that the African people and governments could play in enhancing their responsibilities and thus positively contribute towards the buildingof a better society. The article is divided into three parts. Part 1 deals with the con- ceptual framework and the prerequisites of the social responsibility concept. Part 2 delves into ci few practical experiences in Africa by highlighting some of the real threats o f business activity to soeie- ty and the environment. The general

conclusions and recommendations are presented in Part 3. It must be noted that this article is only meant to throw some light on an otherwise neglected aspect of business and in no way eon- slitutes an exhaustive account of the problem in Africa. Further research work is needed in that domain to serve the purpose.

I. Conceptual Framework

Social responsibility can be viewed in either a general or a specific context.

As stated by G. Steiner,

social responsibilitymeans that business- men should ovcrscc the operation of an economic system that fulfils the expcc- tations of the public. And this me;iiis in turn that the economy's n'n-':ins of production should be employed in such a way t h a t production and distribution should enhance total socio-economic welfare. Social responsibility in the final analysis, implies a public posture towards society's economic and human resources and a willingness to see that those resources are utilized for hroad social ends and not simply for the narrowly circumscribed interests of private persons and firms.-

Dusiness enterprises should, therefore, endeavour to set general measurable social objectives instead o f being pre- occupied solely with profit making.

In more specific terms social respon- sibility is viewed as:

1. Improving the pliysical environment. The responsibility for maintaining the physical environment - land, air and

water - that surrounds a business enter- prise in a proper state lies with the enterprise itself and such maintenance could occur through several alternative ways. Onc way is to give a face-lift to a dilapidated cuy. town or neighborhood and invest funds in reforestation and a n d reclamation. Another way is to combat pollution by eliniinating at source, the hazardous by-products of the mtinufacturing process. This might mean changing production process and recycling waste streams for further treatment. It might also mean setting up special research laboratories to study waste prevention and management, tcs t ingnew industrial products lor environniental impact of all conten~pla- tcd projects.3

2. Mobilizing human resources. The mobilization of human resources for the purpose of producing goods and scr- vices for society at large is a rcspon- sibility of business enterprises. This mobilization effort could lake many forms. One example is the responsible coaching of promising elements within the corporate structure or the surround- ing comniunity. Another example is for the business enterprise to be firmly committed to employing members of minority groups, promoting then1 to positions otrcsponsibility or encouraging them to become independent business opcrators.4

3. /Â¥:.~/(~bli.~/iin a product societfil value. 'roducts could have a positive economic value but a negative societal value. Their positive economic value is es- tciblished by thcir ability to command an exchange price based on thcir potential

utility. But their societal value is based on their effect on consumers' well-being. This well-being could be physical. m;iter- a1 or otherwise.

The possible contrast between product societal and econoniie values is largely reflected in the product siit'ety issue. Products that fulfil a consumer's needs without jeopardizing his health have become one of the urgent issues of social responsibility. Business firms are held responsible fur the potential impact of their products on consumers' health. I'heir social responsibility dictates alter- ing the design or chemical composition in order to eliminate the potential danger. It could even dictate a shelving o l the manufacturing plans, if the product's "safety" by society's standards renitains questioned.

It should be cippropritiie, at this junc- turc, to identify the requircmcnts or the conditions of the c ~ n c c p t . ~

C. Pre-requisifes of the social rcs- ponsibility concept

Generally before a community reaches a stage where it demands positive action by business enterprises in the lace of social ills, it has to have demonstrated what we may call socio-economic aware- ness and perception. The demonstration of this awareness is in its turn contin- gent upon the fulfillment of a number of requirements. These include the following:

l. Con.yumer societ(1l perception. Con- sumers, before reaching a stage where they are able to discern between the

direct benefit of the myriad of products offered to them and their objective social value, should have achieved a tangible degree of "societal perception". I'his can best be described as a relative ability to measure product utility in terms extending beyond the immediate benefit they obtain from that product. In other words, consumers, at this stage, tend to seek a level of satisfiiction that incorporates external wants.

Consumer societal perception is the product of several factors. Intensive communicative messages en~i t ted by corporations in the process of advertis- ing their products is one factor. Overall elevation o f standards of education and the existence of a sizeable literate elite is another. Extended leisure that could provoke extra-curricular interests could also play a role.

2. Comparative income disparity. It is only after surpassing a given level of income that a citizen develops an awareness o f the economic gap that separates him from other citizens and his possible contribution to the society surrounding him. Below that level he is loo occupied with "making a living". His concern is not what he can do for society but what society can d o for him. H e spends considerable time in a week attending to some other paid jobs. Unemployment is one of his concerns and hedginpagainst future economic calamities is a credited practice.

Once grov.11 beyond this stage, not only leisure time increases but also manage- rial or civil responsibilities. A feelingof augmented magnitude and "social

weight" develops. The company or government agency for which he works feeds this new conscientiousness. He , in turn, is partly relieved from the econo- mic concern over the inmieditite future. His new level of personal earnings allows him to relax and think of other things including responsibility. I!~panding his income base is no longer the prime objective but acquiring a positive "social image" becomes indeed the objective.

3. I~n~ne(/i(;te threat to human existence. Realization of the grave consequences of environmental negligence is usually only achieved after an immediate and direct threat to human existence has arisen. Usually, i t is only when dramiitic damage or even loss of life has resulted from environmental degradation say, air pollution, that cilizens question the cause and measure the effect.

The resulliint irony is that no individuiil or organizaiior questions the entire pollution issue or the responsibility on the part of the polluter until pollution has had a measurable effect on the life of the surrounding community. Toxic material has long been and continues to be discharged into fresh water streams as well as oceans without inhibi- tion. Their damaging effect 011 marine life is delayed and until the time it is demonstrated in a g a v e contraction in crustacean catch or outright poisoning o f drinking water, concerted action is far from sight.

4. Relative vciirciy re'ioui'ci":. There is a clear link between the social res- ponsibility movements (citizen groups, environmental groups ...) operating

worldwide and the overall awareness that the human roce is depleting nuturol resources at a destructive pace. It is also true thiit these movements' concern with the very tangible impact of the emergingscarcity of such resources as oil, timber etc, has created a sudden awareness of the responsibility that business shoulders. C i t ixn groups ;ire rciilizinglhat the continued sur\'iv;il of the human race is suhject to the adop- tion u f a prudent resource consun~ption policy, hence their tigittition for a more effective resource preservanon policy in the ntime of social rc~ponsihil i ty.~

5. f i e presence oj corporations, profits iwd interest. 'I'here is little doubt thiit the existence of large, dominating poliiically and economically potent corporations is essential to the rise of the sociiil responsibility call. Without those signs of societal domin;ltion, little if iiny link would have been created between the corporation and the dcnitinds of thccommunity. Consumers' continuous confrontiitioil wil h those symptoms of dominance, i.e. en~ploy- mem power, investnlent potential, productive might, communicative in- lluence through powerfuladvertisenient, could make them realize that the busi- ness corporations can assume and share social responsibility.

In part 11 that follows, the issue shall he considered from the African perspective. It must be borne in mind that lack 01 hard data has rendered the analysis rather too general. However, it has the merit of throwing a search-light on the sociiil responsibility issue.

11. The African Experience

I lav-ingcexmined some of the cielining charticteristics ofsocial responsibility iind sketched some of its pre-requisites, what is the frequency of their occurrence in Africa? Put differently, to \vh;it cxten! do both the business firms and the Alrican community measure up 10 the required standardsalready outlined? 1 . ~ 1 us look iit some of them one by one.

The environmental record o f h i ~ s i - M C ~ S S in Africa

I . 'Ihr d i . ~ i ~ p p e n ~ h s , rainfort~st. The en- vironmental record of business cor~cerns leaves a great deal to be desired. The destruction of tree cover in Africa represents one of the most dr;imutic human alterations of the environment on record. Accordingio I klwurd Wolf, i resciircl~er ;it the World\+iitch In- stitute, "nearly every country in Africa is affected. In Mauritani;~ and Rwanda forests have virtuiilly disappe;ircd. The climatically critical rainforests of West Africa are d is i ippear~npi t the rate of live percent annuiilly". Cote d'Ivoire which once hiid 30 million hectares of tropical rainforests now has only 4.5 million hectare^.^ Vast areas of lzthio- pia, the communal lands o f Zimbabwe, and the homelands of South Africa arc now largely devoid of trees.

While forest f;irnling and fuelwood constitute leading causes of deforesta- [ion. excessive logging and open-pii mining operations by timber and mining companies have destroyed large areas of rainforests with devastating effects on the traditional way of life o f surround-

ingcommunities. Meteorologtsts con- tend that cliniiitic effects occur when deforestation or land use changes affect ;in zirca of 25 million hectares.7 In this connection, some of the World Bank funded projects in Africa have been found to entail serious environmental ramifications. l'or example, in Botswana the World Bank approved in 1087 a total of US S18 million on loans for livestock production and land manage- mcnt in order to increase the country's beef exports. The cattle industry boom- ed as a result of the loans. Hut the overgrazing has devastated the land, turning more and more of the country - having suffered already from over 7 years of drought - into desert. The cattle ranchers' huge fences block migration paths for plain animals, cut the animals off from water supplies and spill into tribal communal lands. 13ots- wana is, therefore, literally being [ram- pled into destitution by the World Bank backed cattle schemes.

The conversion of tropical forests to eropland dramatically alters the hydro- logical cycle - the distribution o f water to the land and atmosphere. Studies o n this phenonlenon7 indicate that when rain falls on a healthy stand of tropical forest, roughly one-fourth runs off returning to the ocean, while three- fourths re-enters the atmosphere either as direct evaporation or indirectly through the transpiration of plants. After the rainforest is cleared for crop- ping or logging, this ratio is roughly reversed, with threc-fourths o f the rain- fall running off immediately and one- fourth evaporating to recharge the rain clouds. With three-quarters of the

moisture returning to the ocean, floods may be inevitable, leading to loss of topsoil, and then, with the clouds un- replenished, drought may follow.

While clearing kind for farming has caused the largest absolute change in Africa's forested areas, mushrooming demand for household fuels and the growth of urban markets for fuclwood and charcoal relentlessly degrade Afri- ca's remaining woodlands. 17ircwood is Africa's primary fuel, and supplying i t is the continent's largest industry. The effects of deforestation are nlostly directly felt in the countryside. since trees provide the framework of econo- mic life for rural Africans. Trees supply food, medicines, fuelwood and building materials as well as fodder for livestock. As woodland quality declines, rural communities get less wood, Ibdder, wildlife, medicines, fruits, nuts and foliage each year. The situation is critical. At the current rate of environ- mental destruction, thousands of years of accun~ulated knowledge of how to use rainforest plants may disappear before the turn of the century. And without stepped up conservation efforts, the rainforests themselves may disap- pear shortly thereafter.

2. Pollution control. As already stated, concerted action to combat pollution of the environment is made only when the situation becomes unbearable. The recent political action undertaken by Nigeria and some African countries against foreign companies which dump- ed toxic wastes in their territories bears testimony to this assertion. The shadow of threat to human, animal and plant

life from such dumping need to bring the issue of social responsibility into sharper focus. liut consequent ciction is largely dependent o n the conscientious- ness of the business firms, both cx- patritite and indigenous, o n the con- tinent and the tolcrfince of the threat- prone individuals.

A critical observation of the capital cities o f Africa reveals th;it, for so long, the continent has been livingunder the pollution threi.11 eiTccted by the various n ~ a n u f u c t u r i n ~ a n d service activities that liner such cities. Principal and back streets arc littcrcd with both domestic and industrial w;istcs and the greatest problem that they present is not only their physical removal from where people live hut in their final disposal.

' m e concentration of production es- t;iblishn~ents in industry-intensive areas creates localized acute cnvironmentiil problems. Indeed, the uncontrolled discharge of heavily polluted effluents has delerior;ited water resources, im- paired environmental quality and posed serious iinpiicts on public health and amenities available for the people in areas close to major industri;il com- plexes in Africa.

The trend in the past was to support industrial development, even at the expense of environmental quality. The expectation was that gains in material well-beingwwould far exceed losses incurred by degradation of the environ- ment. However, in the light of the prevailing threat to human, animal and pliint life on the continent this attitude needs to be reversed, since industrial

pollution, if permitted without appropri- ate control could result in irreversible effects on natural resources and the quality of life.

In Africa it is little appreciated that the bulk of pollution is the result o f the clay 1 0 day activities of small and medium size industries which in most discs constitute the major part of nianufac- turingothcrwise known as the informal sector. Large scale n~anufiicturers pro- vide a relatively easy target for the authorities in terms o f regulating and controlling emissions and discharges. whereas the same is not always true for the smiiller rnanufacturcrs on ficcount of the sheer numbers involved, the variety of n~anufactur in~act iv i t ics car- ried out find the lack of access to capital and research and development results. As a result, smaller industries tend to misuse the cnvironmcnt more than their bigger brethren, for instiince by using donlestic sewage systems not capable of adequately t rca t ingthcse wastes, as well ;is rivers and other water bodies to carry off their effluents and by disposing their sludge and solid waste wherever immediately ~ o n v e n i e n t . ~ And since most small firms are located within the heart of cities and ; i l o n ~ r i v c r banks, the pollulion they cause is oHcn iicutely felt by the lociil populiilion in terms ofcnvironmcntal dqradtit ion and human hcsilth.9

Since small and medium size industries make up the largest portion of inclus- trial esttiblishn~ents in Africa such ;is tanneries, metal working, dyeing and priming which are a m o n p h e worst polluters, i t is inipcrulivc for African

g)vernments to institute some environ- mental regulations besides providing adequate Financial and technical assist- ance to enable such establishments to undertake the control of pollution by developing indigenous capabilities for bringing environmental planning into work piitterns.

.?. Unman resource development. Social rcsponsiliility demands that business stimulate and develop a commitment to human values and human resource development implying the entrepreneu- riiil guidance of economically disad- v;mt;igec(.i groups in a community and en~p loy ing them ancl even promoting them to positions of responsibility within the business structure. IIowever, the presence of liirgc foreign corporations in African countries is mostly ii deter- rent to this social responsibility ciill. h e i r development o f human resources is strongly restrained by their desire to preserve strategic dccision-making in their own hands. This almost auloniati- rally excludes Third World nationals from top management positions and keeps them in relatively low-paid, li- mited scope positions.10 This perpctua- tes their prc-occupiilion with pcrsoniil economic bottlenecks to the extent of disrcgirdingother societal issues.

4. The product safety issue. Social res- ponsibility demands that business should offer society only wholesome products without endangcringhunian life. I Iow- ever, the rat race for profit by business in Africa and elsewhere makes i t renege on its responsibility with little or no opposition from both consumers and

governments. A sinking example is the tobacco industry in Africa.

In the light of the host of diseases caused by tobacco, a n t i - s n i o k i n ~ a n ~ - paigrs and legislations have been on the increase in the United Stiites, the lar- gest producer of tobacco. Product liability suits are mountingand the US has plans to make the country "smoke- tree" by the year 2000. As a result. millions of Americans have kicked the habit and countless others have cut back on their cigirette consumption. In contrast to Africa, however, despite almost a century of reports detailing tobacco's dangers, governmental action in the tobacco field has been woefully inadequate.

In Africa, there are virtually n o restric- tions on tobacco promotion. Billboards cidvcrtising cigarette smoking liner the urban centers. Advertising is aggressive and aimed at the young, providing n o health warnings but promising success, happiness, social status and "nlachis- 1110'~.1'

Over 50,000 studies of the health ef- fects of tobacco performed in d o ~ e n s countries have detailed the dangers.l2 Over 80 percent of people who develop lung cancer are sn~oker s and a significa- nt number of the other 15-20 percent are "passive smokers".

Hut lung cancer is not the worst o f the diseases caused by smoking. More people die of heart diseases caused by smoking rather thtin lung cancer. Peopic who smoke are nearly twice as likely to hiivc a heart attack as non-sniokcrs. For middle-;i$d men the risk is iilnlost

three times as great. Hesides heart disease, smokers also face the risk of stroke. Millions of non-smokers inhale enough cigarette smoke to increase their risk of disease and death. For most non- smokers, the largest exposure to tobae- co smoke occurs at work, but non- sn~okingwives of smokers have been found to have a higher risk of disease.

I'obacco production also has serious envirt~nment.al costs. It has been ob- served that tobacco production leads to accelerated rates of deforestation and erosion as farmers cut trees for the fuel needed to cure tobacco. It can take an acre of woodland to cure a single acre o f tobacco while two to three hectares of forest are required to cure one ton of tobacco. Finally, sn~oking has been found to be the leading cause of fires in homes killing mostly the young ;ind the elderly.

If tobiicco is that bad, one then wonders why throughout Africa and in the Third World as a whole, labels on cigarette packages warning of health hazards are the exception rather than the rule and why there is such minimal, if any at all, government intervention. It is a fact that in many countries of Africa tobacco companies are welcomed because the industry produces jobs, export earnings and i t creates govcrn- men1 revenue through taxes.

It came as no surprise therefore, in the light of the above, that Zimbabwe's Prime Minister Robert Mugabe in an answer to a question as to whether Zimbabwe would join those who dis-

couraged or did not work to promote tobacco said, inter alia, [hut though Zimbabwe should be seen to be togcth- er with the rest of the world, they also had economic principles to take c m of and that tobacco growinpwus their industry and should be supported.13

With such strong government backing and little internal opposition, Zimbabwe is today the world's third lurgcst ex- porter of flue-cured tobacco with 1.469 of the country's 4,000 - mostly white -

con>mercial farmers growing it. One- quarter of all the country's foreign currency earnings come from tobiicco sales. As a consequence, Zimbabwe plays host to 23 tobacco merchant companies registered as members of the I'obacco Trade Association, one-third of which arc wholly owned by Zimbab- weans while the rest are branches of transnational corporations that have local shareholders.

With such collaborating attitude from the governments almost everywhere in Africa, it is difficult t o see how the tobiicco companies can, on their own, heed the social responsibility ciill.

FuIfi/in;ent of the pre-reqiiisites of soda! responsibility in Africa

As we said earlier, consumer societal perception is a funclion of intensive business communication, high level of educational enrichment, and a generous dose of leisure. Not all of these are available in the South, at least not in the same proportion as in present-day industrializedcountries.Communication systems are too expensive to carry out.

Except perhaps for Ghana and Egypt, literacy is at its nadir in most of Africa. And finally, the marginal money value of leisure is as high as to alienate con- sumer attitude. The result is a low level of societal perception in Africa. Put differently, a pre-occupation with the direct utility of goods and almost total unawareness of the societal rcpcrcus- sums of the consun~ption process.

The limited range of products demand- eel by consumers in an environment, which is dictated by a basic deprivation of monetary earnings, leads to a synony- mous inclination to consider the im- mediate and the most explicit use of products. Any othcr consideration is tertiary. Those at the other end of the scale, i.e. the business corporations, are not especially anxious even to identify the responsibility call. Complacent ac- quiescence is their theme and that is exactly what they do.

Moreover, while resource depletion is considered a decisively important issue by global or industrialized countries' standards and dictates a constant moni- toring of resource utilization, it could hardly be described so by African coun- tries in particular and the Third World in general. In Africa today where povcr- ty is on the increase, consun~ers' pre- occupation with need fulfillment cx- eludes any scrupulous assessment of the relative perilousness of the product in question. It goes without saying that thcre are very few if any consumer protection agencies similar to those of the industrialized world. This obviously puts the corporation in a relatively secure position.

It is also worth noting that the lifestyle of expatriate managers of busincss in the South hardly encourages the self- denying call of social responsibility. 'I'hcy are mostly better paid, better equipped individuals with little reason to go beyond the direct terms of their assign- ment. Many amonglhem make no secret of the material objective backing their move to a Third World country. They consequently maintain a state of being isolated, communicating only when a compelling need arises. And even those communicative spells arc brief and mission-oricntcd.

I t is also strikingly interestingto rellect the way Third World citizens view social responsibility of business enterprises. In a typical tribal society like Kenya or Nigeria, it is our belief that the average individual sees no reason for the busi- ness enterprises to go to such a length to fulfil a societal role. Today's State is to him, unconsciously, a replica of the old day tribe. The role, the authority and the responsibility arc analogous to his tribal structure. And within this context, it is the Statc which is sup- posed to cater for specific societal needs and even see to it that business is pcr- forming up to the desired standards. If the Statc fails at that, thcre is always the tribe, the clan and the family to fall back on. Business remains on the periphery attending to a purely function- al mission.

111. Conclusion

In the light of the foregoing account, i t is highly unlikely that consumers, rural dwellers find all those who bear the

brunt o f social abuse in Africa shall risc and wave the social responsibility issue in the face of the business enterprises in the same way this was done in the United States and elsewhere. What then must be done'! Should the business structure initieite the social responsibility action and to what extent?

It is our contention that policynlakers on the continent should be held respon- sible for the prevailing extreme laisscz- 'iiire attitude which has given more than enough room for business, both foreign and indigenous, to degrade the environment iind plunder thecontinent'b natural resources without beingaccount- able for their iiction.

With respect to the vanishing rainforest in Africa, lor example, policymakers should w a s ean accelerated and co- ordinated struggle on the problem without delay if these greatly under- valued and probably irreplaceable re- sources are to be protected from virtual destruction by the early part of the next century'. To this end, the Or~ini7ation of African Unity (OAU) should cre;Ite a task force to be charged with prepcir- ing a detailed list of recon~n~endations for both the short and long term.

Within one to five years, the tusk force need to elicit commitments from all OAU member states to pursue environ- nkntally sound projects, double the reforestation efforts and lessen prcs- surcs o n the forcsts by introducing low- cost energy imd alternative farming systems into rural iireas. Pressure must be brought to bear on the World Hank and other niultilateral development

banks to meet new cnvironn~enlal standards in their development projects and studies aimed at quantifying the degree o f deforestation on the continent must be sponsored, while making a catalogue of new species and tracking endtinpred ones.

As we noted earlier, the worst polluters of the environment in Africa seem to be the small and medium size industries which are least able to combiat such pollution. What, in effect, can be done to help them to put their house in order'! We feel the first step must be to delineate the problem, a process which necessitates a careful study of the kind of pollutants emitted, their sources, and - as far as possible - an analysis of their effects upon the environment including human health. Most African countries may lack the technical and advisory resources to carry out such work and will therefore need to bring in expertise from outside.

Once the problem is idcntifio-l, the next sti'ige is to educate the niunufiacturers and their stiiffon environmental respon- sibilities. At the same time, governments and local authorities must be made aware of the specific environmental problen~s and be informed of the ways and means by which they can control over total emissions. They will have to determine what kind o l rqulation is required, how long should be given for i t to come into ell'ect and whether control would be best achieved through a system of penalties and fines or through incentives in terms of tax concessions, capital grunts and advice.

or through ii conibin<:ition of se~era l methods.

tilanket regulations and inflexible stan- dards may send the manufacturer out of business. Additionally, l1liiny African countries have government departments or agencies to promote small and medi- um size industries. Their responsibilities should be expanded to include research and development as well as advisory' and technical assistance on good en- vironmental management.

l 'here is no pinsayingthe fact that business' enlightened self-interest dic- tates a positive responsibility posture in the South. Business' contribution to the surrounding community should be proportional to the community's depri- vation and need for assistance. The inability of the surrounding community to express that need, because of socio- economic factors inherent in the devel- opment process does not exempt the corporate structure from this respon- sibility. Intentional corporate apathy could only lead to a sudden emergence of the responsibility call and possible drastic action.

The urge to dcvelop manpower is strong in Third World countries. But, again, it demands an objective and responsible attitude on the part of the big business corporations. First probably is an acceptance of the imminent irans- fer of managerial power and probably ownership 10 the n;ition;ils of the coun- t r~es concerned. Second is a serious approach to vocational and managerial training. Roth efforts should be gap- fillingand not cosmetic or perfunctory.

Business firms should reflect :is much concern with consumers' health and well-being in the South as in the North. Contrary to the current practice of constantly maintaining a lower level of quality, efficiency and safety in products manufactured or distributed in the South, more and more attention should be paid to these issues. It is high lime that subsidiaries of transnational cor- porations iidopt identical product safety standards and efficiency criteria, regard- less of the geographical locations of their plant.

Fnally, business enterprises in Africa and elscwhcre in the "l'hird World should adopt a prudent approach to resource utilization. They admitteclly face an intricate task in the face of rising debt as well as thc chronic need for investment funds. But they can, nevertheless, influence decision-niiiking t o the extent of prescrvins critical resources and possibly tune ihe pricing mechanism to the Third World coun- tries requirements.

She above analysis largely applies to private business entities which obviously are not alone in Africa and the Third World. State-owned business o rgn i - ziitions assume still a significant role. 13y virtue of their ownership and being unquestionably identified with the economic and political aspirations of the Slate, these firms are bound to adopt a more reconciliatory approach towards the social responsibility issue. More often, they adopt liberal employment practices and go to a considerable length to fulfil demands of a typically national character. The problem, how-

ever, is that they only attend to the most obvious needs and ignore other

equally relevant issues. E t~v i ronn~e i~ ta l protection, for example, mostly escapes

their attention. Watching the societal value of their product mix, is scarcely done. These and other similar issues o f responsibility demand attention in very much the siirne wciy they did in the case of private enterprises.

1'he message is deiir: time is shun , and Alrtca and the business entities have power over the fiite ot ' the environment and society. We ;ire driven these days to preserve this earth - its ecosystems, its resources, its atmosphere and us peoples. The 20th century has givcn evcryone in the world this global vision o f responsibility. Action is needed

now. 0

Notes

1 . Our Common P'iinirc. the fiii:il report of the World Comniission on I~.iivironnient rind Developnient was launched in London o n 27 April 1087. 2. Ci Steiner. Il~i.'iitie,ss and Soc ic~ ' (New York: Random House, 1971). 3. Sec "How social rcsponsihility became institiitioniili~ed?" in linsiiifs.~ Week (30June 1173). 4. See :ilso "A black director pushes reforms at GM" in lS~i.s~ties', Week (10 April. 1971). 5. Sec "AI113 chief warns against large scale irrigaiioii". in Ecufonitri (Vol 12. N03/4, 1987). 6 . l-.dward Wolf, "A continent's demise", in i\fiiliiiiiiliot~ul Monitor. (Vol 8. NoO. June 1987). 7. Erik I<cklioliii and I.ester I< Drown. Spreading de,ser~~ - The hand of mati (World- watch 1';iper N013. 1987).

8. One only needs to witness this practice along the Niger River in Niamey. Niger, to he able to nppreci;ite the extent of 1i;irm being done to the health ot those living along the river by groups of sm:ill-sciilc tanning and dyeing industries tli:it co~i t in i i~ to discharge their polluted wastes into the ri\cr unchallenged. 9. Notice for instance the volume o l poison- ous and deadly gases (carbon nionovides. etc) emitted into the ;itiiiosplicre from tlic exhaust pipes of unseniccd taxi c:ihs. and mini-buses that ply our city roads. 1'hc possibility that some of the de:iths occurring in cities may h;ivc resulted from rcspii-ato~~ infections arisingl'roni constant inh:ilin~(iI such poisonous gases cannot he ruled out. 10. 0 S Kiiniaiiu. Nigeria and t/ic itiiilii- t~atiot~tils: Challetige and rrspnti.'.t'. A report presented :it Hie Conference o n tlie "New International Economic Order", Nigerian Institute o f 1ntern:itioniil Affairs. 20-23 October 1977. 11. The powcrl'iil Mrirlhoro ailvcrtiseiiieiits over the "Africa Ncl" radio Million, the Gaboiiese n;itioii:il radio, bear testimony to this assertion. 12. See Williiim U ("handler. ISuti'i.-ihing tobacco, Worldwiitch Paper (N' 68, 1987). 13. Colleen I.owe Morna, "Ziiiib~ibwe's tobacco addiction" in Multinat~onal Motiiuir (Vol 8, No7/8. .July/August 1087).

The second I~~tcrtiatiot~al Conference on Children's Ombudswork litled Towards the rcalimtion ol' human riglits of children's will take place in Amsterdam, 11-13 December 1991. The tenn children's onibudswork still remains undefined. 'liie emphasis is on creating possibilities fur chliildren to rculizc tlieir hinniin rig11t.s as human bcitip, which iinplici~tcs t/ie \'ision ihut c/7/'/1Irct1 urc .snji'c~\ of the law. '/'/Ic main focus of the conference will be family reluiioti.~, health care, educution and labour. (POll 421, 1000 A K A m ~ d a m , ' / ' / i f Netherlands).

ii'da dossier 80 jiinuary/n~iirch 1991 globiil space

Another Look at History (in Transition)

by Andt-6 (;under Frank UniLersity of Amsterdam H. Bosm;insstra;it 57 1077 XG Amsterdam T h e Netherkinds

T h e material real world has disconfirmed many ideas and u n d o n e many ideals in recent years. Ideological positions right and left have been undermined by world economic events. A m o n g the political ideological posit ions discon firmed by economic reality is Francis Fukuyama's "The E n d of History". T h e course of history, which is largely driven by economic forces, shows that nei ther hist(irv itself, n o r his and o u r ideas of history - even of democracy - a r e a t a n end. In particular, historical m;ileri;ilist reality in t h e past, present and I fear fu ture belies Fukuyama's underlying position that "the ideal will govern t h e material world in t h e long run". This fondly held ideal is a t t h e base o f much of t h e praise accorded t o Fukuyama's thesis a b o u t t h e victory of liberalism. I submit that there is n o evidence, material o r otherwise, that history' moves t o this o r any o ther end. T h e r e may b e transitions, but a transition is ;I transition between a transition and a transition.

T h e deba te a round Fukuyama and his tit le reminds m e of a deba te about feudalism o r capitalism in Latin America between Rodol fo P t n g r o s a n d I. T h e deba te was under my title With what mode o f production does the hen convert maize into golden eggs? It was conducted twenty-five years ago in t h e pages of El Gallo Ulusli'ado, Semanar io d c El Dia (No 175-179). H e maintained that Latin American agriculture was feudal a n d I that it was not.

l henan my 1965 article by inviting t h e readers t o solve a puzAe: connect all nine points that a p p e a r t o form a square with a single line of four cont inuous and straight segments. T h e point was - a n d still is - that it is impossible t o find t h e solution as long a s w e stay within t h e

limited frame that the nine points appear to impose on us: "the solution is that we must emerge from the limited and self-imposed frame" by going outside it. My argument in 1965 was that "if we are to understand the Latin American problematiquc we must begin with the world .sy.s/en; that creates it and go outside the self-imposed optical and mental illusion of the Ibero-American or national frame".

That is still my point and recommended procedure. However, now it leads me and hopefully soon others to abandon several additional optical and mental illusions as well. Fukuyania's and otliers'ideological ,, . isms", like liberalism, socialism, communism, but also capitalism, are belied by the material real world reality of the single world system in which we all live.

However, (at least my) historical research reveals that this same world system did not begin 500 years ago in 1492 when Columbus "discovered" America. The same world system, and its essential structure and "mode" of operation, goes back for at least 5,000 years and incorporated the N e w World" in the same 500 years ago. This realization permits a different, longer and wider, world system perspective on the left's favorite questions about "transitions" and "modes". Material evidence shows that world economic forces beyond anyone's control shape international and national political relations, as well as local social movements, ideological notions from left to right notwithstanding.

There now seems to be widespread agreement, right, center, and even part left, about the mode and model of failure: socialism. The "evidence" is in Eastern Europe, for all to see. But is it really?

Those who now find ideological comfort o r even discomfort in the failure of a "really existing socialism" and the "success" of world market export-led growth would do well t o make the following comparisons with "really existing capitalism":

In the 1970s, the same export/import led growth strategies were adopted by Communist party led-governments in the East (Poland, Romania, Hungary) and military dictatorships in the South (Argentina, Brazil, Chile).

In the 19SOs, the same debt service policies on the IMF model were adopted and implemented by Communist party-led governments in the East (Poland, Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia) and by military dictator- ships, other authoritarian governments, and their successor democratic governn1ctzf.Y in the South (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Philippines).

There were variations on the theme o f debt service, but it is difficult to correlate, let alone explain them by reference to the political color or ideologies of regimes or governments. The most stellar pupil of the IMF was Nicolae Ceauccscu in Romania, who actually reduced the debt until the lights went out, first for his people and then for himself. In Peru, on the other hand, President Alan Garcia defied the IMF and announced he would limit debt service to no more than 10 percent of export earnings. Actually, they were less than that before he assumed office. Then, it rose to more than 10 percent under his presidency. Real income fell by about half, and the novelist Vargas Llosa sought to succeed to the presidency after moving from the political center left to the extreme right. But what does that mean, if anything?

Communist General Jarusclski of Poland and the populist Sandinist~is in Nicaragua also implemented IMFstyle "adjustment" and "conditionali- ty" on their people. Both did so without the benefit of pressure from the IMF, since Poland was not a member and Nicaragua had no access to it. In Nicaragua, there was "cot~~ficionalidod sin fondo", that is con- ditionality without the Fund and without any bottom or end to the Sisyphus policy. Hungary had the most reformed economy and the most liberal political policy still led by a Communist party in the Warsaw Pact. Yet Hungary paid off in the early 1980s principal of its debt three times over - and meanwhile doubled the amount still owed! That is more than Poland or Brazil o r Mexico, which on the average paid off the amount of debt only once o r twice, while at the same time increasing its total only two times. No matter, the Solidarnosc govern- ment that replaced General Jaruselski and the Communist party in Poland now benefits from IMF membership and imposes even more severe economic sacrifices on its population than its predecessors. In Hungary all parties agree to follow the I M F prescriptions after the election.

So are there any "ideological" lessons to be learned from the com- parisons and patterns of these economic policies - o r successes and

failures? Well yes, some: In the cases of Latin America and South East Asia, it is still possible to appeal to "nationalism", "anti-imperialism" and sometimes even to "socialism" to voice and mobilize popular opposition to these political economic austerity policies. Nowhere is that now possible in Eastern Europe - since "socialism is a failure" and the Communist parties are discredited. They engineered the don~estic econoniic crisis in the first place and then implemented the debt service and austerity policies. And of course, they were subservient instruments of Russian in~pcrialism. So nobody could appeal to them or their policies. O n the other hand, the West represents the future. Moreover, the Western IMF and its policies were the "secret weapon" and dc facto ally of the opposition groups. They are now in power o r making their bid for it thanks primarily to economic and secondarily to the political crisis, which was engendered by the in~plen~enta t ion of these austerity "adjustnient" policies with IMF support. So now there is not only no economic but also no political alternative to further austerity policies, which arc tied to IMF and other Western advice and conditions.

The political irony is that "really existing socialism" failed not least bectiuse of the unsuccessful implementation of in~portiexport led growth niodels and IMF styic austerity policies in the East. Yet "really existing capitalism" pursued the same models and policies in the South and also Stilled. However, nobody in the West o r East says so; and nobody in the South any longer has a plausible "socialist alternative" to offer. Why was there a " c h a n ~ e of system" in (part of) the East in the face of failure, but none in the South in the face of the same failure'! Jeanne Kirkpatrick was wronr when she said that "totalitarian" countries in the East don't change, while "authoritarian" ones in the West do. Actually it is arguable whether in either case there was any "change of system" or an "end of history".

What was the ideological reason for the debate between Puiggros and I about feudalism o r capitalism and Wallerstein's and n ~ y "scientific" construction of a sixteenth century transition (from feudalism in Europe) to a modern world capitalist economy and system? It was the belief in a subsequent transition from capitalism to socialism, if not immediately in the world as a whole, at least through "socialism in one country" after another. Traditional Marxists and many others who debated with us, even more so, were intent on preserving faith in the

prior but for them more recent transition from one (feudal) mode of production to another (capitalist) one. Their political/ideological reason was that they were intent on the subsequent transition to still another and supposedly diffcreni socialist mode of production. That was (and is?) the position of Marxists, traditional and otherwise. That is still the position of those who earlier insisted on a "semi-feudiil" mode 01' production and now want to take refugc in a period of "proto-capi- talisni" before 1500 - and of those who belatedly invent the idea of a supposed "proto-socialism" in our day. (Before he was ousted after the Tienanmcn massacre, Chinese Premier Zhao Ziyang came up with the idea that China is now only in the stage of a "primary" socialism).

So, after recent events in the "socialist" countries, /.v (here otzof/ier socialism for the fulurc? How and what would i t come to be? An oflen posed issue. a t least by some who consider themselves socialists, is whether the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, o r indeed any other place, has really been "socialist" at all. Since their answer is a resound- ing no, they also argue that the long standing failures and critiques of really existing socialisn~, which finally gave rise to the revolutions of 1989, were not really of "socialism", but only of "slalinism" or some other aberration of or impostor for "true socialism". The ideological implication of this argument is, o f course, that these failures also d o not compromise the true socialist cause and d o not oblige real socialists to undertake any agonizing reappraisal. Real socialists then need only insist more than ever on their own critiques of really existing (non) socialisnl to differentiates "us" gooddics from "them" baddies. The "practical" implication of this "theory" is that, all experience notwithstanding, true socialism is still around the corner or at least down the road.

However, the real practicality and even theoretical coherence of this perhaps well meaning argument dashes with all world socio-political- economic reality. To begin with, if there ever was an argument that only preaches to the already (self) converted, this is it. It could not possibly convert those who have already experienced really existing socialism, even if it was really non-socialism. Those among them who now reject most of the previously really existing (non) socialism are likely also to continue rejecting any potential "real" socialism. Indeed, many of them a rc likely to put their faith instead in the magic of the market and some, alas, perhaps in far right politics. I t is wholly unrealistic to think

that the damage of the whole experience to the idea of socialism, democratic or of whatever kind, can simply be washed away by latter day professions of one's own purity against others' former sins.

Secondly, however anti-stalinist, the subjective intent of this argument, its objective consequence, is to stick to the guns of the stalinist theory of "socialism in one country" o r in some even smaller community. Beyond disregarding the first problem and that of transition to this socialism in theory and praxis, this argument clashs with the same practical reality of having to compete in practice the whole world over. Yet the inability to d o so was the fundamental failure and undoing of Stalinist "socialism" or whatever it was. Whatever kind of socialism, or capitalism, o r mixed economy, o r Islamic political economy, o r whatever any people may "choose", they cannot escape this world wide compcti- lion, which is a fact of life. Cooperation as an "alternative" is all very well - as long as it is more competitive.

Thirdly, the (only?) alternative interpretation of "real" socialism is "world" socialism. Beyond its unreality for any foreseeable future, it is difficult to imagine what this "socialism" might ever mean. What would distinguish this "world socialism" from "world capitalisnl" as long as competition reigns as a (or the) fact of life in the world in the future as it has for millenia in the past? Thus, "socialists" are indeed obliged by the hard facts of life to rethink "socialism", if they insist o n sticking to their "socialist" ideology at all. To be realistic, any such socialism would have not only to take account of competition, but to rewrite the rules of the (competitive) game under which it takes place.

At a minimum, such a socialism would have to provide for gender, class, national, ethnic, religious, community, and economic, political, social, cultural, ideological and all other interest group and family o r individual interrelations to have new participatory social (movement) expressions and institutional protection of and guarantees for the mutual respect of their democratic expression and for the peaceful resolution of their conflicts of interest beyond anything known in the world heretofore. Realistically speaking, the prospects for any such "democratic socialism" or otherwise in the world at large arc still dim. Indeed, all the evidence is that in this regard things will, and will have to, get still worse before they get better.

So is there still a scientific/historical/academic iustification for concepts like "semi-feudalism", "proto-capitalism" in a supposed long transition

a ism from feudalism to capitalism - or for ideas like primary/proto-soci l ' in a supposed transition from capitalism to socialism? No, thcre is not. And is there still a political/idcological reason to hold on to the fond belief in a supposed "transition from feudalism to capitalisn~", around 1800, or 1500, o r whenever? Is thcre any such reason still to continue looking for this earlier transition and its hegemonial development only in Europe, while real hegemony is now shifting (no doubt through the contemporary and near future non-hegemonic interregnum) back towards Asia? And is there still any reason to use the former ideas t o support the fond belief in a "transition to socialism" in 1917, o r 1949, o r whenever? No, there is none.

Ironically, Reagan, Thatcher, Mitterand and all the capitalists they represent are equally - or even more - infatuated with the ideology of capitalist and socialist distinctiveness, except that they glorify the former and vilify the latter. The right want to preserve and glorify capitalism while they vain glory in the self-destruction they see of Marxism, socialism and the Evil Empire of the others. Their opponents on the left reverse this valuation and still want to overcome capitalism through the transition to socialism. The ideological faith of both in the supposedly universally beneficial glories of either the "magic" of the market o r of "socialist ownership of the means of production and planning" lack scientific foundation in reality. The world system wide reality is the competitive dog cats dog war of all against all (h 10 Hobson), in which only the few can win and the many must lose. And so it has been for at least 5,000 years in this same world system and its same essential features and driving forces of competitive capital accumulation and hegemony-rivalry, unequal ccnter-periphery structure, and uneven cyclical up an down developments.

O n e conclusion emerges at least tentatively from this materialist comparative examination of recent and past - including several millennia old - material and ideal reality: ideal categories and isms, like com- munism, socialism, but equally so capitalism (or earlier feudalism), and even Fukuyama's liberalism, serve more to obfuscate than to enlighten. Would it not be better to discard these largely ideological categories and labels? They offer ideological self-satisfaction, but they impede and

obscure t h e analysis of the material real world economic development and t h e real rather than ideal alternative choices it offers yesterday, today, and tomorrow. W e would d o much bet ter to dare to el iminate t h e idea of distinctive "capitalism" and/or "socialism" from o u r vocabula- ry a n d thinking. To call the world system structure andlor its process of political economic competi t ion "capitalist" adds little t o o u r under- standing of t h e real world system o r how it operates , past, present, a n d future. Use of these labels also adds nothing t o anyone's ability t o improve his, her o r their competitive position in the world system o r any part of it. T h e world political economic system obliges all t o compete still today and likely tomorrow, a s it has for millennia past. T h e bo t tom line has been t h e ability t o compete effectively. S o m e d o and a r e in the black, albeit only temporarily; and most can't a n d a r c in the red, mos t of the time. As in any race, there a r c few winners and many losers.

T h e r e is n o concluding end. N o economic, political, social o r cultural "model" o r "ism" offers a guarantee for success, let a lone for long, and never for ever. No such model marks t h e e n d of history. People will con t inue t o dance o n the material stage of history. S o m e may wish t o d o s o to Fukuyama's ideological tune, and o thers t o dilTerenl national, ethnic, religious, political and o ther ideologies - many of which in turn a r e also very materially based. Ei ther way, there is n o end t o history! Is h i s t o p also t o n o e n d ?

W e would all d o bet ter t o see the reality of t h e globe embracing s tructure a n d t h e long historical development of the whole world system itself. Bet ter recognize this system's "unity in diversity", ;is Mikhail Gorbachev said a t the United Nations. Tha t would really b e a "tran- sition" in thinking. This "transition" would help us much bet ter t o choose a m o n ? t h e diversities which a r c really available in tha t world system - Vire la diffirence! Moreover, this transition in thinking could also help us t o understand t h e real transitions that there a r e and t o guide us in the struggle for the good and against the socially bad difference - A liilo c o t ~ ~ i n u a ! 0

Television's Vital Role in Building a Sustainable Future*

by Duane Elgin POB 820 Men10 Park, CA 94026. USA

T o achieve a sustainable future dramatic changes have t o take place in the overall levels and pat terns of consumption in the Nor th . To adapt consumption requires a new consciousness and a new consensus a m o n g n~i l l ions of persons - and this presupposes changes in mass social communicat ion. Television is t h e most powerful instrument tivaiktble for influencing masses of people t o ei ther consume o r conserve. Currently, television aggressively promotes consumption and largely ignores actions needed t o build a more sustainable future. Given the awesome power of television, how we use this technology will have a profound and immediate influence o n o u r ability t o achieve sustainable development . Changes in four areas a r e recommended:

1) alternative advertising with ecologically conscious mc55iiges;

2) en te r ta inment piograniminf that reflects sustain<ible lifest>les and values;

3) expanded documentar ies and investigative reports t o awaken and inform t h e public a b o u t ecological challenges and ;

4) development of interactive television forums that employ live polling of a scientific sample o f citizens, conflict resolution skills, a n d corn- munication with key decision makers.

* Testimony prep.-ircd for U1e public lie:iring o n the report. Our Common !¥¥~~ni developed by the "World Commission o n IJl~ironmcnt and Dcvelopnient". Hearing sponsored by the Global Tomorrow Co:ilition. in 1.0s Angeles. 2 November 1989. Du;iile 1:lgin is the autlior o f :I seniin;il book. Volinuan S;tnp/icit\; An I'.'co/oh?cd l.ifc.sh'/r thut Promotes Personal and Sociul AVIILWJ/ (New York: 1Linl:im H( toks. 1 W2) [c f . //¥'/) I)osvicr 34, March 1983. p2). l Je is now t h e Kxeculive Director of Choosk~~q our I'Hturrs. an ;issociiiti<in working since 1982 to increase the responsiveness of television to the rapidly growing needs o f citizens, and to develop inter:ictive television lorurns that enable citi/ens to dialogue among themselves and conimunic;ile \Mlh their representiitivcs in govcrnmcni.

The human family confronts unprecedented challenges to its future - global climate changes, species extinction, unsustainable population- growth, resource depletion, nuclear and biological weapons, and many more. Whether we humans are soon overwhelmed or transformed will depend largely on our ability to communicate our way through this intertwined pattern of challenges. Virtually all o f today's problcn~s are, at their core, communications problems. It was communication that enabled the human species to get this far in our development, and i t will be a new level o f shared communication that will enable us to build a workable and meaningful future.

We cannot coordinate our actions and secure our common future without an unprecedented new level of mass communication. Coni- munication at a scale equal to the challenges we face is essential to our survival. W e can act locally, hut we must communicate regionally, nationally and globally. Alexis de Tocqueville said a century and a half ago that, the power of a newspaper in a democracy is t o put a single idea in 10,000 minds all at the same time. The power of electronic communication is t o introduce a single idea to a hundred million o r even several billion minds all at the same time.

Shared communication about our common future is not "just another issue", it is the basis for understanding and responding to all issues. Communication o r catastrophe is our most basic choice for the future.

Television dominates the social awareness of the North. In the US, 98% of all homes have a TV set, the average person watches more than four hours per day, and the majority get most of their information about the world from television. "Seeing is believing." "One picture is worth a thousand words." We are a visual species and we tend to trust and believe what we can see. If an issue o r concern does not appear on television then, for all practical purposes, it does not exist in mass social consciousness. Television is more powerful than schools, churches, and the workplace in creating a common frame of reference and a shared view of the world. In short, television has become the "social brain" o r "central nervous system" of the North.

The immense power of television is not neutral - it is strongly biased towards high levels of consumption. Television stations make their

profits by delivering the largest possible audience of potential consumers to corporate advertisers. Mass entertainment is used to capture a large audience, appealed to by mass advertising in order to promote mass consumption. This approach deliberately ignores the views and values o f those who have little t o spend (the poor) and those who choose to spend little (the frugal person or family that is more concerned with the quality of being than the quality of having).

O u r television dominated cultural consciousness does not provide citizens with a realistic understanding of the levels of consumption that the earth's resources and environment can sustain for the longer term. If US standards of living are extrapolated to all people on the planet, then we arc already exceeding the long-term carrying capacity of the earth's ecosystem.

The profound consumerist bias of contemporary television creates an impossible double bind: people use the consumption levels and patterns portrayed in TV advertising to evaluate their levels of personal vvcll- being while those same consumption patterns are simultaneously devastating the environmental and resource base on which our future depends. Because television is the primary engine that drives and shapes much of our consumerist orientation, and because we arc now entering an era where we will need to consume more carefully and deliberately, i l is imperative that we use this powerful medium much more conscious- ly in realizing a sustainable future.

The cumulative influence of the roughly forty thousand commercial messages the average person sees on TV each year is enormous. A TV commercial is more than a potent pitch for a single product - it is an equally strong message in support of the life-styles and values that surround consumption of the product. The same is true for cntertain- ment programming - the house, clothing, car, utensils, and other material goods that set the context for the program send strong messages as to the standards of consumption that arc the norm for society. The point is not to condemn television advertising and entertainment; rather, it is to acknowledge the need for balance and perspective in our diet of images and information so we can maintain a healthy approach to consumption. Given the urgent challenges o f population, resources, and the environment, we need balanced messages

that foster sustainable consumption. We need to consume with our eyes open to the real environmental and social costs of our actions. We require a new level of maturity as consumers and this requires a new level of responsibility in how we use television.

There are four specific areas o f action that can help bring our use of television into harmony with sustainable development for the earth:

1 ) Ecologically conscious advertising - Ads could have a rating (like the movies) that indicates the impact of their product on the environment. Products and services that are "friendly" (biodegradable, recyclable) would receive a different rating than those that are highly polluting. Further, to balance the psychological impact of consuniption-oriented ads, alternative "ecological ads" could encourage people to consume with an appreciation of the world's resources and environment. Ads could also be clustered at the beginning of each hour to break the "hypnotic" spell of cornn~ercials intimately juxtaposed with entertainment programs.

2) S~isiainahility inie~n'(iled into entertainment p r o p m m i n g - Television incessantly teaches about life-styles and values. Embedded within the fabric of entertainment programming are countless messages about role niodels, sources of satisfaction, personal priorities and responsibilities, values and altitudes. Television teaches by what it ignores as much as what it addresses. I f environmental concerns are missing from television entertainment, they arc likely to be missing from our cultural conscious- ness. We need entertainment programming with a mature and balanced r q a r d for the larger world situation that integrates ecological issues, life-styles, and role models into programming.

3 ) Expanded documen/aries and investigative reports - Because less than 5% of prime-time hours on broadcast television are typically devoted to informational programming, we are entertainment rich and knowledge poor. Our situation is like the long-distance runner who prepares for a marathon by eating primarily junk food. We are filling our social brain with a diet o f T V entertainment at the very time our democracies face problems of marathon proportions. We are trivialixing our civilizational consciousness at the very time we need robust conimunica- lion about ou r pathway into the future. This is a recipe for disaster. We need a quantum increase in the level o f socially relevant programming

and a new commitment to strong investigative reports and documen- taries that awaken public understanding and concern to issues of sustainable world development.

4) Vigorous development of inlet-active tel(~vi.~ion - We need to move beyond using television as a one-way, passive medium and begin experimenting with feedback forums. Non-partisan, "electronic town meetings" that give all sides a fair hearing and obtain feedback from a scientific sample of citizens can enable us to "know our own minds" as a community of citizens. We have all the technoloa required - what is needed is to mobilize our social will to learn new skills of large-scale citizen dialogue. If politics is the art of the possible, then we don't know what's possible until we understand how we collecthely think and feel as mass societies. We have the communication toois necessary to achieve an unprecedented leap forward in our self-understanding as civilizations. By using conflict resolution skills in conjunction with feedback from a random sample of citizens, we can discover common concerns and develop creative solutions for achieving sust;iinabie development. With feedback from a trustworthy cross-section of citizens, a society can know its own mind on the vital issues of the day and vigorously support actions which foster mutually assured development.

Given the awesome reach and power of television, the impact of these changes would be rapid and dramatic. An example from advertising in the US is instructive. In the 1940s and 1950s, it often required several years for print ads in major magazines to establish a new soap o r product in national consumer awareness. Using television, the same level of product recognition can now be achieved in several weeks. If this enormously increased efficiency for social learning were applied to the challenge of sustainable development (instead of just selling more soap), we could rapidly achieve the shared understanding and social conscious- ness needed to move toward a more workable and satisfying future.

Resistance to change and courage to change

These proposals may well face opposition from TV stations and advertisers who fear their short-term profits will be diminished. It is not by accident that the last taboo topic on television is television itself. Every imaginable issue has been raised repeatedly on television - except

for t h e profound effect that television has in promoting mass consump- tion and how this threatens t h e future of o u r species and planet. Yet , polls clearly show that we a r e m o r e than consumers w h o want t o be enter tained - we a r e also citizens who want t o b e informed and involved in building a sustainable future. T h e cooperat ion and suppor t of television is essential if we a r e t o consciously a n d creatively evolve o u r life-styles a n d consumption patterns in t h e direction of a conserving society.

I t is t ime t o fundamentally reconsider how this immensely powerful technology can best serve the public interest. W e require courageous journalists, advertisers, TV stat ion managers, political leaders and citizens who will call a halt t o t h e "business-as-usual" approach t o mass con~nlun ica t ion . W e need t o question t h e appropriateness of a n avalanche o f TV ads that p romote a one-sided, materialistic view ol' life. W e need to challenge t h e s tatus q u o in television that devotes less than 5 5 6 of pr ime-t ime hours t o informational programming a n d lulls people into a false sense of security and complacency. W e need t o vigorously explore interactive o r two-way television programming that enables a scientific sample of citizens to talk a m o n g themselves, build working agreements about vital issues, and then deliver their views to represen- tatives in government.

O u r c o m m o n future depends o n o u r c o m m o n conlmunication - and television is o u r primary tool of shared con~munica t ion . Wi th mass communicat ion w e can achieve t h e level of mass cooperat ion and coordinat ion needed t o a d a p t o u r life-styles and pat terns of consumption t o t h e new global realities. Wi thout communicat ion, we will cripple the ecological foundat ions upon which o u r future depends. I t is communica- tion that enabled humans to get t o t h e very edge of a planetary, species- civilization. If we a r e to build a sustainable and meaningful future, a vital ingredient will b e a dramatic leap forward in mass h u m a n communicat ion through t h e immensely powerful vehicle of television.

ifda dossier SO ianu;irv;march 1091 book reviews

Doublespeak about Human Development?

UNDP, Human D~~~~~Ioprnent Repor/ 1990, 1 89pp.

I 'hc k~tcst addition to annual reports produced by the UN agencies, prepared for T.1NDP. bears a pleon;istic title -

fliiinm Development Report 1990 - (as i f development could he non-hum;in or anti-hui11:in). I t is a mixed bag.

O n the positive side, i t cmphiisi~cs some ideas th:it are familiar to the readers of 1FLjA Dossier , hut seldom found a place in the U N lilcroture on development.

The report opens with the statement that "Human development is a process of enliirgingppeple's choices" and that ' human freedom is vital fur human developi~ient" ( p i ) , It exposes false tradeotT between human development and economic growth and rightly points to the possibility o f a c h i c v i n ~ a i r l y respectable levels of human develop- mcnt even 211 fairly modest levels of income (as demonstrated i . i i . in earlier case studies of Kerala and Sri 1,ankci sponsored by the UN Development Planning Committee and WHO). "The- re is no automatic link between econo- mic growth and human progress. One of the most pertinent policy issues con- ccrns (he c~:ict proccss through which

growth translates, or fails to translate. into human development under dif- ferent dcvelopmcnt conditions" (p42).

In clear opposition 1 0 neo-liberal theo- log}', the Report advocates social sub- sidies as absolutely necessary for poorer income groups:

'Social subsidies will serve the interest of developing countries much better i f more effort is devoted to designing them as efficient tools of income re- distribution, without hurtingthecfiicien- cy of resource allociition. Such cITort is far preferable t o the usual acrimonious dehute supportingor rejecting all s u b sidics arbitrarily and across the hoard" (P-^.

Social subsidies are but part ofa broad- e r problem - redefining the role of the State as provider of sin enabling policy environment for efficient production and cquittible distribution. Equitable local distribution is briefly mentionecl.

l 'he Rcport makes a significant con- tribution to further des tabi l ix inphc G N P per head as ;I measure of well- being. lhven more importantly, it advo- cates (at last!) lor international com- ptirisons the use of 'real' income in-

dicators tidjusted for purchasing power instead of G N P converted in dollars according to the exchange rates. Strictly speaking, this means going back to ii

more relinnJ version of the niethodo- low tipplied by FAO in the early sixties.

The Report is packed with interesting data presented in the text, in the boxes and in the statisticiil appendix, highlight- ing the misallociition of resources (e.g. the ratin of militiiry expenditure to outlays on health and education), the reverse flow of resources from South to North, the critical imbalances in social secturs. The balance sheet of human ilevelopi~icnt (p27) otTcrs :I striking juxtaposition of data showing the social advances. achieved in spite o f all the odds, in the South, and the apptilling dimensions of still unattended human deprivation A chapter is devoted to urb:iniziilion.

In addressing the social issues as the core of the development processes, the Report marks a welcome departure from economic reductionism, only to fall imniedititcly in another reductionist trap by trying once more, :iller so many unsuccessful earlier attempts (in par- ticular by UNRISD) to build a synthetic human development index combining life expectancy, literacy and adjusted G D P per ctipitci (transformed into their logarithms), as if ranking of countries in a 'catch-up' g;iinc were really a meaningful research objective.

This leaves out many significant d in~cn- sions of development (political, cultural, ecological). The authors are aware of this flaw of their indicator, presented as "a move in the right direction - away

from the narrow and misleading atten- tion to only one dimension o f human life, whether economic or social" (p i ? ) . The most serious omission is tha! o f freedom, clearly not amenable to uny statistical representation. Yet. instciid of recognizing the impossibility o f measur- ing all the qutilitiitive aspects of devel- opment, the authors of the Report tell us that "special effort must go into developing a simple qutinlitcitive meas- ure to capture the ni:iiiy aspects of hun~iiii lreedoni" ( p l 3 , emphasis added) and, among the priorities for f-uture resetirch, they mention "a production function for hum;in development", which smells social engiiicering at its worst.

Meanwhile, analysis o f actual clevelop- mcnt perlorniiinces is conducted in the Report disregarding dc facia the nun qutiiitilied (and probiibly not quantifi- able) dimensions in ;I kind ofpws pro toto intellection o f the holistic dcvelop- mem process.

The results are awkward. Not only authoritarian South Korea ("a stunning example of growth with equity") but even Pinochet's Chile appear as positive examples of 'human development'! "Chile's experience shows that some human development indicators can improve dramatically - even during periods of poor growth - if well struc- tured across-thc-board policies are combined wit h s o n x targeted interven- tions" (p53-54). In turn, Malaysia shows that "human development is possible even under condition o f a fairly inequi- table distribution of income - ifeKcctive meso policies are in place" (p47).

Nobody disputes the fiici ihat Chile reducct,! dr;iniatic:illy infant mortiility. l 'oti i l i t ;~r~;~n requirement^ i i~ayoccmon- I achieve considerable progress in social policies. This does not make them less !otiilitiiriiiii! I t is o f course useful to scrutinize their sectoral perforniance kind the policy technicalities involved. Hut to avoid n~isui~dcrstandings, i t

would have been prcl'erable to avoid the slippey 'human dcvcl~pi~ie i i t ' phrasco- loiy which yields itself to v-hat Raj111 Kothiiri ills 'dcvclopmci'ital double- speak' muddlmg the issues.

UNI)l ' was lortuntite 1 0 ussemhic iiruund the 'Human Development Re- port' a t c im of distinguished cievcl- opmcnt economists under Malibul ul I iiiq's direction. I t is to he hoped t l i i i t

subsequent Reports will iic-eniptiiisi/c the prcoccupiitioii with stii~istical gim- micks and produce inst~iid a i-nore comprehensive and cuhcrcnt an;ily;iis 01 !he developnient/miildc\clopment pro- cesses at the live levels distinguished hy ' au! Strcetei~: niii-ro-micro ~ I i o ~ ~ s c h o l d ) , micro, meso, m;icro iind miicru-miicro (global).

' h e need is tor more coiiip;iriiii\e history - ;I kind o f 'histoirc i';ii~oni~i'e' of the present uikiiip ;I holisitic view 01. the processes - insieiii-l o f successive attempts at capturing the variety and riches of human experience in one more strait jacket of st:itistic;i! indicmors, s\hich is not t:int;imoun! to denyiiig ihc usefulness of measures whcnebcr po?.- sible, while r e e o y n z i i i ~ i t thc siime lime their limits. 0

Brian Urquha1-t and Erskine Childers

A World in Need of Leadership: Tomorrow's United Nations

(Uppsala: Dag Hammarskjeld Foundation, 1990) l l lpp.

AJer Jorty-five uncertain, and sotneii~nes bleak, years, the prospects for internation- al cooperation are brig11ti~r tlian [it any time since tin' Second World War. 'i'ln'w is therefore bofh a new challenge and a new opportiinily for interniitional letider- .sl~iip.

.The most for1;1iclc1hle problems for the world community lie in the \' I I .Y~ complex

of socio-economic and cnvironmcntiil issues on wliicit 1/11.' fiiture conditions of /i/t~ on tlie planet may w l l depend. Indeed tlie future concept ofseci~r+ will liiiyr to embrace many (1f //ie.'ie i.ss I K S . In t ~ y i n ~ to drill nit11 s~.ncli problems tin' o1J piittiw of East- West tension is like/11 to he less important than the basic Nor111- South differences, sometimes .stem~nit~,y from a lack of effective dialwie, such

( I S those that arose n decade ago over 111~ South's ccill for ci New International l~cotioti1ic Order. The pl,f between ricii and poor contitir;c~.s to be a basic and vital j~roblem of /lie world commnnity.

. . 771~' UN .sy.stern, Jor all its sliort- coming, is unii/iie and c;innot be clupli- ci7tc3i1 or reinvented. It is tin' only ifvciil- ulilc i i t~i~~~i. .si i l sj~.stotii. It now 1ici.s to live

not otily to /hc cicincinds of govern- mm.s I'm (iI.,o h> tlic increcisitig expccta- t m of' /lie peoples oJ the world. It therefore lui.\ 1 0 adapt it',elf to this duin- ging world or run tiie risk of becoming it-rclc~~~iint in importiint Jichi.~' of' human

activity. Effective leader.sliij~ will be crucial to t i n s transition.

I 'o the above excerpts from the au- thors' introduction, which suggests their and the sponsors's ambitions. one may add only one remark: If the historical and documentary materials assembled and presented in these 11 1 pages is extremely rich and useful to the speci:il- ists, the rccomn~enclati~ins, mostly unoh- jcctionable, strike m;çnl by thcir mocl- esty: the Secretary-Gencri.11 of the U N should be elected for one 7-year non- rcncw;ihlc [erm; he/she should hi'ivc three, perhaps lour, deputies (peiiee and security, developmeni tincl en\iron- mcnt, nianagement, and. possibly, relations with 'we the peoples') iind some kind of 'search procedure' should be established ...

Is that relevant'? The tippointment o l the U N Secretary-Gener:il, like those ol' the Pope in Rome, the USSR Ieiidcr or the US President, is essentially~~oliticrtl, and as such not reducible to techno- cratic procedures. N o appointment, i i t

the end of this year, will be more crucial than that of the successor of Perex de Cuellar. Time is ripe l'or u bold U N leadership, i) la l l iwimm- skjdd. There arc a few good potcntiiil candidtitcs, more could pcrhiip^. he identified. The present study is more useful in bringing the problem to the fore thiin in helping to tiickle the job.

ifda dossier 80 ji ' i r~uaq/n~iirch 1991 news from the third system

A Charter for 1992?

t h r e e important political events are planned for 1992, all of which have profound ini- plications for our niovement and campaigns:

In Brwil. the United Nmions is to hold a conference o n development and environ- ment at which it is intended that a series of international convenl~ons - on climate and on forests - will he signed. The conventions are Ifk* to reflect s3 top (/o~.ti, iccht~i)cri~tic r i m of the envirotrmental crisis, and will seek to "solve" ilii: crisis through global inailage- trtetit h! g~~\ 'nifnct i ts and corporuiiotu.

In Europe, the European Conin?unity will ¥x-'coii~ a single nirirket. creaiing a r~cw ccanotnic ~ r ~ / ) e r l ) o n ' i ~ do t t t i t i~cd h}' lurw cor/)oratiot~s.

And. throughout the Anicrici~s rind in Europe, there will he official "celebrations" o f the 500th a n n i v m a q of Colonibus' first v o ~ g c to the "Americas", tlius itt~plicitly endor,sitig the colonial experience am1 post- war tieo-colot~iali~stn .

r l iese events are likely to reflect the itrterests of only a narrow elite, with the voice of local people bei~tg cither igiorcd or co-opted. I'olitical and social issues, such as /at10 rigl~ls, arc bc'ittg dc//berut+put to one side: to raise them would be to ask awkward questions about who will conlrol llie 'new' intern.ilion- il l order.

We at The lcolo#st feel ttiat there is an urgent need to present a gr:issroots-oriented pcrspeclive on the current environmental crisis, Instead of having a sterile debate rimongst g o v ~ ~ n i n e ~ ? t s , mainstream "Ngos" and academics on the t l ieoq of "sustainable development", we want to sec landless

t'.irmers. lislierfolk. forest Jttcllerv :ictivisls and o rd inan citi?cns - in effect, the victims of envirnniiient;il ilegrxlation - !c:iJing ihc discussion. We want to see ;I direcl confron- tation het icon the views of lociil gniups most iilTected h? induslri:ilis:~tion and economic n~odcrnis;ition nnd tlic MOWS o f those who chin? to be acting for their benefit". We \\;int to hex the voice o!' the millions who arc c1i:illenging thc st:ilus quo :ind the new rhetoric of en\ironnicnl:il concern.

In particular, we w;inl:

T o counter the accusation that the poor arc to blame for the cri.si.\ and to document the social and ecological destruction being caused h? corporations. governments and current devclopmcnl policies:

T o publicise eWilit13 "ulicrnati~~cs" being practiced hy local people, many ol tlicm \\ it11

a long history of proven worth. and to document how they arc being undcrniined by the imposition of development policies t l i i ~ t a rc anti-people ;inJ iinti-environment:

To open up the d e t ~ i t c h? focussing on the critical issue 01 1oc;il control over resources and t/ie treccssii}' of wider po/ilicii! and economic chat~fc.

t'orests ;igriculture witer energy cities pollution

Two preliminary ii~<inifestos (\\hich c;in he obtained from the address below) state our gcnc~iil position on agriculture and forests. These :ire now being worked up into larger doeiiments, sul'istantiating the case. A Forest Peoples' ('1i:irtcr is being dcvclopcd in cooperation with forest peoples' movements around the \\orld.

Our aim is to produce a document that d ives n;ition;il governnients. international ;igciicies :ind liirge Northern " N ~ o s " in no floiibt as to the extent ot opposition to current development policies and to demon- strate cleiirly ho\\ gcissroots movements hoIJ tlie /.'IT to solving our current ecologi- cal ;id sociiil prol'ilciiis. The inipiict o f the eliartcr \\ill illus depend critically o n its content rellcct ing us c lo,~c!\* u . ~ /m ' l~~hIr the views o f gnissroots groups. The very exis- tence o f such ;I charter. endorsed hy as m:iny group as possible, will make i t far !larder tor the \icws o f grassroots groups to he ignored in future. I t will also make i t more difficult for establishment "Ngosv and nternntion.il :igencies to claim to he s p ~ i k - n g on heh;ilf of tlie poor :ind dispossessed.

I f the Charter is to achieve its aims. we need your help. In particuliir, we need your comments. advice and information:

on the idea o f the Charter and how it might be written:

* on ways in which the project could he iniprovcd:

on how your day-to-day concerns can he best incorporated into the Charter. One possible wa\ is for \on to send us details of yinir current catt~poi~qi.s, lngcthcr with a 9 relevant literature, and let us know how we can help to .strcn@cn your oi4.11 movemtxt;

on what activities you are planning with rcg;ird to the events of 1992 and how we could tic in with them:

on the names o f groups \+it11 which you feel we should he in contact.

In order to maximise its impact, the Charier will he published to coincide \\nh the 1W2 events. However, we intend tli:i t it will have a life beyond 1992. We it~tctid this to he a document that will scti,c the tno~writ't~t throughout the IWOs. In p;irlicul:ir. we hope that the Charter will play a part in linking the many different intcrnation;il movements now campaigning for cliange and in gencni- ling a common pli'itform for iiction.

(.Nic/7olas FIilc(\~ard, C o - d t o r , The l :cologist. Sicitioti Head, Slunrunster Newton, Dorset D'HO I R K , UK)

pcrtr~mrc d un vnsrinhlc ititcrt~aiiotiol L!(, sp4cidistes a dc prufc,s,siot~ti~~l.s dc fuirc /c point sur I f siijct. Cc cotf,yc'.s s'uttuc/icra d valoiiser les recherches flans Ics cloiriiiiiic.~ .siiii~anis: place dcs tn4ilecitics trudi~iotit~clics duns Ic i l ~ c l o p p c t ~ ~ c ~ ~ t et I'or~utrisa~iot~ dc.s ¥lystCtnc. c! dcs j~oliti(/~i(,s (It, sat~tf , (litnensiot~s t'cotio~niqiic.s, iccht~olnfyqiirs cl it~dtisiricllcs. procedures dc valori.sations et 1 k tratisjci't (le cotinai.s.sanccs. (CIM7; J30 m e dc w.iiat~- cowl 7.5OM Palis, l-'rancc).

se realizarct en Santiago de Cl~ilc (12-18 mono 1991). Esie cvet~to clcinot~strcrd un cspacio dc itutnftr~cnios, artefactos, irujpinas tnanuales o dc traccihtr animal, aparatos quc u ~ i l i z a ~ ~ ctte$as no cot~i~fiiciotialcs, proccsos dc coits~rucciht~ con ~na~criulcs u11l6cionos, artes y ifciiicus haruta.s, creatii,(s.s y ecol6gica- tnctric sustct~~ahlcs. I'aralclatr~ct~tc a la inm's- tra 1t!c11016ficu, habrd un sitripo.si~~!n dc cardcler prklico que c/& cucnla dc /as er- pcricncius, suei'io.~, rc.~~~l~uc/o.syfni.s~rciotic.'i dr nitcsiras acciones iccnol6gica.sy nlucatii,a.s en relaci~5tt altr~cdio uinhict~ie. (Casilla 2-1) San liemardo, Chile).

The Asian Council for People's Culture

0 7

'Die nionientum :md gat t icr ingforce of people's movements are giving rise to a new and dynamic culture in tlic Asia/Pacific region. KeI1cctiiig [lie synthesis of indi- genous values and traditions and the grow- ing awareness of AsiaIPacific peoples, this new culture finds expression in people's drama, music, dance. literature, art. ritual i n d spinlualily - or collectively, people's iiiinrc.

1 o r the m:irginali/cd peoples of tlic region culture rcdiscovcred. reclaimed and trans- formed by tlie oppicssed to pron~ote their weltitre bccomes ;I powerful agent o f changc. Taken as an integral component of peopled struggles and grassroots develop- incnt efforts and utilized ;is :in ;ippro;ich to org;ini~ing. education and mass mohili/iition. people's culture is culture it1 action.

' I m s . in the recent years. culture ;I> :I

medium of people's action has increasingly taken a n iinport:int role in the dynamics of clitinge taking place anlong Asian'acilic countries.

Agiiinst this hrickdrop of culture emerging kit the core of people's :iction, tlie Asian Council for People's Culture (ACPC) was cstablishcd as a regional network fi)r cul- tural action, along two main principles of cooperative action:

that culture plays a vital role in giving a sense to people's struggles as well as in strengthening the capabilities and ~Sfectivity of development work among niarginalizcd sectors of society;

that the weiillh of experiences in culluriil work within individu:il societies may he further enriched by interaction, skills shar- ing and cooperative action on a regional scope.

to proniote and populiiri/c cultur;il action as a dyniiniic component of ors;:nli/ing. niobili/ation, education and dcvclopmcnt work:

to train cultural action workers amon: community orgini~at ions. institutions and :igeucics s c n icing the iindcrpri\ ilcgcd sectors:

to proniote regional interaction. sol id; i i i t~ linkages ;ind coopcr;ition :inlong .Vsi;i/Pacific cult~iriil movements and on;:ini7.:1l1ons \'>hieh sli;irc a vision of freedom, justice and ix-iicc:

to establish a systeni o t skills and resour- ces sharing and inforniation excliiingc within tlic network.

Regional cultural solidarity. - Sold;irity- building through pcople's cultural fcstiv.ils, workshops, exhibits and joint c~i l tur~i l pre- sentations highlighting both indigenous forms and contcniporaty expressions o l issues and people's struggles.

Resource Forum forA.siati//'acific C o n c t r ~ ~ s (RI'Al'C). - Production of print and :iudio- visual materials such as training ni:iiiuals. posters, primers, calendars, slides and oilier visual tornis taking up issues and concerns effecting people. The goal is the cst:thlisli- nicnt of a resource center producing educa- tional materi:ils o n Asian issues in popular torins.

Newark building and 1inkagc.s. - Since 1985, ACPC's niulli-cultural training tc:ims have conducted cultural action workshops

in Indi;i. South Korea, Hong Kong. Philip- pines. Singapore and Japan. The workshops introduced basic skills for cultural action and were stiirtingpoints for dcvcloping local tr:iiniiig programmes.

l-'or three consecutive years (1088-19W), ACTC has conducted its annual Regional I'raincrs' Training programme. 'l'liis 15-day progr;imnie g;itliers Ic~idci-s of cultural groups for :in intensive skills tr;iining work- shop. The tr:iining aims to upgrade and further systeiiiati~e the methodology of cultural action among cultural workers in Asi:i/I';icific. Alter each regional training, the piirlicipants organize their own sell'. sustainable training programmes in their respective localities.

ACI'C trainers have also conducted work- sliops for Asian migrant comrn~inities, solidarity groups and cultural organizations in Switzerland, Austria. Germany, United Kingdom. Netlicrlands and France.

From May to December 1989, ACPC liiuiiched Cry of A.\ia. an Asia/l';icific cul- tural caravan. The travelling festival fea- tured cultural workers from 13 Asiafi'acific countries offering people's theatre presenta- tions, c o u n t y acts, mural exhibitions rind workshops on cultural action. Cry of Asia toured in France, Switzerland, United King- dom, West Ciermany, Netherlands, Austria. Hong Kong. South Korea and Philippines. The group conducted more llian 100 per- fornianccs and workshops in at least 41) cities around Europe ancl Asia.

Througli its prograniiiu-S, ACl'C l1;i.s drawn the active particip;itinn of c-:isc ~ ~ i c n t c d cultural organizations .,1 lr;ist ' in- tries of Asia/Pacitic, ..., v,cli . ii . iinl;~i-~~\ groups and Asian mignint communi~ics i n I'Airope. By promoting cross-cultiinil cx- changes and interaction, it has diminished the feelings of isolation often experienced hy groups and communities struggling tor

social change. I t has also contributed to- waids improving the quality and cnricliing the methodology of cultural work in the region.

ACPC is presently accepting app11c;ilions for its Fourth Regional Traineis' Traiiiiti~ Workshop to be held in Austr:ili:i in Scp- tcnihcr 199 1 and its ,isia/Pticijic COII~~T<,.V,S' on Cultural Action and Solidiirir to be licld in Ncgros Island. Philippines in April 1001.

'Ihircl World tourism is a rculih that il- lustraics the cxistiq international and local structures of injustice and iiiequalit?. A n y , effort to ink~n3cnc in issues o f touri.sin must tht..rt¥/'->r he rooted in an understandinc, of today's development crisis. As an i t~it iati i~ tlicrcfiirc, thc Ecumenical Cuolitioti o t i '1'liiril World Tourism (EC'IWF) is orgmiiiin,q a ,'icrirs of three truitiiiig propntrics for 1 0 1 1 -

ristn activists coi~ering the Asian region in 1991, the 1.atin Atncrica/Caril~hean car!) 1992 and AfricdArabia late 1992. Jf ie main objectilw is to provide skills and ktiowledgc as would be needed to organize people I T O I I P . ~ in the local and national spaces in ivsi.\tiiiy, tlic tourism onslaught. The traii~it ig]~ro~uin- me i s planned to he conducted 4-27 March 1W in Thailand. (I'OB 24 Cfuvakhehua Ran&>k 102.70 Thailand).

Dossier readers Gerald K ffcllcincr and Just 1'00/[~tld (who just authored Growth and l<tIinic lnecluality: Malaysia's New Ikononiic 'olicy along with J R Parksoii and Rilis .Sat~~ir~an) have been appointed h\' tfu' t~ouril of tn~stces of the International Food I'oli(;~ Institute (IFPRI) chairman of thc board and director gcncral respcc/hvl\. (1 776 M^ssac/m- sdts Avenue, NW Washington DC, 200j(i USA}.

Peru: ASPADERUC - Proyecto Enciclopedia Campesina

Quercnios dcnio.slriir 1.1 griin riquc7;i d c nucstra cultura. cl valor dc nucstras cos- lumlms , 1.1 capacdad quc lcncnios p2ir.i crciir y conslruir nucslrii liisloria.

l I'royccto Hnciclopcditi Ciimpcsin;~ se lund6 cl 1 de ocluhre dc 1987. a parlir dc o s trabajos dc las hil~liotccas ruralcs dc c-. i i~ . i~~ in~-c i i , , quc yii vienen lrabajando en cl c a m p desdc 1071. Y somos una unid:id dc ti-:ihajo d c l:i Asoci;ici6ii par;) cl Dcsarrollo Rur;il d c Caj;iiiiarc;i, AS1'AI)f';RUC.

Invcs~igamos y csludiamos para saber mejot sohre nucslra liistori;~.

l'ul-ilicanios nucstros lilros con nuestrm propias palat-iras. nucstros dibujos.

Cirabamos cinlas con mfisica y cancioncs propias. nueslros lcslinionios.

1.0s niatcrialcs c p c producinlos son tr;ib:ija- dos con Ins propios Iioiiibres y iiiujci-cs del canipo. I'or cso nos intcrcsa cpc llcguen :#l propio c:impo.

Traditions pour demain

I.';~sstici:itinn 'Iradiiiot~spour Ijrtt~u'it~ a Cl6 crt6c en 10% pour soutcnir Ies efforts dc con1niunaut6s iiulig?ncs du Tiers Mondc soucicuscs d e s.ni\cgarder cl d c consolider c u r dent i t6 cullurcllc. I tahl ic en l-'r;ince. cn Suissc et :lux I:t:its-Um'i. Traditiot~spour ~ ) ~ t ~ l ~ ~ ~ t i OCUVrC di l l l~ dll~Ci'C'llt~ piivS d'AmC- riquc I :nine cn agissant comme partcn:iire i-lc coinin~un:iuH-S qui. sur pl;icc. lui s~ i in ic t - tent dcs projets nillurcls. I.'associ;ition ~ I . + W I I I ~ CCS [>rilJdS A dch d0ll3t~lifi - ScS i i~ ' rnl i~-cs 011 lies orffiinis;iln~i~s goin7crnc- ~ i~mt : i l c s oil non - dtsirciix d c l'in;inccr dcs i ~ ~ i , i t i \ c s choisies et coniluilcs intCgr;ilc- men! piir leurs hCnClid;iircs. 'I 'radi~iot~.\~~<nir l\-t~riliti contrihin' i lii rcstructur:ilion dc ci'ininiun:iulCs qui pourronl ainsi assumer l i i

responsibility dc Icur dCvcloppcnicnt.

I'our les indigenes d'An16riquc I ~ i t i n e - ccux p o u r qui 1092 rcprCscntcra 1c souvenir d'un dcmi-niillCnairc d c souniission et d'humilia- tion - la lutte pour la sauvcgardc d c l'idcnti- 16. c'esl 1c dCfi d e I'avenir. la condition de Icur d~veloppcmcnt .

C11;icunc dcs 17 tcolcs d c l:i region h4:is:i- hu:~ qui, dcpuis 1987. p.irtidp;iicnt :iu programme dc forni;iticin hilingue-liicul- lurcllc d'instilutvurs indigenes, a pu sY'qui- per dc ni:iteriel d'inlprimcric sommiiirc. Cc rnateriel pcrniet dc publicr i dcs lins pCd;igogiqucs 1c r6sult;1t des cnquCtcs dcs deves sur leur environncnicnt villagcois.

I.cs 7.500S que Truiliiiot~.~ pour Hcirl<~iti :ipporler;i nu Ciroupc Culturcl N:ihfiu d c l:i V;illcc du Mesqui~al vont donncr un nou\i-'l 6l;in aux aclivitks dc danscs, d c tli6;nrc cl dc niusiquc dc jeuncs inslilulcurs cl Cl?vcs O~otnics d c ncuf con~mun;iut6s. I cs besoins cxprimCs conccrncnt dcs inslruincnls dc

Ouclquc 3.000S adres.ses u n grnupc dc diinse et d c niusique d'unc communaut6 dc la region d c Cafiiir scront utilises pour l'.iclial ci'instrumcnts d c niusique. dc mat6- riaux pour l:i conteclion tic coslunics. et d'6cjiiipcmcnt p6d;igogiquc pour 1.1 rcclicr- d i e sur I'liistoirc d e la con~niun:iut6. En liCn6ficicront environ lrois ccnts cnfiints ~l l (~ I . ' l l l /u ' , ' .

I'lus au sud, dans la region dc Sar;iguro, 1';ippui de 121 RCpuhliquc dc Ocni-^c per- nicttra d'6quipcr unc kcolc construitc cl c o n p c par la population inilig?nc. I.es enfants etant exclus cn riiison d c lc~irs origines d c I'f-colc puhlique du \ill;ige. Ifs parents on! imagine un progr:inime scolairc autog6rC sur cinq ans qui :issocic lcs deux 1:1ngucs et Ics dcux cultures.

1980 C t i i i l 1.1 secoiide annec du p r o ~ d d'l encyclop6dic Pnysannc dc (';ij;im:irc:i. Six volunics ont d6j5 d c pulilics par lcs 1i:ihi- tiints dc la rkgion sur des th?mcs tcls quc e h (nitils. les instruments dc niusiquc, lcs apparitions surnaturellcs. Unc large dil- fusion aupr?s d c 405 comi~~iin:iutcs a pcrniis d'appuyer lcs progr;inimcs d'alph;iliCtis:ition.

Lcs jeuncs d'une coniniunaul6 isolic du ilCpiirtenicnt dc Cocl~;~li:iml~:i pourront. grace A la Fondation I'atifio et A f i u i l ~ ~ i o i i . ~ pour Dcinuiii. construirc cl ?qiiipcr u n iilclier d c tissagc pour continuer 5 faliriquer la toilc dc lainc pour leurs liiihils. Cc local scrvira 6galement ri abriter lies cours d'al- phah^tisMion, pour les feninies not;imment.

I,es six niille liahilants dcs qu:ilrc corn- munau~es /~u; ' / / /c / ; t~s d c I'ile ilc C'liiloC dans 1c sud du p;iys se son1 reunis pour revalori- scr lcur languc et leurs felcs. I k s cnl';ints et dcs jeuncs recevront une formation. Par c u r action. chacun dans sa conim~inautc conlril,uera cnsuitc 5 reconsliliicr Ie li'isu comniunauiairc afl'iiibli par 1c regime cn place jusqu'i'i i l y :I encore pen d c lcnips.

LibanIPalestine: [.'Association Najdeh

l.'associal~on Niijdcli. inscrite ,111 MinistCre dcs Ali:iircs Soci:ilcs d c la KCpuhliquc I iIvin.-iisc. a cte crece en 1977; son but cst c d~vclnppcment cconon~ique et social dc i i commun:iut6 [xilcstiniennc des canips du I.ilxi~i. s~ir tout dans sa composantc feminine.

Ics services 6di1c;itifs prf-scol:iircs: ere- ches. cr2clies A domicile. j:irdins d'cnfiints, iictivitcs d'Cl6 pour Ics enfants cntrc 6 cl 12 ans:

Ics centres dc formation profcssionncllc: coupe cl couture, tricot, d:iclylo cl seereta- riat. coiffure pour d;imcs. iiicnuiscric et ~'ICCII-icitL"

c scn'iccs sociaux qui comprcnncnt: parr-iiiniigcs. pet itcs bourses d'6tude. aides ;lux maladcs et aux ancicns. pl;iccnicnt ~1'cnl';ints IiandicapCs dans dcs i~istitutions sp6ci.ilisCcs. d c .

1 2 s ateliers de broderie de Nn,jdeli

U n des nioycns pour Ics l'cnin~cs piilcs- linicnnes dcs camps du l i b a n dc sc re- approprier d c Icur culture, tout cn jouant un role Cconomique non ~iCgligcablc. est a r t d c lii brodcric.

dessins carac16ristiques dc ch;iquc region. Lcs motifs ik"> hroilcrics qui ornent l:! robe tradi~ionncllc C~:iicnt inspi1-C-i d c dcssins trCs ancicns. patiois coniniuns :lux lapis d'lr:in cl du Cauc:ise, aux orncmcnts s;iccr\lol:iux cl mosa'iqucs by in t ins nu grccs. 1 . c ~ tcni- nies palesliniciincs Ics on1 iidopt6s. en onl d 6 Line mlmiti' d':tii!res et lciir nnl iionne dcs noms lies :i la culture pays:innc comiiic la vigne. 1c cyprts. 1c haul palmier, la plume. l'cmprcinlc dcs piis dc la poulc cl du cliiimcau. I'ocil d c 1:i vaclie. 1c I:ilis~~i:in. c peignc. d c .

I,cs olijcts lirod2s dii trnussciiu dcs jcuncs marifes 6taicnt principiilcnicnt Ics rolics -

dcs jours dc fctc cl de lous lcs jours - Ics voiles, sortc dc lourd cli.'ilc qui liiissiiit Ie vis;ige d6couvcrt. Ics parures qui orni-'nt Ics clicvcux, Ics co~~ss ins . Avcc lies biindcs brodCes, souvcnt tirCes dc robes us;ig6es, Ics fcmn~cs confcctio~iniiicnt dcs blagues 5 labile ou dcs pctilcs poclicllcs l'ourrc-toul a suspendre aux niurs d c 1:i ni:iison.

Rcdonncr vie a cc prkicux liCril:igc csl u n des buts dcs atelier'-> du Niijdcli qui s'cifor- cent d'appliquer dcs motifs ancicns :i lies ohjets d'us;igc courant: coussins. p:innciiu\ decoratit's, jctes d c t;ililc, nappcrons, siics, portc-nionnaics, porlc-liinetlcs. ciirtcs dc vocux, ecliarpcs. Jupes, cli2lcs. d c .

1 2 production compte plus d c 250 ohjets ditTCrcnts dont 1c prix varie cnlrc 1 et 210 US$. Un c;il;ilogiie deerit brievcmcnl clia- quc objet et donne 1c nom du motif cl Id

region ou village d'origine quand il.'i soni connus.

I,cs ateliers dc I'Associalion Najdcli. corn- mcnces en 1977 avec celui dcs femmcs resc.'ipc'es de Tell cl Zaantiir. son! niain- tenant 10. A Chalila et Borj cl Iiiir:~jncli, i Ain cl l l dwdi et Midi Midi (Sidon) :i Horj

cl CliOniali, Maiicliouk. I3ass et Ruchidicli (region d c Tyr) i Hcdda~ii et Nalir cl Bared dans 1c Nord. six cent l'cninics. pour ne comptcr quc cellcs dnnt 1.1 production cst alxindrintc cl rCguliCre. hrodcnt dcs ohjets qui sout monies d;ins I'usinc dc finissage d e f'iikhani (licyrouth) par dcs couturieres spL'ci~lisCcs.

IJnc structure trCs soliilc a pcrniis aux :itcliers dc sumvre et dc se developper 11i;ilgrL' tons Ics I~oulcvcrsciiicnts dfis i 1'Oli i t

dc guerre:

I c premier iitclicr Fcinfrics <l<' 'IN cl h i n u r , fondO en 1977 a Daniour a dfl dOni6nagcr deux fois 5 cause dcs lioriihiirde- nicnts israL'licns ;iv:int d'etrc IialayL' p;ir 1'inv;ision isr;iClicnne d c 1082. 1.a plupart Lie scs ouvri?rcs se son1 jointcs aux ateliers des camps ou d ies on1 trouve refuge.

' i i t c l i c r d c Racliidich (invert vcrs la fin dc 1077, ;1 d c coniplCtcrncnt dctruit par unc homlic des miliccs lil~anaiscs allies d'Jsr;i?l en I'L'vricr 1979. 1.0 nou\caux ociuix. cn location, on1 d6 Ctre ;ib;indonnes pcnil;inl l'inv:ision israClicnne dc 1982, n1:ii.s c lr;iv:iil a pu conlinucr d;ins u n lociil dc lortunc jusqu'i lii rL'instiillation dc l'aldier d;ins son siege rcconstruit.

L'atclicr d c Borj el CliCm;ili (cn location) a 616 dL'nioli par I'invrision isr;iL'licnne dc 1082, mais ;I repris prcsque iinm6diatcment e travail malgr6 I'emprisonncnicnl d c S;I

rcspons;ible en Israel pendant qutitrc niois.

1,';itelicr d c Sa'ida a et6 d6truit par I'inva- sion isr;itlicnne dc 1982 cl a rcpris scs iiclivitL's en scptcmbre d e la niCnie annee.

1,'atelicr d c Cal i l i i d:ins Icqucl. dcpuis 1082. L'tiiit installCc la direction dc tout 1c service. :I OIL' pill6 et brfile pciiil:int I , I gucrre dcs camps cn 1985.

Pend;int I'invasion israClicnne d c 1978. celle d c 1982 et l;i guerre dcs c;imps cntrc lYS5 cl 1988 Ics ouvrit'rcs dCplaci^c.s 0111 616

rcpL'rees par leur rcspons:iblc d;ins Ics licux oil ellcs s'O1;iicnt rOl'ugiCes cl ont pu con- tinucr i rcce\oir du lmvrnl.

Facc a tous ccs d6l'i.s qui n'ont pas 1lL'chi 'acharncment des rcsponsrihles 5 continucr c! A dfvcloppcr Ie travail. crir 11 repond :I

l nL'ccssit6 des fcmnics - souvcnt chef dc faniillc - dc contr~hucr au hudgct fan~ilial par leur travail. dans la situation 6cono- mique catiistropliiquc oil sc trouve 1c Lihrin. 1c problt'nic 1c plus important quc nous dcvons affronter est la con~mcrcialisation.

lion an mal a n 1c 5 0 5 des vcnlcs s'ciicc- tuait au I,ihan dans l;i minuscule boutique AI liadia du quarticr H a n ~ r a dc Bcyroutli et dans 1c dOp6t/hureau/lioutiquc dc 36m2 situ6 au rcz-de-cIiaussL'e dc I'ininicuhlc on est situ6 Ie sccrclariat de I'A.ssoci:~lion Najdch. Mais a cause d c la situation au Lilian cl surtout dcs graves homhardcn~cnts d e I'annL'e 1089, Ics clients sc font nires et i l iaut alter Ics rctrouver i I'etrangcr, dans Ics pays oh ils ont emigre.

Jusqu'a present, lcs vcntcs A I'cxlfricur du 1,ih;in on1 et6 c)TccIl~l"es "I'i'ice :lux comiiOs d c souticn d c 1'A.ssocialion qui son1 IvlsOs sur un volontariat trCs d6vouc. epaule cn France par la C h d c .

I I est indispensable niaintcn:inf pour nous. 6lant donii6 aussi I'arn6lioration d e noire production, d'Ctcndre notre march6 a d';iutres organlsmcs spkcialises dans Ie 'commerce solidaire" pour assurer un i^coulcn~ent plus r e p l i e r dc nos produits.

IsraelIPalestine: Alternative Information Centre

The Alterniitive Information Centre (AIC) is a registered non-profit association of Israelis and Palestinians, based in West Jerusalem, which started work in Dccember 1984. Its primary aim is to provide an alternative source of information and ana- lysis of trends and developments in the Israeli socicty. and of the repressive regime enforced by Israel in the occupied territo- rics. with its impact on Israeli society itself. '1'0 this end, the Centre publishes two periodicals: News from Within is a monthly, dealing with analysis and background infor- n1;ition on tlie occupied territories and Israeli policy. and The Other From is a weekly review of tlie Hebrew press, which exanlines the process of political polariza- tion within Israeli society, by means of translations and commentarieson local news iIS reported in newspapers reflecting the whole Israeli political spectrum. The Other Front. in p:irticul;ir, provides :I view of 1sr;icl not readily available elsewhere.

The Centre also strives to work towards the establishment of a framework of 1sr;ieli- Palestinian cooperation that will serve to slrengtlien work relations and mutual trust between activists of both communities through shared activity. Thus the AIC seeks to function as a bridge between Piilestinian society and the Israeli peace camp.

Activists and employees working at the Centre do not necessarily agree on the nature of the political solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conllict, hut do share the following principles:

AIC's unconditional support of the l'ales- tinian struggle against Israeli occupation:

strengthening and disseminating the idea ol Israeli-I'aleslinian cooper:ition;

dedication to the struggle for democr:itic rights on both sides of the Green Line;

AlC's commitment to Israeli-Palestinian cooperation in all aspects of its structure (employees, financing, etc) and concept of work.

Because of this platform. AIC is perceived as a political threat to the authorities. Though the Centre works within the frame- work of the law. the authorities have been moving the border between tlie allowed and the forbidden. thereby threatening the AIC's work and freedom of expression in gencr;il. Beginning in 1987, AIC hiis been sutijccleii to efforts to prevent us from carrying on our work. In Februtiy 1987, the Centre was closed for six months and its director. Michael Warshawski, arrested. I Ie was later released on bail, on condition that he not set foot in ttie office nor be involved in its work. Now, four years later - after a trial which dragged on for a year and a half -

Warshawski has been sentenced to 8 nion- ths imprisonment and 12months suspended. I'hc Centre was lined USS5.000. The sen- e n c e was given for the only charge that Warshawski was found guilty of "closing his eyes" to the nature of a publication for which he authorized typesetting by ttie Centre.

There is wide agreement in the mainstream Israeli press as well as in the peace camp, that this sentence - much greater than those meted out for similar offenses to Pales- tinians - was meant to act as a deterrent to other Israelis who might be tempted to venture too far in the direction o l di;ilogue and cooperation wit h Palestinian lorccs. I t is - as were the closure of the Arab Studies Society and the administrative detention of its director, and the closure of Derecli Hanitzotzffiiriq Ilsliarara and the arrest ol

its editorial hoard - another example of the growing government policy of looking upon all Israeli-Palestinian cooperation -including in provision of information - as 'supporting' o r even membership in illegal organizations.

W e regard the strengthening and expansion of the Israeli peace camp and of Israeli- Palestinian cooperation to be the niost adequate response to the authorities' repres- sive measures.

Fo r AIC specifically, this means endc;ivour t o expnni.1 77ie Other From from 4 t o 8 pages: establish press archives covering. i.e. the protest movements. the army, religion and state, oriental Jews, Palestinians within Israel: investigate on the situation in dif- ferent areas in tlie occupied territories, cases of oppression, pogroms, etc. report newsworthy events in writing to journalists. U p to now we li;ivc passed on "scoops" and information vcrl'ially on a n ongoing basis t o the media. O u r intention now is t o pass such information in writing in Hebrew (and possibly also in English) t o tlie print media: expani.1 subscription lists of hoth penodic:ils.

(1'011 24278, Jerusalem, Aruel)

Announcements

The Africa Centre founded iti 1962 is an independent institute which provides a plat- form to learn and discuss Ajkican affairs. Panel discussion.^ on Africa, conferences on development i.s.sue.s. r\*etiitig classes iti African latipagrs and literature us well us e.1-Iiihitions o fpa i t thgs h! Africans, filtns and courses on African cinema, theatre productions by small African or multiracial cotnpa)~ics, tra~/i;/ '(~t~al music and modern popular bands and poetry readings are some of the activities of the Centre, (For further information, 38 trect, iMmlon WC>.. K.JT, UK).

African Books Collective a f ic~v .selJ- help initiative by a group of African j ~ ~ ; h / i s / ~ - crs to promote their books in Europe, .\'orlh America, and in C o t r i t r ~ o t ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ i ~ l t l ~ co~mff-/c~s outside Africa. ABC provides centralized and s/i'/~pitig from one sen-ice point, and a wide range of joint cataloyies. Currently, ARC slacks only English-latipa,ge material with emphasis on scholarly and academic books; creative writing African authors and critical works on African literature: children 'S

hooks and certain general interest titles (The Jatn Factoty, 27 Park End Street, Oxford OX1 m, UK).

The WFSF refyonul conference on Alterna- tive futures for Eastern Europe will he held from 3-6 June 1991 in Sojia, Bulgaria. It u i t n ~ at triecii~ig fnturists, br/.~incssinen and politicians to exchange ideas and visions o f the future development of Eastern European countries. The four topics tliat will be covered are: ihe challen~.s of I-'.iiroputi ecotio~nic integration and the single European market: scenarios ami altcnu~ti~~e political futures for Eastern European coiititries: the .st~psfouwifc democratic pluralistic societies and the per- s j~c~ct i t~s of jwi'ttical intccyaiion of Eu~tcrn I'Mrope; ecological, demoyaj~liic, socio- cultural and urban-n~ral challenges that are to be met by the Eastern European coutitries in the futi~re; comparative analysis of the specific future development of each Eastern European country. The working language of the conference is English. (11 Aksakov sir, SoJu 1000, Bulgaria).

The theme of the V1 International Con- gress on Human Settlements in Developing Countries which will be held in New Dclhi 31 Jutitia~y - 2 Febntaly 1991, is 7Jrbut1-Rur- ill Dichotomy, and Linkage.~. The sub-topic's to be covered are: Urban dynamics and urban-rural interface; Rural development and rural-urban linkages, tnii,~at/on: tnagi~tiidc and impact; [fousitig slums and squatter settletrien~s: IAat1d, finance, infrastructure and b ~ d d i n g materials. (25-27 Nctaji Siihhas Road, Calcutta 700 001 India}.

I-'Institut africain pour 1e dcvcloppciiient ccononiiquc et social - Centre at'ric:iin dc formation (Inadcs-l7orn1ation) cst un institut d c formation. juridiqucnlenlreconnu cornnic association internationale sans but lucratit et d'utilitC publique.

I e but $nCml dc I'associalion est dc ti'aviiiller ;'i 1i1 promotion socialc et Ccono- miquc des populations cn accordant unc importance parliculierc ft leur participation liiirc et responsahlc ft 121 transformation dc e u r s sociCtCs.

Son siege paniifricain se trouve ft Abidjan. Cote d'lvoire, avec des bureaux nationaux d;ins 10 pays: Burkina Ease, Burundi, r.imeroun. C6le d'lvoirc, Elliiopic, K c n y . l<\'>iirnJ:i. Tchad, Togo. Za'ire.

1"ormer lcs adultcs ruraux en vuc dc leur promotion sociale et Cconomiquc. Inadcs- 1"ormation vise plus sptcifiquement 9 iiider lcs ruriiux a:

ani6liorer leurs aclivitCs d c production, d c commercialisation et geslion; analyser en commun leursituation cl les cliiingcmcnts auxquds ils on1 ft fiiire face: choisir lilircnicnt et meltre cn oeuvre eux-mCmes les solutions qu'ils cstin~cnt possiblcs, comptc tenu dc Icurs moyens et dcs eonlraintes inCvitalilcs du deve- loppenlent; sorganiser comn~unaulnircnient pour faire cnfendrc Icur voix, faire valoir lcurs intCr?ts et dialoguer avec Ies organismes charges dc la politiquc dc dfveloppcnicnt d c leur region.

Afrique: Inades-Formation

100

convaincu qu'il n'y a pas dc il6\cloppcmcnl agricole possible s'il n'y :I p.is dc milieu rural capable de prcndre dcs initi;ili\cs.

Pour Inades-Forniiition 11 s';is;it done dc contribuer a cr tcr un tissu social rural :ictii et autonome.

Son publ ic

les paysiins. agricultcurs. liomn~cs et feninics, peu nu pas IcttrCs: Ics jcunes dCsc01:irisCs retournCs nu rest& au village et desircux d'emtinisscr e metier de la lerre: les responsahles et les niciiihrcs dcs groupemcnts: les agents d c d6vcloppemcnt: cnc;idrcurs. anii~iateurs. monilcurs cl n~C-inc inslilu- leurs ou inslilulriccs (1111 tr:i\~iillcnl iivcc lcs ruraux; les cadres et rcspoiisablcs ilu dC\~Ioppe- merit soucieux d'amCliorcr Icurs conniiis- sauces et Icur approelic du milieu rural.

S o n i ipproche

A p t mix structures loculcs. - C'est sculc- incnt ;l travcrs Ics structures d c h:isc qu'il est possible d'iipprochcr unc popul;ition. Ccpcndant, Inades-1:orm:ition 11'21 pas la responsabilitc directe d'optrations d c d&c- Ioppemcnl. I1 ne vcut pas se substilucr aux structures locales cxislantes. niiiis chcrclie A apporter son appui h ceux qui, sur 1c terrain on1 enlrepris dcs actions dc Sor111:i- lion ou d c dfveloppenicnt: groilpcmcnts d c paysans, organisnics publics 011 prhCs.

Approche p a r projn dc fonnutioii. - Cctt c dtnlarche s'arlicule autour des qualrc Cli~p- CS suiviintes: idcntil'ication et aiiiilyse dcs besoins en formation: proposition d'un projet (programme) d e I'onn;ition compor- tan1 plusicurs interventions IiCcs cnlrc cllcs et r?pond.int a u x hesoins aniilyscs: pl;ini-

fication. execution t1 sui\i du projet dc formation propose: evaluation du projet d e t'orni:ition.

Cette approche permcl d c niieux cerner les hesoins exacts des publies i former en Ics reliant aux projels des formbs: p r o b l h c A r6soudre et actions a entrcprcndrc. et d c proposer dcs contenus de formation bien iidaptes et 6galcnlcnt d c liirgcs possibilitts d'iissocicr Ies I'orm6s 3 la dtlcrn1in;ition ilu programnie dc formrition cl A son 6va- luation.

Formation it distance. - J;lle cst esscntiel- lenient baste sur les cours par correspon- dance. Son but CM d'6viler Ie d6racincmcnt en offrant line plus griindc souplcssc qu'un cnseignen1cnt formel. Elle offre la pos- sil'ilitif d c coniniencer 3 n'iniporte quelle dale dc I'annee au ~ t l i n l e personnel d'etude cl en s'appuyant sur des options personnel- les.

Fonnarioti rapprochfc. - C'cst la formation ':lee a p iit.c" . sous forme dc sessions. I ,es

sessions regroupent pendant 2 2 6 jours les iihnnnes cl Ics l'ormiiteurs pour trailer un theme precis. Les sessions d c formation sont dc plus en plus privilegiecs dans I'approche par projet d e formation.

Ixs don~iiines d'intervention

1.a formation aux techniques de production aninlale et vbgktale rcpr&cnte la grande majorit6 ties aclivitts d'lnades-Formation. 1.2 formation est abord6c d c n~aniiirc a rcnforcer les capaci lh des paysans a ana- lyser Icur exploitation et A choisir Ies solu- tions appropriecs. Une pl;ice iinport:inte est dCsorniais faitc :lux snvoirs et pratiques paysans, pour en n~anifester la logique et en faire 1c point de depart d'ameliorations et d':id;iptations. Compte lenu des prohliimes croissants d e degradation d c I'environne-

rncnt. une priorit6 toute particulii-'rc CM accordec 5 Idcologic cl ;i l i t protection d c I'cnvironnement.

Bcaucoup d e ceux qui triivaillent au dcve- loppenlent pensent quc cc (JCvclnppcnicnt est possible seulement a\cc la piirticip:ition active des ruraux. 1.a formation pour I'au- topronlotion ruralc (animiilion) clue propose Inades-l'orn~ation vise A entrainer les ruraux i compter d'abord sur l cun proprcs rcs- sources et ;'I s'organiscr pour d c ~ c n i r d e vCritahlcs interloculcurs diins 1c JCveloppc- mcnt qui leur est propose. Pour cdii, Ics comrnunauies ruralcs ont Ix'soin d'anima- tcurs ayant unc formation approprife et capahles d e les aider a s'autoproniouvoir.

I.es agents d e d6veloppcnicnt, surtout les agents agricolcs, out souvcnt rcsu un 1xig.ige technique appreciable. niais ils ont hesoin aussi d'apprendre A comnluniqucr iivec l;i

popul;ilion qu'ils ont a lornicr, animer et conseillcr. I x s techniques et nloyens d c communication, Ies diff6rents types d'appro- che font I'olijct de formation.

Savoir g t rc r est I'un des factcurs principaux d c rkussite dans toute entrcprise liuin;iiiie, plus encore en milieu rural qu'en milieu urbain. Pour aider les ruraux. et n~en le ceux qui travaillent avcc eux. Inades-Formation propose line formation en gestion qui comporte trois volets: gestion des petits projets; gestion dcs exploitations agricolcs; geslion dcs groupenicnts et coopi-'r;ilives.

Comprcndrc Ies probl?mcs d c dcveloppe- metit en Afriquc est indispensable pour mieux oricnter les actions entrepriscs en

faveur du niondc rural africain. I'our aidcr .1 attcindre c d ot-ijcctif, Inadcs-I-'01-m:ition propose une initiation au d~veloppement 5 tous ceux qui veulcnt acqubrir une vue d'cnscnihle d c ccs probltnies.

MinCrie1.s ei mojcfis j~4dagqiquc.s. - Inadcs- Formation a c o n p un materiel pt"d;igogiquc :ihondrint sous forme d c livrcts utilises pour l foriii;ition 5 distance (cours par cor- respo~iiLincc). Ces livrets sont rcgroupes piir coin's: Le cours d'apprentissage agricole qui con~prcnd un choix dc 60 livrcts (v compris a gcstion dc I'exploitalion agricolc). Ccs 00 livrcts pcrniettent d c proposer ;lux agricul- c u r s dcs modules de formiition ad;ipt6s A c u r s besoins: 1.c cours d e forniiition pour 'autopromotion r u n i c (FAR); 1.e cours dc \ulg;ins;ilion: 1.c cours d c gcstion des petits projcts (GIT) : l.;! gcstion des groupcnients et coopCr:ilives: 1.e cours d'initiiilion ;iu dCvcloppc~~icn~ (CID).

1 .CS li\rets du cours d':ipprcntiss:ige agricolc sont rtdigcs en franqais et en iingliiis. Us ont don116 lieu 5 dcs :idaptations et tniduc- lions en liingues locales: kirundi au Hurun- di. ;iiiih:irique cl oroniigna en Ethiopie. kinynv;inii;i au Rwanda. swahili :iu Kcnyi. lingiil;~ cl cilulxi au Zai'rc, moort" cl jula an 13urkin;i Faso.

Ilcpuis 1973, Line revue, Agn)rotno. p;ir;iit 1riiiicstrieIlenient. F.lleseveut un instriinient d'int'ormation et d'anim;ition pour les paysa- 11s et les agents dc d6vcloppement. O':iutrcs pcriodiqucs sont editbs dans plusicurs bureaux n;ilion~i~is. souvenl en l;inguc locale.

avec dcs individus ou dcs groupemcnts qui ont el'feclue dcs rcalisiitions imi t~h lcs par C S t'orniCs.

30 000 personncs sorit toucliCcs p.ir Ics i~itcrvcntioiis lie formation d'inii~ks-I-onii:i- lion. dont plus ties 213 snnl dcs p.iys;ins: cntre 25 et W'r sont dcs fcmincs:

1 500 journCes dc sessions so111 ilispeii- sees;

environ 60 livrcts cl fichcs Iccl in~]ncs sent edi t f i on rccditcs et 20 niimiT'os ilc periodiques sont publics.

India: Institute of Small Enterprises and Development

I'hougti gr;issr-oats org;inis;iti<~ns in India li.ive done coi i i i~ iendi i l~ lc \+ark in areas such ;is rural devclopnicnt. village hcaltli-care. women's development activities etc.. grass- roots iiction for industrialisation stil l re- ni;iiiis neglected. The Itisihiilc of Stnull / ' . ' t ~ i~~ i . s t ' . s mill D t ~ v d o p t n c i ~ ~ ~ s ohjcctive is to promote rcsc;ircli. pr\i\ide consultancy ~CIMCCS to the poor and nceily entrcprc- nc'urs, ;ind to provide tr:iining inputs.

Kcscarcli on small cntcrpriscs is a limited i rc : i i n 1iiili:i. Gove~~iiriic~it-sponsored in - stituti[ms :ire e;ip:iblc of under t i ik ingt l i is t:isk: lio\vc\cr ll iey :ire intcrestcii only i n cioing ev;ilu;itive work o n schemes thiit li;i\e :ilrc:idy been iniplen~cntcJ.

' l i e consult:incy needs o f sm;ill entrepre- ncurs arc varied, yet. the government i n c c h , i n ~ s ~ ~ ~ is not c;ip:ible of niccling sucli needs t o the lu l l extent. Of liite. v:irious iiistitutions set up o r promoted h? the governincnt have been eng;iged in conduct- in"titi-eprciic~~rsliip tni ining progriiniincs. Since these progr;ininies h;i\e not hcen looked nit11 entiugli i i i~dcist;indiiig o f the sociiil rc;ilily l:iciiigs.such entrepreneurs. they h;ivc not lice11 I'ully succcsslul. '1'hc t ~ s k before this Institute is to inlegriite ;ill these three cruci;il aspects ol indiistrialis- ation.

l ' l i i5 Institute is constituted by academici.iiis i f v i r ious rese;irch inslilulions and u n i ~ e r - sitics i n 1iidi:i.

D i e lollowini; an' l l i c policy ni;ind;ites o f the Institute:

to uiiclcrt.'ikc scicntil ic stu~i ies o n devclo}i- merit problems wi th speci:il cin[ili:isis o n sin;ill enterprises in 1nJi;i :incl other Th i rd Wor ld cuuntncs:

to identify :ind pi~pul;irise tcclino1o~ic.s suitable to the de\elopn~eii t of sin.ill CIIILT-

prises:

to maintain a data hank i n this ;ire8 tor rcsc;irchcrs. pl:inners and policy ni:ikcrs:

to iindertiike rcse;ircIi :ind action oriCi i- led training progriimnics;

to orgiinise and m:iint:iin :I spcci.iliscii research and reference lihr:in, i n the ;irc.i

of industry:

to undertiikc :I scheme o f p i i h l i c ~ ~ i o n s in order to ciisseniinrite inform.ilioii ;!lid tlie fruits ol' research ;it this Institute iind:

0 t o cooperate wi th the government :nu1 other agencies.

small ciilcrpriscs and devclopmeiit p>)licy with speci;il reference to the micro level:

rural i~idiislri;ili.s;itioii ;ind dcccntr~ i l is~ i t ion o f power;

educated unemployment and entrepre- ncursliip d e \ c l o ~ ~ i i e n t :

;ippro[)ri;ile tcclinology and dc\elopmcnt of ago-processing industries.

I ' he Institute hiis a series o f publications. 11 h:is ;ilre;iciy h r o u ~ i l out 30 l i l ies. In addi- t ion i t has a \ \orking p:iper series. Copies o f these publications :ire ~i\ ; i i l : ihle on re- quest by s i ~ i i i l x l iv ist.s .ii id r c s e ~ ~ l i c r s .

((.'C-?fi/l l.Sft, Pundit Kanijiputi K o i ~ l , C(~ 'h in (W 111 < /tl~/ll i;

Sri Lanka: The National

l he N;itioniil Ngo Council of Sri 1.ank;i (NNGOC) is an un~brella organisation of Ngos (l'\ns) engaged in promoting ~ievclop- men1 in Sri I ~ n k a . The formation of this Council is a result of the Work) Confcrcnce on Agrarian Reform and Rural Develop- ment ( W C R R D ) . One ol the ilccisions i k c n ;at the post WCARRD Region;il Ngo workshop held in 1980 was that in each Asi;in country the Ngos should form a

'1'11~ member organisations represent the liiuklhist. Hindu. Clii-istian and Muslim f;iilhs :md they also represent the different ethnic groups. Over 90% of the develop- nicnt Ngos arc niembers of the Council. At the present there arc 112 member organisa- tions. large and small. Around 35 of these r e fcdei-;itions 11;iving an afl'ili;itcd nicnilicr- ship of neiii-ly 500 organisations.

Objectives

to promote and strengthen conimunica- lion. cooperation and coll~iboriition hetween members tliemsclvcs and between members :ind tlie National Council:

to encourage and support the exchange of experience, expertise, inl'orm;ition, know- ledge and technical know-how;

to sponsor and support research by members in their respective fields of spe- cialisation:

to develop new approi~chcs. stnitcgies :ind mcchanisnis for people's participation in development:

to voice the views of members and make representations to the government. UN and other intcrnalion;il org;ini'-ationi and 'donor' :igcncics on their behall:

to conduct. sponsor and support loc:il. national and international seminars, work- shops and training progr;inimes:

Ngo Council

to provide skills training:

to promote the adoption 01 .ippropri;itc tcclinologv methods:

to negotiate with government agencies. hanks, 'donor' agencies and intcrniation;il organisations to obtain faciliti- ;ind support for [lie devclopmcnt progr;aninies ot Ngiis.

Acti\ ities

Xc~~i'arking prop tn tnc - The NNCiOC is presently developing ;a netnorking progi-am- me with a view to establishing contact with all Ngos engaged in development activities irrespective of their status ;is nicmlicrs or non-memhers of the Council.

Truitlitig programmes - At present, three training programmes arc hekl ciich year. I t is intended to increiise this facility to h:ivc more frequent training programmes to satisfy the demands of the niernbership.

E x c h u t ~ g of expert i .~~ and facilities - A.s :I

matter of policy the NNGOC Council harnesses the expertise and the facilities available to the member organisation and outside facilities arc sought only when such facilities arc not available to the member organisations.

There are many Ngos w h o are keenly interested in promoting the protection of the environment and towards achieving this objective, tlie NNCiOC Council 11:is en- couraged the formation of 8 groups o f Ngos which would take over tlie w;itch clogrole in relation to the specific are:is: coiist;iI belt. rivers. inland waters, forest cover. soil conservation. control ol pesticicics and herbicides, urb:in enviroiin~cnt ;in0 crk'rgy waste management.

Jamaica: The Association of Development Agencies

D i e Association of Development Agencies (ADA) is a Jamaican forum for collective an;ilysis. discussion, planning, ;kl\-ocac!~ and cnllal-ioration among a number o f interna- tional, regional and national Ngos. It sup- ports indigenous development initiatives aimed at eifcctive social chiingc which incre;iscs tlic participation. power and control of ordinary people over decisions iiifccting their lives.

According to tlie authors. A1)A.s 19X0/9<Ã Annual Kcport is "a central component in m;iini;iining our account;ibility to our mern- bersliip and to those who provide I'inancial and other support for our work." Each Annual Report has its own distinctive characteristics. Articles focussing on themes from ADA's work accompany these pro- gr;imni:itic reports. The article in tlie 1987- 88 report: "So what does ADA really do?" helped to understand the association's interritil 'style'. 'I'lic two articles on govcrn- nicnt-Ngo rcliitionships in the 1988-89 report explore tlie subject with relerence not only to Jamaican N g s .

The latest report maintains that trend. The feature article hy Joan Ross-Frankson examines ADA's experience with govern- ment-Ngo relationships. It sets out sonie proposals concerning tlie Government's Five Y ~ i r Development Plan. and offers some reflections on the process. 'I'hc second features a comprehensive report on the ADA Shelter progran~me which has emerg- ed as the centerpiece of a long-term recons- truction progriinime. It is yet another illustration of "liow ADA works".

I'lic role o f AD,\ is to support the eflorts of its meinher organizations in their under- taking of development work. ;ind contribute

to macro-level debate and actions in the field of devclopnient.

Goals

T o strengthen the capacity of our member agencies and other orgiini7;itions to work at the local level.

T o create and respond to opportunities for learning and exchange, cspcei:illy ;imong Ngos and conln~unity org~niziitions.

To research and aniilyse alternative approaches to dcvelopnicnt.

T o help shape policies aftecting the li\cs of the people in Jamaica and the Carilihean.

To continue to bring community org:ini~;i- lions more actively into the work ot' the Association.

T o diversify our funding options and build a more independent Siniinci:il h;ise.

There are currently 13 menilicrs ol ADA:

l;o~tt~dinv, members: Caribbean Conference of Churches (CCC); Combined Oisahilitics Association (CDA); CUSO: Mcl Nathim Institute (MN1); Mennonitc Central Com- mittee (MCC); Projects for People (PI'P); Sistren Theatre Collective: Social Action Centre (SAC). Full members: Gr;iduate Theatre Company (GTC); Women's Re- source & Outreach Centre (WROC). Associate incmhers: Mennonite Econcunic Development Associates (MJCDA); S:ive the Children-Canada (CANSAVE); MS .ludy Wedderhurn.

The Other India Bookstore

A unique insti/~i/intz that promotes hooks among Third World people

More than lour decades into politic;^! indcpcndcnce, countries like India are still Hooded hy hooks, magazines. newspapers and journals from a group of powerful publishers in 1~ngl:ind and the United Stales. The resultant "kno\\ledgc irnperi;il- ism" is iormidahle and iilmost impossible to combat.

Attempts to change this situ;ilion have not x i r n e fruit, despite tlie enicrgence o f strong soutlicr-11 political institutions like llic Non- Aligiieil Movement (NAM) ;ind tlie South ;\si:in Associi~ion for Regional Cooperat ion (SAARC). Per-sistcnt c~irrciicyand eseli:~nge problems combined with tlie dominance of westcrii iic;uIcmic scholiirship in the Third Worli.1 have m:idc i t practically impossible o r rc;iiiers in India. for instance, to get "iooks t i i i i l journ:~ls written, primed and published hy colleagues and writers in. say, the I'li~lippi~ies or K e n y .

In 1080, :I group of intellcctu:ils and ac- tilists fro111 India got together and decided th:it sometliingought to be done about this depressing state of affairs. Their answer: The Other India ISooksforc (OiB).

Over three years. through sustained efforts. l i e OIB 1i:is now draninticiilly changed tlie exislingscenario.

Books and periodicals from the Philippines, Mtilaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Sri 1.anka and Pakistan began to he avail- able by 1987 in Indian bookstores. This was the first step. Contraiy to cstiil~lislied opinions ;ind prejudices, the OIH has suc- cccdcd in proving that people in India :ire ready to buy books from other Third World countries. provii.lcd tlie product is ol good quality.

:ram its inception. the 0 1 1 3 h:is followed ;I

few important principles. With precious fe\\ exceptions, all hooks marketed by the bookstore have to he wnttcn liy Third World writers, and must be printed ;ind published in :i Third World country. ' 1 ' 1 1 ~ bookstore's most iniport~iiil ac l i~cvc i~~en l : il

sells hooks at pr:ictically the same rate in the country of origin.

l Iaving successfully introduced Third World books into India. the Oil? is n o w set to promote Indian books in other countries. India produces 1hous:inds of books e v e n yc;ir. Oil? editors select the best titles the prolific Indian publishing industry has to offer. Titles selected are gencr;illy ~ i i t l i tlic global audience in mind.

In addition to Third World wr~ling. the 0 1 1 3 uses the same infrastructure built for ni:irk- etiiig the entire volume of puhliciitions brought out by voluntary groups, Ngos, and environmental groups in India. It is tlie only outlet spcciali/iiig in such publications: the ultimate one-stop shop for whatever is produced in India hy non-coniriicrci;il publishers. small activist groups, al1ern;itivc thinkers and cliange-ni:ikers.

The 1990 Catalogue of the OIli lists over 500 titles: one third from oilier countries of the Third World. one third from the volun- tary sector in 1ndi;i. and one third from Indian conimercial publishers.

Copies of the Oil? 1990 Catalogue a re available with IFDA at 1 dollar e:ich (tor postage).

(Above MO/JU.~U Clinic, Mapusa 403 507, Giia, India)

The African Academy of Sciences

The Alrican Academy of Sciences (AAS) was born in 19x5. in the middle of the worst crisis that Africa has ever faced. Drouglit. l;imine, inilehtedness. and dis- enchantment with economic policies and dcvelnprncntal pr:icticcs lliat li:id irilornied tlic govcrnriiental iictions in Africii. :ill went to p:iint a gloomy picture of a contincnt \vr;ickcd hy :I crisis, drilling to immeiisur- ; ihk di\~istcr. only able to read to inlnie- Ji:ite problems - and unable to stitch togc- tlicr :I feasible strategy for its long-term s.ilvall011.

l 'hc M ' I ~ first t ~ o projects discussed and iidopted by AAS in 1985 were: Jir.w. tlie initi.ition of a scientific study (jointly with the Third World Ac;ideniy of Sciences [TWAS] :ind Hie US National Ac;ideniy of Sciences) into the problems ol drought. descrtification and food deficit in Alrica, iinJ [hi: long-term sirakgv Ih;it would be required to resolve these issues of cnviron- merit and development: and. s m i t ~ d , the urging of a forum for the publication o i current breakt111-ouglis in science and tcch- n o l o p , and the highlights of policies in science. agriculture and industry, through Hie I;iunching of a continent-wiilc tirst-class journal tor which a feasibility study would he launched in l986 jointly with the Ameri- can Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). The two actions cxcmplili- cd more than anytliing the deterniined will and mind of the African scientific com- niunity to break with the past free-wheeling attitude and get engaged directly with the t:isk of science-driven development in Africa through harnessing the motive power of scicncc and Ieclinology.

I'lie question of development therefore pcreadcs tlie statement of the principal iii;indiite o l the AAS. which can be encapsu- 1:itcd as follows:

To promoie and foster [he growih of [lie scientific conimunity in Africa, and to stimulate and nurture the spirit of scu'ntific discovey and technological innovation in order to serve socio-economic development and regional integration and to serve the cause of glot~i l p a c e and security:

To stiniul;ite. design ;itid cooriliiiiile regional interdisciplinary and transdiscipli- n:iy scientific rcsciircli, development and demonstration projects or ;icti'.itics ol'm:ijor regional interest o r concern:

'1'0 plan. convene ;itid coordiii:ite science education programmes in Africa;

'1'0 help in developing iiiid nurturing liigli- level scientidc and tccliiiologiciil manpower in Africa by identilying young tiilcntci.1 scientists and technologists and promoting tlieir creativity: and

To facilitiite, coordinate and undertake the puhlic;ition of scientific progi-ess in various media; to fo.slcr the di.s'>etiiin;ition of scientific knowledge tliroug,lioul the continent; and to facilitate mutual contacts between scientists in Africii.

A fascinating feature of the AAS is lli:il it is a regional academy, not a federation of iiutonomous n;itional academies: and i t has therefore a strong international outlook ancl orientillion. It is iihk t o concentr;ife on those priority issues of science that perviide the whole region - orientation seen in other non-federated international academics sucli as the TWAS and the Pontific;~! Academy of Sciences. A second singikir feiiture is its geographical spiead. which dikes in the whole of the African contincnt. together with its attendant island nations in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans - r.ithcr tlian dividing Africa as is conventional at the

present lime into "Africa South of the Siihiir:~" a11i.i North Africa, or "Black Africa" and "Arab Africa". or some other artificial divisions of Africa perceived by others from outside the continent. A third singular feature of the AAS is its purview of scien- lil'ic knowledge subsumed under the Acade- my. a subject spread which is wide-ranging and includes the natural sciences. techno- l o p and engineering sciences. as well as the social scicnces.

File major societiil questions of the social sciences are of critical concern to the academics of science in Africa. Indeed, one should ask of science-driven national o r regional developnient: "Technological devel- opments for mhat sociiil purpose?" In attempting to confront this question, we should realise that social scientists are trained to acquire the intellectual tools to enquire about social purpose and the con- lcxtiiiil framework of technologically orient- ed Research and Development (L<&l)). As has often been ohscrved, science and tecli- iiology usuiilly set the limits of what is possible: the social sciences, on the other liand. n~:irk out the boundaries of what is desirahlc. Given the dangers that sonic major scientific advances have bequeathed to hunii'inkind. i t is vital that the use to which science is put in serving Africa be viewed in the context of social values and purposes. The African Academy of Sciences is therefore an initiative of all sciences and must seek to use the excellence in all scientific disciplines to shape a safer and better future for Africa. This further means that the Academy nlust cooperate and maintain close working rel:~lionsliips with other scientific organizations con~mitted to tlie same go;ils. The Council for the Dcvel- opulent of Social Science Research in Alricii (CODF-SRIA), for example, is one such contiiienlal orgnni,?alion with which the Ac:idemy will seek to work closely. The United Nations I'x'onoii>ic Conimission for Africa (UNI;CA) and [lie Organization of African Unity (OAU), both hascd in Adilis

Ahcha, Ethiopia, now have a wealth oi experience in harnessing Africa's develop- ment process that all scientific organizations should benefit from. It is with this in mind that the OAU has supported the establish- ment of the I'an-African Union of Science and Technology (PUST) to whose goals the Academy subscribes. The African Develop- ment Bank (ADB), conlmitted to financing rapid socio-economic development of the continent, will no doubt find the Ac;ideniy a ready partner in promoting our develop- ment process. The Academy is also con- scious of the fact that. within each country. institutions exist committed to scientific research. At sub-regional levels. attempts have been made to coordinate research endeavours through associations and aciidc- niies of science. These regionill and sub- regional institutions are the necessiity nodes through which the Academy will operate. The Academy will seek to promote and encourage these initiatives tliroiigli the Network of African Scientilic 0rganiz.ations (NASO). The spirit of Pan-Atricanism niust be seen in the achievement of positive results in Africa's development process.

Core programmes of the Academy

All these singularities are reflected in the conlposition and nature of the programme activities of the M S . The Academy is first and foremost an honour society, electing those who have contributed outstandingly to the advancement of science and techno- logy in Africa. But i t is vastly more than that; and it has rapidly developed a strong core programme in four principal areas: mobilization and strengthening of the scientific community in Africa; publication and dissemination programme; rescarcli, development and public policy: and eiipacity luilding in science and technnlogv.

(FOB 14798, Nairobi, Kenya)

Relations interculturelles: des fleurs pour Orchidkes

organisation de cotntn;~t~/'cation c M e en France en 198J

Ccltc initiative unique cst nec d'un constiit: lc Tiers h,loni.lc cst 1c plus souvcnt present6 dc ~ : I ~ O I I lrop 116g.itivc. On n'y fvoquc que des Lilts supposes &re "scns;itionr~els" (dict;ilurcs. c;ilastrophcs, dCto~~rnemenl d c 1';iidc hum.inilairc. corruption. attcintes ~ L L Y

Droiis d c I'llomnic ...). L'iinp:ict dc celte informalion fait ~ L I C noi111ire d e personncs doutcnt dc l'elt'ic:icit6 dc la solidarite et considcrent avcc suspicion 121 cooperation et l , , ridion . . ties associations.

OrchidCcs :I done clioisi de presenter un n i t re Tiers Mondc, [ait d'liommcs, d c Icnimes et d'cnf:ints qui tmvaillenl. s'instrui- sent, eduqucnt. construiscnt ... un Tiers Monik- li6rilicr d'un p:iss6 historique sou- vent prestigieux, un Tiers Monde citpositaire d c cultures cl d c civilisiitions qui on1 leur pliicc dans 1'1 listoire, un Tier-s Mondc qui cr66. chaque jour une part impressionn:inte dcs riclicsscs d c I'liumanitt' un Tiers Mondc pourtan1 lui aussi tres "spccliiculi~irc"!

Dcpuis sa cr&ition, Orchidecs a produit. realise et diffuse d c nonibreux sujcts d'in- foriiiiition, de scnsihilisation et d'education i i i dCvclop~ciiicnl, tournc's dans nomhrc d c pays (Senegal. Madagascar. Bolivie. Viet- nam, lie Maurice. Mali, Argentine, Burkina i-'iiso. 'Iliiii'la~ide, Ghana, Congo. J'hilippincs, C:imeroun...). I'roposces en acliiit dc droits

aux ttlevisions dii "Nord" (Tl-'l. Antcnnc 2. FR3. la television can:idicnne out diffuse des filnis d'Orchidecs). ces productions sont aussi mists 2 la ilisposition des associations dc cooperation. dcs C t ; i l d i s s c ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ l s scolriircs et culturcls. dcs pouvoii-s pnlilics cl dcs parliculiers.

0rigin;ilile dans l;> diffusion, les films retourncnl diins les piiys d c loiirniige oh Ics droits d c diffusion son1 c@d& g r t u i l n n e n l (principalcmcnt aux centres n:ition;iux du cinema et aux telkvisions). I , A , ils repren- ncnt vie: la television Ics progi-iimme sou- vent plusieurs tois, Ics vill:igcois peuvent les voir au cintma rural itinerant, e t la video- distribution fait 1c rcste.

Orchid6es n l h c kg;ilcnient une action d e formation pcrmancnlc, piral l~lcmenl A scs activit6s d e production, realisation et dif- fusion. D e nombi-cux cin6astcs et tccli- niciens d c la television du Tiers Monde sont ainsi form6s - soit dans leur pays. soil en Fnince - et 1c plus souvcnt à I'occasion d c tournagcs. I3~:iiicoup sont ainsi dcvcnus des cadres des industries d e progwrnmes iiudio- visuels d e Icurs pays. De jcuncs f:i~i-opeens - Iyceens, cludiants - vcnant des ~inivcrsilCs ou des 6colcs d c cinema rccoivent 6"-

'l 'our an~t'liorcr Sacci's A l';iihiio\isud ;iu SCIMCC du dC\cloppcment. nous sornnics en ti~iin LIC conslitucr Rii~t,iiiila. unc biisc d c d o n i i i h inlorm;ilisCcs". cxpliquc Ho 'l'liuy l'icn. c in6~stc . ilircctricc d'Orcliidi'cs. "Nous

intCgons loutcs nos ressourccs cn im:igcs cl c11 sons. cn moycns huni;iins et icchni- qucs Ainsi. 1 1 sera bicniGt 1:icilc dc kiciiliscr dcs lilms on videos dc d6scrlilication au S.ilicl ou dc pi-otccliiin m.ilcri~cllc et infan- tile ~1;in.s I'OcCiin ini.1icn. dcs photos d c nutrition iiu Vicliiin~~. on dcs sons dc rccolte d c coca en Bolivic ..." Pour 1'iivcnir. Ics projets nc i~'i;ii'iqiic~il pis: Line sCric dc I n s sur Ics \illcs cl 1c i.lCvcloppci~~cnt cst cn prCp;ir;ition (1,c.s porlcs tic lu rillc). aiiisi ~ L I ' L I I I n.'poUrigc .sur 1cb Inrcl.'i cn diingci' cn Alri(jiic cl en Asic.

Announcements

Scit~i~iur .~ on: cn\~irn/ i~t i (~~it and dt~\\~liipiti~~ii::

Aft i~ilcnititio~iul .v\7ii/)o.s/ç1fi 1:A'o.s V ! , \\'ill /K hrlil U-1 . j .\furc/i I001 ~ I I I'rii:,'m: f i \ h 0.\/O\'~kliJ. (.;i'fi~fill tO/);CS ifi~/iil!(.': ~<t'llc'~i~/ pi'ot~lfiiis of cnviroiiitic~i~, ~ i ~ ~ i c n l ~ i ~ r u l p r o i l n c - lion, tncci~uniziilio~i in aiyiciilinrc a n d infiir- iria~ics iii i~p?culliirv. Official l u n , y ~ n i ~ s of the, . ~ u ~ o , s i i ~ ~ i i art2 Czech, .Sloi~~k m 1 liqli,s/i. IIiislitiilc' of Scientific unit 'I'cr/i~iical liifdr- iniiiio~i fur A~yiculture, Drpurti~init of 111te1-11- aiionul ('oopruiion, Siczskd Street 7, 120 56 Prague 2, Czcchosloi~aki~~).

Ireland: Centre for Research and Documentation

OKI) is an mforniation resource centre u s e d in Belfast vsliicli promotes a deeper undciMandiiig of the root causes of pover- ty and inequality in Ireland. North and South.

In examining these issues. C R D models itsclt on simil:ir projects in Third World countries. It p;irticularly dni\vs on the experience aiid insights of community groups and individu;ils working tor soci:il cll.ingc.

C R D is n volunt:i~y non-profit making oy:iiiis:ition conimittei.1 to working with people rcg~irijless 01 persoiiiil nicuns. gen. iiu, ethnic background. religious o r political belid's.

Cl<O \\:is foiinded in I ~ i n e 198% I t is supported hv people with :I \side nmge of evpn iencc in tlie fields ~iicomiiiunity dcvcl- opmcnt. women's issues, business and adult cihiciit~on.

Aim of CM)

I'hrougli its rcse.irc11 :ind documrntation m d :i\v:u-cncss raising progmnirnes. CKI) iiiins to resource organisations ;ind individ- u;ils working for a just and peaceful society.

To compile and disscinin~ite à § i d ~ i n g i n g inForm:ition imd dociimcnt;itioii on socio- economic and politic:il issues in rcli~tion to Ireliind and Third World countries.

I'o locus o n tlie uneven iind independent nature of Ireland's development as a sni;ill p c r i p l ~ ~ ; i l r-iiiinl n in I "liropc

To li'icilitate exchanges :ind links between groups througl~out Ireland and iiite~-national- I y .

To support and highlight local community initiatives where people h;i\e come together to bring about social ch:in$.

To research specific issues where deni:ind exists and 10 work with oilier groups under- taking related research.

T o explore the issue of conflict in 1rel;iiid :ind w:iys of resolving tli; i l conllict.

Activities

OKI) provides an u p to dine lillran including hooks, videos, slide shows. photo- graphs. newspaperclippings and i~i ioim~it ion on conimunity groups throughout 1rcl;ind.

C K D organises del'i:~tcs. conlerciici-">. '~orkshops and public meetings ;irouiid issues rillecting the miii-giniiliscd Irisli society.

Cl<[) ;itrange-> programmes for interiiii- tioniil visitors to meet ~ i H h groups/iiidivi- duals v-orkinglor sociiil cti;inge in 1rcl;ini.l.

C R t t researches issues related to in- equality and underdevelopme~it and analyses [lie co~i~munilv 's response.

C R D organises cxch;ingcs to fricilitiitc cullurn1 and community ;iw:ircness hctv.een groups throughout Ircl~ind.

Canada: C11

l 'hc C o ; ~ i y lnlern:~tion:il Institute (CII) is I uni\eiwty-b:iscd training centre speci;ili- /ins in le;n.lership development for Third \\'orld countries. St Francis Xavier Univer- sity in Antipnish. Nova Scotia. established the Institute in 1959 in response to growing d e m : ~ n ~ l s from Third World countries for triiining in :I progr;im of social dcvclopmcnt. ' h i s self-help program of adult education im.1 economic coopcr;ition hec:inlc known i s the Antigonish movement.

The Antigonish movement is committed to I more just sociiil order hrouglit about hy the collective action of ordinary people. The collective action is based o n peoples' own resources :ifid their continons t\)ne;ttion in undcrst:inding and overconling the con- st mints to their development. The program seeks to empower ordinary people to take chiirge of their social destiny - to determine its direction, its content and p;ice. I t is an appro:ich to development which h:is univer- sal application as i t is founded on the courage, the in~agination. the capacity and the will of people to s1i:ipe their own des- tiny. I t is. therefore, p:irticularly attr:ictivc to capital poor, hut human resource rich l'liird World countries. The Coady program is bused o n the principles and methods of the Antigonisli movement.

The Co;idy Institute U-iiins staff inen~hcrs of Third World development agencies. Over the years. the Institute has cst:ihlislied working partnerships with diverse agencies in the government, non-governmentiil, co- operative, private, university and church sectors. These partner orpniz:itions ;ire committed to helping dis:id\:int:igcd men .ind women in their societies. They ;ilso sli;n-e the Institute's concern for :I just soci:il order and a "hottom-up" development process. Strengthening these orgiiniz:itions is one of the Institute's main go;ils.

H o w d o e s t h e I n s t i t u t e a s s i s t T h i r d W o r l d deve lopment ilgencies'!

C11 assists these agencies by tmimng tlieir leaden and st;iff members and tliruugh consu1t:incies and evalu:itions. 'I'lic Imining is offered both in Antigonish a11d overseas. Each y r in i\ntign11ish. :i six-niontt~ dipln- ni:i in socinl development is oll'ered. ;is well as two shorter certificate courses in co- operatives and soci:il developmcnt. These prognims are offcred aniuiiilly from June until December. From .J;inu;iry to M;i\. Institute staff members work overseas. The\ conduct training programs, evaluations and consultations on the initiative of Third World partner agencies. Aiinu:illy. about 100 leaders arc traineii in Antigonisli, mother 1.000 are tr;iined o\crse:is.

The work ol Co;idy gnid~ii tcs all'ccts the lives of many people, the majority of them in rural areas. Their infl~icnce can be seen in more tliiin 100 Third World countries. It is seen in better health, housing. sanitiilion and literacy levels: in the growth of peoples' orgiini~iitions; in more ctfective Third World development agencies. which f:icilil;i- tc the development process and i11;ln:ige financial and other resources effecienlly; in the growth of new organizations established by the graduates themselves: in significant leadership in regional and intcrnation;il development agencies. especially in the co- o p and credil union sectors; and in increas- ed incomes tor many ordinary people in llie Third World including women, children. trihals, slum dwellers, etc. In countr-ies such as Venezuela, Sierra Leone, the Pliilippines and South Africa. graduates have also set up their own tr:iiniiig centres.

From Che.ju, Korea

lh:ink you v e ~ much for ll"1lA Dos.\icr. We are very pleased of your continued interest and cooperation \\ill1 our organization and women in Cheju Island. Your information is very good for our organization. We will make the best use of i t and share i t with our neighbours, especially women.

Marci;~ Ini. The Social Welfare Association of Cheju

From Damascus, Syria

I'hiink you all for sending me I^DA Dossier for more than two years. An-xinusly I kept waiting to receive each issue, reading it tliorouglily and gaining a lot hy looking in depth to the development alternatives practised in different parts of the world. Unlortun;~tely I was forced 10 leave c o u n t y (Sudan). Those military dictatopi cannot withstand the presence of those professionals who are not tor sale at the market price. Till I find ;I wily out, please keep sending me IFDA Dossier.

From Nagpur, India

I have opened a small Centre of Christian Studies which would analyse contemporay socio- economic realities in India. Environ~nental issues are included along with developmental concerns. People interested in similar themes and working on it, and who wish to network wit11 transnational and transcultural perspectives, may contact at the lollo%ing address:

John Alexander. Red I51dg, Tailors L>ine, Ch;iwni. Niigpur 440 013 (M.S.), India

I)e Monteria, Colombia

1-a lundaci6n del Carihe les express Ins 1115s sinceros agradecimientos. por la permancntc donaci6n que han vmido liacici~do d e su prestigiosa revista IFDA llov.~it.~r. 1.a cual lia instruido por muclin tiempo, tanto a nucstros compaiicros d e trabajo y particulares que a diario consultan sus mportantcs tenlas. Adcm5s para su conociniiento inforniamos que nuesiro Centrn d c lnvestigaci6n. vicne desdc haee dos afios adelantando programas d c acci6n social, en cl sector rural y urbano del Departan~cnto d c Cordoba. A p o y n d o la producci6n agricola. pccuaria. n~icroeniprcsiis. en sectores deprimidos socialmente. I<stc apoyo es expresado a trav6s d e la capacilaci611. asesoria y ayuda a la consecucih dc recursus. Aunque n u c s t m rccursos tanto fisicos coma hum;inos son rci.lucii.los crecmos (jiie hcinos des:irrollado una labor clicicnie. por ial raz6ii, Ics solicitiimxs la posibili~lad dc ofreccrnos cualquier material hihIiogrAfico clue a1 respecto poscan y nos ayudcn cl desarrollo dc nuestrii tiire;i.

From Sokoto, Nigeria

I have finished reading my first copy of the 11'DA Dossier (NJ78). Special mention need to he made of the article entitled "An International Development Stralcgv for the 90s: G1ol'i;il Stakes Require a New Consensus" by Gamani Corea. I t is rather ironical and very unl'ortunale tl i ; i t the poorer South suffers for the richer North. How can one explciin llic iinnu:il flow of bout 60 billion do1l;irs in various ostensible forms from the former to the latter and lor how will this continue unchecked? I am afraid the South will remain iiiai-giniilised for many a year to come. But come to think of it, who actually is to blame'? Are our leaders upright enough to bail us out of the mess'? Thous.'iiids of them are rel'ugeeii~g in various nations ot the North to avoid being punished for corrupt practices ranging troin cnihc/~lcnicnt. forgery to 1~l;mtant stealing while in ofl'ices. M;iy God deliver tlie South.

W Akin 11~1ss;in. Usmiinu Danfodiyo University

From Toronto, Canada

Pulilic concern for the environment in Canada has escalated beyond our greatest expcct;itions. It is phcnnnien:~I. The public, usually lethargic, has beconie tougher t1i:in progressive governments and even tougher thnn environmental groups regarding demands lor en\iroiiment;il protection. The question becomes, can we as pvernments and Ngos rise to the occasion. There nwy come a day when the s;inie ra~iical changes for democracy that hit l a s te rn Kurope will ;ilso hit the environment. If not prepared. governments and slow-ionteii Ngos will lie s ~ . e p t ;[side ;is irrelevant in :I mass psycliologiail shift low;irds human survival. As the liirgcst and leading province in Canada. Ontario has taken a numher of initiatives. Knvironnient Minisler Jim Bradley introduced legislrition Fehru:ny 16, 1989 that would el't'cctively ban the production and use of omne-depleting subst;~nces in Ontario. This is in contrast to the Government of Canada which announced intentions over ;I year ago to reduce CFCs at the national level. Hut nothing has happened. At tlie nlunicipal levcl. Canada's largest city, Toronto, passed a hy-law banning CF"Cs, but it doesn't have the ii~terjurisdictioi~al clout to enforce the hy-law. Ontario has also launched an ambitious recycling and waste reduction program. with a goal for achieving garbage diversion from landfill and incineration of 25 per cent by 1992 and 50 percent by the year 2000. The Government ol Ontario, the soft drink industry, and the Recycling Council of Ontario jointly received the United Nations Award of Excellence for the recycling progr;ini. We plan to d o much more to reduce, reuse, and recycle municipal waste. We've already initiated pilot progranis for chipping and recycling used wood, used tires and demolishing rubble. Well, that's it from this end of the world. Please keep us informed on events in your part of the world

d a r y (;;illon, Senior Policy Advisor, Ministry of tlie Environment

ifda dossier 80 january/march 1991 sources/fuentes

N.B. Publications mentioned in the following section are not available from IFDA but, depending on the case, from bookshops or publishers. Publishers whose address is given at the end of this section are indicated by an *.

Local space

David C. Korten, Getting to the 21st Century: Voluntary Action and the Global Agenda (West Hartford: Kumarian Press, 1990*) 253pp. Part I examines the lessons of the 1980s, describing the decade as simultaneously one of crisis, denial, and newly emergent opportunities. Part l1 points up the importance of what a socie- ty believes about itself in determining how it behaves. It calls for a new development vision that leads to just, sustainable and inclusive improvements in human well- being. The growth-centered development vision that has prevailed during the past four decades has failed to meet this test. Furthermore, export-led growth strategies, the current favorite of adherents to the conventional vision, lead to policies that reinforce the dualistic economic structures of the colonial era and their unjust, unsus- tainable and noninclusive use of national resources. The critical elements of an alternative people-centered development and a supporting equity-led sustainable growth strategy are outlined. Part Ill focus- es on the voluntary development sector. It examines the distinctive nature and role of this sector and the evolution of the strategies of its constituent organizations from relief and welfare, to community development, to catalyzing institutional and policy change. It suggests that in the future greater attention must be given to the facilitation of development as a peo- ple's movement that utilizes the full poten- tials of self-directing voluntary social energy. Part IV outlines an agenda for the 1990s, focusing on the need for system transformation as a prelude to new pat-

terns of economic growth that will be more just, sustainable and inclusive. suggesting that the global system will not sustain continued growth as conventional- ly defined.

Abdoul Karim Gueye et Abdoulaye Thiam, Animation et autopromotion pay- sanne au Senegal, 75pp; Philippe Egger, Auto-evaluation et groupements paysans: Presentation et bilan d'un exercice au Mali, 44pp. (Geneve: Bureau international du travail, 1990).

Thaddeus C. Trzyna and llze M. Gotelli (eds), The Power of Convening: Collabora- tive Policy Forums for Sustainable Devel- opment - Proceedings of an International Workshop held at Claremont, California, October 5-7 1989 (Sacramento: California Institute of Public Affairs, 1990*) 112pp. With, among others, an interesting profile of the Dag Hammarskjold Foundation's activities.

Sanitsuda Ekachai, Behind ftie Smile: Voices of Thailand (Bangkok: Thai Devel- opment Support Committee, 1990*) 197pp. Thailand is rapidly and fundamen- tally changing. Its agricultural society is being transformed by industrialisation and modernisation. The swift, and often forced, pace of change has had enormous social and economic consequences - and it is ordinary Thai villagers who have borne the brunt of them. Despite industrialisation, three-quarters of the Thai population still live in the countryside, trying to make a living off the land. The author went to three major regions of Thailand to record the changing face of the country as seen through the eyes of local villagers.

Iwgia*, Yearbook 1989 (Copenhagen: 1990) 243pp. This is the first time that Iwgia is publishing both Spanish and English editions of its Yearbook since the first volume in 1986. The first part de- scribes Iwgia's activities during 1989. The second part gives a general view of what has happened in the indigenous world during the year. The third section deals with the revision of the ILO Convention 107; it gives different points of views, indigenous as well as non-indigenous, on the Convention. The last part looks at three different issues: the First Internation- al Conference of Indigenous Women, celebrated in Adelaide, Australia; the creation of the first indigenous organisa- tion in Soviet Union; the situation of ethnic groups in the Ucayali province in the north of Peru in connection with an in- digenous land titling project,

Iwgia*, Indigenous Women on the Move (Copenhagen:! 990) 107pp. Indige- nous women confront problems not only because they live in countries with class- divided societies. As members of indi- genous societies, they are also the butt of national oppression and racism. Further- more they have to carry the burden of being oppressed as women. This threefold problematique is expressed with varying emphasis in the different articles of this document, showing that indigenous wo- men have different concerns, different priorities although their situation in many respects is very similar.

Iwgia* Indigenous Peoples of the Soviet North (Copenhagen: 1990) 56pp.

Pratec/Ppea/Pnuma, Sociedad y natura- leza en Los Andes (Lima: Pratec, 1990*) Torno I 176pp, Torno II 308pp. Es comUn considerar el crecirniento dernografico coma la causa principal de la crisis que sufre actualmente Perii. Per0 es falso: 10s paises andinos albergan ahora la misma cantidad de poblacion que antes de la

conquista y se sabe que, en esta epoca, la poblacion no estaba sometida a una situation de hambre y miseria como ahora; mas bien era lo contrario. Desde la invasion europea hasta las primeras decadas del siglo XX, la poblacion volvio a crecer lentamente es solo a partir de 1945 que se produce un crecirniento acelerado que algunos llarnan "explosion dernografica". Para salir de la crisis actual, no hay otro carnino verdadero que el de devolver la fuerza o vigorizar esta concep- cion andina de la relacion entre sociedad y naturaleza; per0 esto significa que, previarnente, hay que conocerla. Por su caracter agrocentrico, la cultura andina y mas especificamente, la concepcion de la relacion sociedad naturaleza, encuentrasu expresion en la chacra. Es en la chacra, donde se establecen relaciones de reci- procidad entre todos 10s elementos de la comunidad natural, constituida por el hombre, las deidades y 10s miernbros de la naturaleza que son considerados como seres vivos, entre 10s cuales tienen un significado particular: el paisaje natural, las plantas, 10s anirnales, 10s suelos, el agua y el clirna. Estas relaciones de dialo- go, de empatia, de reciprocidad entre cada uno y el conjunto de 10s miernbros apuntan hacia el bienestar o la buena salud de la comunidad natural. Esta obra, que comprende dos tomos, trata sobre cada element0 o rniembros de la co- munidad natural que se expresa a nivel de la chacra, tiene la pretension de ofre- cer un primer acercamiento a la vision andina de la relacion entre sociedad naturaleza.

Roberta Cohen and Laurie S. Wiseberg, Double Jeopardy - Threat to Life and Human Rights: Discrimination against Persons with AIDS. A Survey of AIDS as an international human rights issue and of international efforts to combat discrimi- nation against persons with AIDS (Cam- bridge: Human Rights Internet, 1990*)

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Maria Mendez Gastelumendi, Los jbvenes del nuevo Peru profundo (Lima: Desco, 1990*) 79pp. La primera parte aborda el context0 social en el que 10s jovenes se desenvuelven: el presente angustiante rnarcado por una ya inocul- table situation de anomia, donde las normas y valores se derrumban para dar a la ley de la selva, y donde el discurso de la violencia y el fanatismo puede cautivar a una poblacion juvenil mediana- mente instruida per0 crecientemente marginada. La segunda parte se detiene a reflexionar sobre las perspectivas que el Peru ofrece a sus jovenes. Los jovenes del nuevo Peru profundo ingresan a la decada de 1990 sin mucha claridad en el horizonte, con justificado escepticismo y escasas perspectivas de progreso. Frente a esto no queda otra alternativa que la busqueda de una nueva institucionalidad, que funcione de veras, asi como un tremendo esfuerzo conjunto por acortar 10s abismos econOmicos, sociales y culturales que desgarran a la sociedad peruana,

Unicef, Strategy for Improved Nutrition of Children and Women in Developing Countries, 36pp; and Development Goals and Strategies for Children i n the 1990s, 61 pp. (New York: 1990).

UnicefIUnep, Children and the Environ- ment (New York/Geneva/Nairobi: 1990) 73pp. What do we owe those children - our children and our grandchildren? We owe them a planet fit to live on and capable of sustaining the future. Over the last generation, we have just begun to realize the magnitude of the threats to the global environment. We have just begun to realize how interrelated the planet is - how the destruction of forest and the burning of coal and oil affect climate and human welfare across countries and across generations. This report, issued as a joint contribution by Unep and Unicef, summarizes how children have been

affected by environmental changes, and vice versa - and what can be done. Time is running out - but it is not yet too late Version franqaise: Les enfants et I'environ- nement, 73pp.

Vivian Monzon [ed), Filipino Children in Situations of Armed Conflict (Kensing- ton: Lawasia Human Rights Committee, 1990*) 46pp,

Isis*, Transiciones: Mujeres en 10s procesos dernocraticos (Santiago: 1990) 150pp. Con esta publication, Isis Inter- national se propone contribuir, por una parte, a recuperar la memoria de estos ahos, desde las mujeres. Por otra, a incentivar el debate y la reflexion, a partir de las experiencias y miradas de las protagonistas. Hemos procurado entregar la voz a mujeres, que en cada uno de 10s paises tuvieron una participacion activa desde el movimiento, la politica o la investigation, en un intento por recoger la diversidad de enfoques. Intentarnos tambien que cada experiencia nacional fuese abordada en la doble vertiente de la sociedad y el Estado, ejes que creemos basicos para comprender el alcance y la dinamica de la participacibn de las mujer- es en la construccibn democratica. Hemos incluido Brasil, Argentina, Uruguay, Para- guay y Chile, en el continente. Y Espafia como imprescindible contrapunto.

Margaret Snyder, Women: The Key to Ending Hunger (New York: The Hunger Project, 1990*) 37pp. It is the thesis of this paper that strategies to end hunger and alleviate poverty, if they are to be successful, must include women. Women are a principal, if not the sole, economic support of themselves and their children. Increasingly, they are responsible for ensuring that adequate food supplies are available and that their families have access to enough income to purchase food if they do not grow it themselves.

Francesca Cirelli (a cura di), Tempi e Luoghi delta produzione: Donne, reddito, cooperazione internazionale (Roma: Coor- dinamento Ong Donne e Sviluppo, 1990*) 11 9pp.

. CITGUA*, The Trade Union Movement in Guatemala (1975-1988) (Mexico: 1990)

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Celine Sachs, S2o Paulo: Politiques publiques et habitat populaire (Paris: Maison des sciences de I'homme, 1990) 267pp. L'analyse des politiques publiques d'habitat populaire a S5o Paulo fait ap- paraTtre les obstacles qui relevant des contradictions inherentes au modele politique, economique et social bresilien. La croissance economique par I'inegalite s'est accompagnee d'une degradation des conditions de iogement populaire malgre la mise en place, a partir de 1964, d'un puissant dispositif d'intervention de I'Etat dans Ie domains de I'habitat. La produc- tion de logements accessibles a la popu- lation a bas revenu continue a se faire pour les trois quarts en dehors des nor- mes legales, techniques et administratives dans les lotissements peripheriques irregu- liers, les favelas et les cortiqos. Malgre leur caractere encore experimental et I'echelle tres reduite des realisations, les programmes sociaux d'habitat, fondes sur 'autoconstruction assistee et ie mutirgo, comportent des enseignements pour la reformulation des politiques de logement populaire et constituent un apprentissage du developpement et de la democratie.

Sandy Cairncross, Jorge E. Hardoy and David Satterthwaite (eds), The Poor Die Young: Housing and Health in Third World Cities (London: Earthscan, 1990*) 309pp. The title tells the story. The cities of the Third World now house 1.3 billion people, more than the populations of Europe and North America combined. And most of the poor in those cities die young, Half of all deaths in many poor communit-

ies are of children under five, and in most of Asia, Africa and Latin America, only one in four lives to the age of 65 (rather than four out of five in the North). Those who do survive face continual ill-health - a child of five has usually had 10 attacks of diarrhoea and more than one in four are seriously malnourished. The problems are huge, but in many cases cheap and effective solutions are available. This book assesses the scale of what needs to be done and how it can be achieved. More often than not, the difficulty lies with the refusal of governments to introduce low- cost innovations in water, sanitation, health care and other services, or to work with the local community organizations and non-profit groups in addressing the problems. As the book shows, the best hope for reversing the deepening crisis in Third World cities lies in a new partners- hip of professionals, local government and local organizations to enable communities to build healthier neighbourhoods for themselves.

Jonathan Baker (ed), Small Town Africa: Studies in Rural-Urban Interaction (Uppsala: Sias, 1990*) 268pp. For the overwhelming majority of Africa's popula- tion which is rural, it is the small town with which they have the most frequent and intense contacts and which provides the foci for economic, social, political and cultural rural-urban interaction. The papers in this book address a wide range of issues relating to the small town in rural context from both the macro perspective, including the role of the state, to the micro perspective where attention is given to the vitality and adaptability of individual actors through their utilisation of rural and urban opportunities. Case studies are drawn from Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Nigeria, Somalia, Sudan, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

Arnaldo H. Vaca, Estrategias de Desar- rollo y Ordenamiento Territorial del Sis-

tema de Asentamientos Humanos de la Provincia de La Rioja (La Rioja: Integral, 1990*) 29pp.

Demetrios Christodoulou, The Unpromi- sed Land: Agrarian Reform and Conflict Worldwide (London: Zed Books, 1990*) 236pp. Rural crises in the Third World - of which outbreaks of famine are merely the most dramatic manifestation - form the subject of this book. The author argues that for two billion rural people, endemic poverty and powerlessness still prevail. Despite three decades of development effort, their situation has deteriorated and shows no signs of being reversed. Access to land, and conflict over land, is the heart of the matter. Most of the world's poor live in the countryside, and there can be no solution to underdevelopment, hunger and rural conflict without solving the land question. But capitalism's penetration into all parts of the Third World has led to a further concentration of economic power and assets. including land. Agrarian reform, rather than providing a solution, has more often proved a holding opera- tion to fend off popular discontent, or a Trojan horse enabling an already privile- ged rural class to enrich itself. This well- documented, policy-relevant study is a significant contribution to rural sociology, agricultural economics and development theory.

K. Puttaswamaiah (ed), Poverty and Rural Development: Planners, Peasants and Poverty (London: Intermediate Tech- nology, 1990*) 423pp. This collection of essays presents evidence from a variety of countries and backgrounds - India. Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Fiji, Brazil, Nigeria and kenya are among the coun- tries studied. It poses the question "Is peasant poverty mainly a result of deci- sions made in the interests of cities and urban groups"? The authors discuss the roles of both markets and governments in attempts to reduce the income disparities

which, between non-agricuitural and agricultural activities can be as high, in Africa for example, as six to one,

OCDE, E l Impacto de 10s Proyectos de Desarrollo sobre la Pobreza (Paris: 1989) 11 2pp.

Cirdap*, Socio-Economic Indicators for Monitoring Rural Poverty (Dhaka: 1990)

90PP.

Mark Poffenberger (ed), Keepers of the Forest: Land Management Alternatives in Southeast Asia (West Hartford: Kurnarian Press, 1990*) 289pp. These writings trace the evolution of the forest management conflict between governments and rural people in Southeast Asia - where much of the earth's richest forests are located and continue to be devastated. Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines provide the backdrop for describing the progress that land management alternatives have achie- ved in bringing foresters and farmers together - for the good of nations and their people.

Michael StAhl, Constraints to Environ- mental Rehabilitation Tho rqh People's Participation in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands (Geneva: Unrisd, 1990*) 21 pp.

Peter Sips, Forestry Development Co- operation: An Inventory of Dutch Activities (Wageningen: Bos, 1990*), 54pp.

Dorne Boniface, The Human Cost of Sarawak's Timber Revenue (Kensington: Lawasia, 1990*) 37pp.

Alain Ruellan, Decouvrir Ie sol, (Mont- pellier: Cnearc, 1990*) 45pp. Cette bro- chure, complement du film Terra Pra Viver, a pour objectif de reprendre et de detailler les connaissances apportees par Ie film en matiere de sol; elle est done un outil pour aller plus loin dans la decouverte et la lecture des sols. Em portugugs: Des- cobrir o solo, 45pp.

Lionel Jayanetti, Timber Pole Construc- tion, 44pp; John Foulds, Dyeing and Prir~tir~g: A Handbook, 62pp. (London: Intermediate Technology, 1990*).

Lai Lai Fan, Report on Scrap News- paper Collection Campaign (Hong Kong: Environment Centre, 1990*) 24pp. The report is composed of 3 parts: Part l: Program details which give a comprehen- sive picture for other organizations in organizing similar activities; Part II: Chan- nels of paper collection and evaluation. which gives readers a deeper understand- ing on waste paper collection; Part Ill: Information on recycled paper. The suc- cess of paper collection and recycling depends to a larger extent on public participation.The Hong Kong Environment Centre hopes that every citizen has to think one step forward before they discard a single piece of old newspaper - it is not waste by itself, it is paper, a tree, a forest, to maintain them is important to us and our future generations as well.

Unidad TecnolOgica Alimentaria Boli- viana del CIEP, 1er Encuentro Interdepar- tamental del Amaranto: Rescatemos 10s alimentos andinos tradicionales para mejorar nuestra nutrition (La Paz: 1990*) 141 pp. El principal objetivo del Encuentro fue el de reunir todas las instituciones y personas que de alguna manera estan trabajando en el rescate del cultivo y consumo del amaranto en Bolivia, con el fin de incentivar e integrar 10s esfuerzos que nos permitan intercambiarinformacion y experiencias. Rescatamos 10s alimentos andinos tradicionales para mejorar nuestra nutrition.

BIT, Conservation des legumes a petite 6chelle et Conservation des fruits a petite echelle (Genkve: 1990) 167pp & 226pp.

Gerry and Janine Rodgers (eds), Preca- rious Jobs in Labour Market Regulation: The Growth of Atypical Employment in Western Europe (Geneva: International Institute for Labour Studies, 1989*) 301 pp. The prevalence and growth of atypical and precarious forms of work are attract- ing increasing attention. Many observers are convinced that there is a wide-spread move away from the standard, regular, permanent job, but interpretations differ. For some there are changes in work attitudes and household needs; for others it is a result of persistent high unemploy- ment; some see it as the outcome of a search for greater flexibility by firms; and yet others would interpret it as an essen- tial ingredient of a new regulation of labour markets. Many different "atypical" forms of work are involved: part-time jobs, temporary forms of employment, irregular and casual work, homeworking, some types of self-employment or disguised wage employment. Often it is women who are most affected, and the work force involved tends to be young and relatively poorly educated, but this is not true of all such forms of work. This book provides information on the extent of different forms of atypical work and their growth in the 1970s and 1980s, mainly referring to Belgium, the Federal Republic of Ger- many, France, Italy, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. It explores questions such as: What makes work precarious? What are the impacts of the individuals concerned, in terms of incomes, careers, and psychological response? What are the indirect effects on the regular work force of growth in precarious forms of employ- ment? How do changes in the patterns of - jobs and contractual arrangements derive from macro-economic conditions or from enterprise strategies? What is the role of the State, as employer or legislator?

Uniapac*, Christian Values and Busi- ness Values: Living up to the Gospel i n the Economic Reality of Today (Brussels: 1990) 48pp.

National space

Felipe E. Mac Gregor et al, Violencia estructural en el Peru: Marco teorico, 161 pp; Margarita Giesecke, Carmen Checa y Alberto Giesecke, Violencia estructural en e l Peru: Historias de vida, 140pp. La Asociacion Peruana de Es- tudios e lnvestigacion para la Paz (APEP*) presenta 10s resultados de sus investigaciones sobre la violencia estructural en el Peru. La APEP se con- stituyo en 1983, con el fin de estudiar la violencia y la paz. Su primera actividad publica fue un serninario nacional realiza- do en 1984, denominado "Violencia y Paz en el Peru, Hoy". En 1985, en un serni- nario nacional, APEP discutio siete dise- tios de investigacion sobre la "violencia estructural" preparados por especialistas de diversas disciplinas. Los disetios se publicaron con el titulo Siete ensayos sobre la violencia en e l Peru (1 ra. y 2a. edicion, 1985; Bra. edicion, 1986; 4ta. edicion, 1987). APEP publica ahora 10s resultados de dos atios de trabajo sigui- end0 esos disetios en constante consulta~ nacional e internacional. Son siete volu- rnenes. El primer0 contiene, ademas del marco teorico, construido en interaccion dialectics de 10s siete equipos de espe- cialistas, 10s resultados generales de la investigacion. Los tomos siguientes son. Historia de vida, Psicoanalisis, Antropolo- gia, Economia, Sociologia y Derecho. The General Conclusions of the Enquiry into Structural Violence are also available in English (mimeog, 27pp). Tambien de la Asociacion Peruana de Estudios e Inves- tigaciones par la Paz, Cultura de Paz (Lima: 1989) 173pp. Este libro de gran difusion una propuesta objetiva para la reflexion en torno a dos hechos: la reali- dad violenia actual que a todos afecta y la elaboration de un proyecto de educa- cion para la paz que nos cornprornete a todos en la construction de una cultura de paz. Es urgente una cultura de paz en

el Peru, porque para la mayoria de 10s peruanos ya no es posible ocultar la secular injusticia de la distribution y el intercarnbio de 10s bienes rnateriales y espirituales que causan la violencia es- tructural. El principal rnensaje de este libro es ayudar a cada hornbre a de- scubrir que puede llegar a pertenecer a la suerte privilegiada de seres que tienen corno meta la paz y, desde su optica particular, luchar y trabajar porque ella llegue para todos.

Pratec, Cedap, CCC, Tadepa y IER, Desarrollo y Violencia en Ayacucho (Lima: Pratec, 1990*) 384pp. Ayacucho es uno de 10s pocos departarnentos peruanos que para su subsistencia no demanda de grandes irnportaciones de alimentos; rnas bien exporta algunos. Su poblacion cam- pesina produce variedad de cosechas originada en el cultivo de una naturaleza variada y multiforme. Ahora, en estos tiernpos de temor (Manchay tiempo) y de violencia, en que el campo se ha conver- tido en escenario de desolation y rnuerte, este potencial productivo ha decaido per0 no desaparecido. La agricultura cam- pesina sigue siendo para Ayacucho la base de su economia y es, a todas luces, el sector sobre el que deberia reposar su bienestar, pues 10s campesinos han dernostrado poseer rnecanisrnos para garantizar su sobrevivencia y exportar alimentos.

Julio Velarde y Martha Rodriguez, Impacto macro economico de 10s gastos militares en e l Peru 1960-1987 (Lima: Centre de lnvestigacion de la Universidad del PacificoIApep, 1989*) 173pp. Esta obra aparece en un rnornento oportuno, y tiene el objeto de analizar las conse- cuencias de la utilization militar de 10s recursos nacionales y sus repercusiones en la inflation, el ernpleo, la produccion industrial y la balanza de pagos. Aunque se trata esencialrnente de una investiga- cion economica, en ella se tienen tambien

en cuenta 10s factores historicos y con- temporaneos que influyen en el concept0 de la seguridad nacional.

Tilman Altenburg, Wolfgang Hein y Jurgen Weller, El desafio Economico de Costa Rica: Desarrollo agroindustrial autocentrado como afiernativa (San Jose: Editorial DEI, 1990*) 393pp. "Exportar", parece ser un valor en si mismo. El aumento en la exportacion de textiles o la exportacion de algUn "nuevo" product0 de la agricultura de cambio, son celebrados en la prensa costarricense como solucio- nes a 10s problemas economicos nacional- es. Sin embargo, casi nunca se discuten 10s efectos que estas politicas tendran sobre el desarrollo socio-economico del pais, la capacidad tecnologica, la dis- tribucion de 10s ingresos, la vinculacion con otros sectores economicos, etc. En esta obra se insiste en la necesidad de un modelo de desarrollo agroindustrial, en el que tanto el proceso de industrializa- cion como el desarrollo de un sector de servicios modernos y de las instituciones politicas, se basen en vinculaciones que surjan en torno a la dinamica agricola. Esta definition implica ya un cierto carac- ter "autocentrado", que no significa "des- vinculado" del mercado mundial, sin0 que la dinamica del desarrollo se fundamenta primeramente en la inter-relacion de diferentes sectores de la economia del pais.

Just Faaland, J.R. Parkinson and Rais Saniman, Growth and Ethnic Inequality: Malaysia's New Economic Policy (London: C. Hurst & CO, 1990*) 347pp. Racial riots broke out in Malaysia in 1969 when the Malays felt that they were in danger of losing control of their country and destiny. The New Economic Policy (NEP) was adopted as a means of helping them, through the establishment of special institutions and policies, to catch up ultimately with the much wealthier im- migrant Chinese. Thetwenty years prescri-

bed for the NEP have run their course, and the results achieved by it are as- sessed in this book. Income distribution remains unequal, but Malaysia has be- come one of the most rapidly growing middle-incomeThird World countries, with a good record of agricultural and indus- trial development, accompanied by im- pressive provision of education and other governmentse~ices. Future progress, and the achievement of national unity, depend greatly on the removal of racial imbalan- ces.

Kuldip Kaur, Madrasa Education in India: A Study of its Past and Present (Chandigarh: CRRID, 1990*) 497pp. The study attempts to deal with the origin. growth and development, organisation and curriculum of Makfab and Madrasa education and its relevance, impact and place in the contemporary system of education in India. The contributions of Islam and Muslims to the development of the Indian education and learning in medieval past are indeed worthy of spe- cial consideration both in theory as well as in practice. The impact of Islam was also felt on the Indian languages. Islam and Muslims have also contributed to various branches of science and arts. Highlighting these achievements, the study also discusses how the Muslims have failed to keep pace with the fast changing modern environment.

S.B. Rangnekar and Rashpal Malhotra, Technology for Development Perspective on Northern India (Chandigarh: CRRID, 1990*) 255pp.

R. Omotayo Olaniyan, Towards a New Industrial Policy in Nigeria (Budapest: Institute for World Economics, 1990*)

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Roger Young and John Loxley, Zambia: An Assessment of Zambia's Structural Adjustment Experience (Ottawa: North- South Institute, 1990*) 88pp.

Jorge Alberto Lozoya y Victor Kerber Palma, Japon 1946-1990: e l camino a la opulencia, 70pp; James F. Petras y Morris H. Morley, E l socialismo cubano: /a rec- tificacion y el nuevo mode10 de acumu- lacion, 50pp. (Mexico: Instituto Matias Romero de Estudios Diplomaticos, 1990*).

J. Ann Zammit, Dharam Ghai, Neelan Tiruchelvam and Bryan Turner, Hungary in Transition: From Socialism to Capital- ism? (GenevaJColombo: Unrisdllces, 1990*) 68pp. The collapse of the old political order and rejection of most of its economic underpinnings is accompanied by what amounts to a fervent hope, if not a strong plea, to foreign economic inte- rests. But this invitation to 'denationali- zation' is advocated at a time when tradi- tional nationalism is making a comeback and ethnic suspicions, if not animosity, are frequently voiced. The authors attempt to explain what lies behind the vote for parties and programmes promising sys- temic change, drawing on information culled from interviews and putting the issues into historical perspective. In the process, a number of issues are raised concerning the prospects and challenges which are likely to confront different sectors of Hungarian society during this period of transition.

Mihaly Simai et al, Foreign Direct Investments and Joint Ventures i n Hun- gary: Experience and Prospects (Buda- pest: Hungarian Scientific Council for World Economy, 1990*) 95pp.

Ronny Talmor, The Use of Firearms by the Security Forces in the Occupied Territories (Jerusalem: B'Tselem, 1990*)

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Henri-Paul Deshusses, La radioactivjte dans tous ses etats (Geneve: Societe suisse pour la protection de I'environne- ment, 1990*) 123pp. Ce 5e volume des Dossiers de I'environnement de la SPE

expose les differentes sources de rayonne- ments, dans la nature comme mis en place de main d'homme: militaire, civil, centrales nucleaires, depots de dechets, emplois medicaux. Le livre souligne Ie caractere irreversible du phenomene de la radioactivite. Une fois qu'elle a dkmar- re, la desintegration ne peut plus 6tre arretee d'aucune maniere. S'agissant de I'energie nucleaire, la centrale elle-m6me n'est qu'un aspect de la question. I I ne faut pas oublier Ie cycle du combustible, de la mine au retraitement. Et i l y a les transports, avec les pertes inevitables. Et 7 kilos de plutonium suffisent pour faire une bombe. La proliferation est en mar- che ...

Erik Nordberg and David Finer (eds), Society, Environment and Health in Low- Income Countries (Stockholm: Karolinska Institutet, 1990*) 186pp. The environmen- tal problems and their health implications in the context of development need a lot of attention and more carefully coordina- ted countermeasures. Local awareness is improving and there are plenty of local initiatives that deserve national and ex- ternal support. Left without assistance a poor farmer may be pressed to overexploit farmland, grazing areas and forests for short term survival even if he is aware of the harmful long term effects, and local industrial entrepreneurs may feel forced to pollute in order to compete.

Jose Ma Borrero Navia, Proteccion penal de 10s derechos ambientales: de la criminologia a1 derecho penal ecologico (Call: Fipma, 1990*) 169pp. Si la protec- cion ambiental es un asunto de justicia social y equidad international, cual es o ha sido la contribution de la justicia penal al cumplimiento de 10s principios y nor- mas adoptados para proteger tanto a la biosfera como a 10s derechos ambien- tales? Podra la criminalizacion de conduc- tas contra 10s derechos ambientales allanar la prioritaria y urgente necesidad

de proteccion ambiental que no puede alcanzarse por otros medios? Cual debera ser la medida de la criminalizacion? Cual es o seria el rol de la ley penal en la prevencibn de 10s riesgos tecnolbgicos? Podra el sistema de justicia penal, en las circunstancias actuates de crisis funcional y erosion de sus ideologias legitimantes, contribuir eficazmente a las tareas de conservacion de procesos ecol6gicos esenciales y proteccion de 10s derechos ambientales? (cf pagina 37 de este Dos- sier).

Vito Tanzi, Fiscal Issues in Adjustment Programs in Developing Countries, 37pp; Giovanni Andrea Cornia and Frances Stewart, The Fiscal System, Adjustment and the Poor (Torino: Centre Studi Luca d'AglianoIOxford: Queen Elizabeth House, 1990*).

Peter Utting, From 'Orthodox" to "Re- form": Experiences of Dependent Transi- tional Economies (Geneva: Unrisd, 1989*)

27PP.

Regional space

M.R. Bhagavan, The Technological Transformation of the Third World: Strate- gies and Prospects (London: Zed Books, 1990*) 156pp. "What is happening in the Third World in this age of very rapid technological advance? This book con- stitutes the first systematic attempt to answer this question through an analysis of the successful strategies taken by a handful of countries and the misguided paths followed by the majority of Third World countries", says Masafumi Nagao. As modern technology developed and Western capital spread throughout the world, so a great gap grew between North and South. The current new wave of industrial technological change - created by micro-electronics, plant and animal genetics, biotechnology and the new

materials sciences - heralds a further widening of this gulf between the ad- vanced capitalist world and the poorer regions. In this new global race, what strategies are available to Third World countries? Using a wealth of comparative and statistical detail, Dr Bhagavan shows how Third World countries have tried to enforce an effective transfer of technology and acquisition of technological know- how, and examines the factors shaping their varying degrees of success. He argues that a new strategy is required, geared to raising the technological level of the majority of the population. For this, he advocates radical programmes based in part on expanding the domestic mass markets of these countries by raising the purchasing power of the poor.

Gresea*, La computadora para el Tercer Mundo: Teorjas y practicas de las nuevas tecnologias de /a informaci6n en el Tercer Mundo (Bruselas: 1 gag*) 59pp.

Chahrokh Vaziri, Elements de reflexion sur les partis politiques et references ideologiques dans Ie Tiers Monde (Lau- sanne: Institut de Science Politique, 1990*) 29pp.

Hamid Ait Amara and Bernard Founou- Tchuigoua (eds), African Agriculture: The Critical Choices (London: Zed Books1 Tokyo: UNUIDakar: Third World Forum, 1990*) 227pp. Starting from the proposi- tion that agriculture must be central in any African development strategy, the authors assess the diverse experiments and ex- periences of Algeria, Ethiopia, Cote d'lvoi- re, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal, Tanzania and Tunisia and seek pointers for the future. Why have some countries' agricul- tural policies been more successful than others? What should be the relationship between food production and export- oriented agriculture? What sort of industri- alization should be pursued? How can industry best contribute to agriculture

without producing a yet greater exodus from the land? What kind of planning has been effective and where? They argue that greater African autonomy from the international system - politically, economi- cally, technologically and financially - is vital to the achievement of autocentred development. A new development strategy of this kind would be geared primarily to the needs of the people in each country rather than to the world's demand for African raw materials. To be realized in practice this needs greater democratiza- tion of society internally, along with co- operation and unity among African states.

African Energy Policy Research Net- work, African Energy: Issues in Planning and Practice (London: Zed Books, 1990*j 157pp. With public concern growing at the environmental impact of global energy programmes, this study of Africa's energy needs and policies is timely. Produced by the African Energy Policy Research Network (Afrepren), a grouping of 24 eastern and southern African countries, it contains papers by energy specialists and government policy makers on six broad areas of particular relevance to Africa: oil and natural gas; coal and gasification; renewable energy and technology; bio- energy; electricity; and planning. Country practices focused upon are Botswana, Burundi, Kenya, Lesotho, Rwanda, Soma- lia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

World Bank and Istituto Italo-Africano, Strengthening Local Governments in Sub- Saharan Africa (Washington: The World Bank, 1989) 139pp.

7 publications du Forum des dirigeants africains (Abeokuta: 1989*): - Le developpement de I'Afrique: Ses problemes pour les dirigeants d u con- tinent, 50pp; - Helmut Schmidt, Le leadership dans un monde interdependant et ce que I'on

attend de I'Afrique, 48pp; - Akin L. Mabogunje, La production agri- cole: Ses problemes pour les dirigeants africains, 46pp; - General Ibrahim B. Babangida et Gene- ral Olusegun Obasanjo, L'Afrique dans Ie monde d'aujourd'hui et les probl61nes de sa direction, 54pp; - Ojetunji Aboyade et Raji Rasaki, Etude de cas au Nigeria, 66pp; - Pierre-Clavier Damiba, A.M.A. Muhith et Donatien Bihute, Les strategies du deve- loppement: Leqons de /'experience, 64pp; - L'irnpact de /'Europe en 1992 sur I'Afri- que de I'Ouest: Actes et resultats d'un seminaire de haut niveau, 206pp.

Gerald Berthoud et al, La pensee metisse: Croyances africaines etrationalite occidentale en questions (Geneve: IUED, 1990*j 264pp. En choisissant ce theme complexe et difficile, les Cahiers de I'IUED souhaitent entrouvrir un espace de refle- xion ou puissent se reveler les sons d'une autre partition autour de I'unite, de la diversite et de I'universalite. Pensee traditionnelle et rationalite scientifique sont destinees a s'entrecroiser dans les allees de la modernite et du developpement. D'abord parce que I'Occident croit qu'il existe une rationalite alors que la science est aussi une croyance - et non seulement Ie champ des techniques experimentales - et qu'aprks tout l'"irrationnel" est toujours la, pr6t a surgir. A ce titre il est aussi important de comprendre Iefondement de la science que celui des croyances pour que cesse la suprematie de I'une sur I'autre au nom d'un universe1 culturel et technique qui invaliderait et appauvrirait, sans doute, cette autre "richesse", cede des nations dans leur difference.

Michel Grenon and Michel Batisse (eds), Futures for the Mediterranean Basin: Ttie Blue Plan (Oxford University Press, 1989) 279pp. This book is an enlighten- ed piece of futures forecasting. It reports on the prospects for the economic devel-

opment and environment of the Mediter- ranean region for the next 40 years. The prospects for five economic sectors - agriculture, industry, energy, tourism and transport - and their impact on the en- vironment are considered in detail. This is followed by a discussion of urbanization, and the environmental threat posed by poorly planned or unplanned development of coastal zones. 'Scenarios' are used to explore the implications of particular types of change and choices of action. Will the existing contrast continue to grow between the industrialized countries in the North with their ageing populations and the Third World countries in the South and East with their formidable demographic and economic pressures? How will the fragile environment and scarce natural resources of the region stand the coming impacts of agriculture, industry and tou- rism? How will the most valuable coastal strip (where all activities tend to converge) resist overwhelming and uncontrolled urbanization? The report ends with a series of suggestions for action. One of the most attractive features of the docu- ment is the wide range of statistical mate- rial, which is presented as tables and maps. No equivalent reference work exists for the Mediterranean region which makes comparisons possible between so many countries over such a wide range of ecological and economic variables.

David Archer and Patrick Costello, Literacy and Power: The Latin American Battleground (London: Earthscan, 1990*) 206pp. The often bloody struggles of Central America have dominated news reports for a long time. Behind the head- lines lies an enormous population of the desperately poor rendered even more powerless by widespread illiteracy. What actually counts as literacy is less clear. Archer and Costello describe some pro- grammes designed to overcome the problem and how, as they worked with many of them, they discovered how varied

and controversial they are. El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, Ecuador, Mexico, Chile, Bolivia and Guatemala are inclu- ded, and and for each country the authors have provided an account of the lives and circumstances of the people who both teach and learn as well as describing the varied forms that literacy teaching, even literacy itself, can take. This book is not only about literacy, but also an eye open- er to the societies of the region,

Institute Matias Romero de Estudios Diplomaticos, La Apertura de Mexico a1 Pacifico (Mexico: 1 WO*) l 61 pp.

Peace Research Institute Frankfurt, European Security in the 1990s, 106pp; Norbert Ropers and Peter Schlotter, Regi- me Analysis and the CSCE Process, 37pp. (Frankfurt am Main: Prif, 1990*).

Jane M.O. Sharp (ed), Europe after an American Withdrawal: Economic and Military Issues (Stockholm: Sipri, 1990*) 501pp. At the beginning of the 1990s the United States commitment to NATO is being reassessed on both sides of the Atlantic, to take account of a less prosper- ous American security guarantor and an increasingly uncertain political environ- ment in Europe. Analysts from both sides of the Atlantic were asked to assess the impact on the United States and on Western Europe of two hypothetical with- drawal options: option A assumed that US forces were withdrawn with no commit- ment to return; option B assumed a skeletal US military presence in Europe in peacetime with a commitment to return to reinforce NATO in time of war. This book analyses the economic costs and benefits to the United States and to the individual host countries of removing US military forces and facilities from Europe. It also explores the military gaps that a withdrawal would create in the northern, central and southern regions of Europe, as well as the gaps in command, control,

communications and intelligence facilities, and examines how the United States would cope without bases in Europe and how Western Europe would cope without a US military presence.

Richard Kokoski and Sergey Koulik (eds), Verification of Conventional Arms Control i n Europe: Technological Con- straints and Opportunities (Stockholm: Sipri, 1990*) 322pp. The first of a project- ed two-volume study, this book provides an in-depth examination of the full range of methods for the verification of a con- ventional arms control regime in Europe. Offering contributions by specialists from both the East and West, it explores the technological aspects of verification as they relate to the proposals currently under consideration at the CFE talks in Vienna. Although it evaluates relevant technology, this book primarily focuses on the dynamics of successfully monito- ring a European arms control agreement.

Global space

Samir Amin, Maldevelopment: Anatomy of a Global Failure (London: Zed Books1 Tokyo: UNU 1 Dakar: Third World Forum, 1990*) 244pp. In this major new work, Samir Amin confronts the confusing reali- ties of the late 20th century: a resurgent West riding on the crest of new technolo- gies, but whose materialistic goals are at the same time increasingly questioned by new social movements, including the Greens, Soviet Union, China and Eastern Europe, haunted by their undemocratic and over-centralized attempts to build a distorted socialism and now desperately seeking new ways forward; and the Third World, balkanized, with no autonomous direction of its own, and unable to meet even the basic needs of its people. How are we to understand these complex and confusing tendencies? Why the failures of development in the Third World? Are there any sources of optimism, particularly in

grassroots initiatives? What social forces are at work? Can we, in political terms, look forward to a new polycentric world in which a united Europe, incorporating both a Green and a more advanced social democratic vision, links itself with the Third World in new ways to solve the problems of poverty in the South, US hegemony in the North, and an environ- mental degradation that threatens us all? These are among the many issues taken up in this ambitious attempt to rethink the implications of the times we live in, by one of the world's most controversial and original thinkers.

Frederique Apffel Marglin and Stephen A. Marglin (eds), Dominating Knowledge: Development, Culture and Resistance (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990) 293pp. This book, resulting from a Helsinki-based WIDER project, questions the conventional view that development is the application of superior knowledge to the problems of poor countries, and that resistance to development comes out of ignorance and superstition. It argues instead that the basis of resistance is the fear that the material benefits of Western technologies can be enjoyed only at the price of giving up indigenous ways of knowing and valuing the world, an idea fostered as much by present-day elites, who have internalized Western knowledge and values, as by the colonial elites who ruled before them. A prerequisite to decoupling Western technologies from these political entailments is to understand the conflict between different ways of knowing and valuing the world. This book differs from previous critiquesof development because it addresses neither the strategy nor the tactics of development, but the very conception itself. Its focus is on the rela- tionship between knowledge and power in the development process: how does the knowledge of the powerful come to domi- nate? How are we to understand popular resistance and accommodation to science

and 'progress'? This book argues that 'modern' knowledge wins out in the conflict with 'traditional' knowledge not because of its superior cognitive power, but because of its prestige, associated both with the economic and political ascendancy of the West over the past 500 years and with the cultural history of the West itself.

Jozef Pajestka, Economic Theorizing and New Challenges in Human Evolution- ary Process (Warsaw: Polska Akademia Nauk, 1990) 172pp. The evaluation proce- dure has to base on the growing and accumulating experience: (i) of real life, and (ii) of the thinking patterns. Thinking patterns which do not suit human beings in actual reality should be expected to be discarded - in the long process of evolu- tion - as not being really instrumental. In this way a cumulative process of evalua- tion of the relevance of thinking tools and patterns: language, conceptual constructs, theories, paradigms, etc, to real life should be expected to take place. Historical process seems to demonstrate that this has really taken place, though certainly not without obstacles and delays. All the discourse presented in the book is based on lectures delivered at the Ritsurneikan University, Kyoto, Japan.

Bjorn Hettne, The Globalization of Development Theory (Budapest: Institute for World Economics, 1990*) 50pp.

Goran Lindgren, World Data in Figures (Uppsala: Department of Peace and Conflict Research, 1990) 87pp. During the 1970s, writes the author, I taught devel- opment economics and experienced a need to connect the important theoretical discussions about economic structures within and between countries with measur- able facts on empirical reality. Collections of excerpts from statistical handbooks were one way. But numbers were not enough, some guidance was needed. The

numbers by themselves do not mean very much if you do not know what they are measuring. I have therefore written a short explanation of the most important aspects of each subject area to help the reader to judge which numbers are needed. The aim of this book is to: make comparable international data from several sources on economic, military, social and political aspects available; enhance the oppor- tunities for independent thinking and new knowledge by presenting data in such a way that new comparisons can be made; give opportunities for simple tests of hypotheses; stimulate new theories by presenting empirical data in a way that can promote new connections between concepts.

Commission franqaise Justice et Paix, Les 700 mote d u developpement et du Tiers Monde (Paris: La Decouverte, 1990) 328pp. Tiers Monde, les trois quarts du monde: la presse ne cesse de nous parler de ses maux - essor demographique, guerres, urbanisation galopante, secheres- se, dette ou autres cataclysmes - et nous renvoie l'imaged'une complexite demobili- sante. Developpement, I'heure est aux questionnements: echec des modeles, remise en cause des politiques de coope- ration et, pour finir, crise de I'idee elle- mkrne. Ce double constat a incite la Commission a reunir les competences des meilleurs experts pour proposer, en cent definitions, un outil de travail permettant a un grand public de mieux comprendre les informations qui nous arrivent sur Ie Tiers Monde. Regroupes en quatre gran- des rubriques (les realites des pays du Tiers Monde, les concepts, les acteurs, les instruments du developpement), ces courts articles repondent aux questions les plus diverses.

Antoni Kuklihski (ed), Globality Versus Locality (Warsaw: Institute of Space Eco- nomy, 1990*) 356pp.

UNHCR, Refugee Women: Selectedand Annotated Bibliography, 123pp; Excorn in Abstracts: A bibliographic description of documentation issued in the context of UNHCR's Governing Bodies and major international refugee conferences 1951- 1990, 140pp, This bibliography, which is published on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of UNHCR, describes the documentation submitted to the sessions of the successive governing bodies of UNHCR from 1951 to date, and includes also the documents of selected interna- tional conferences dealing with the pro- blem of refugees and for which UNHCR was the main organizing body. Elaborate abstracts capture the essence of the many reports issued in the past forty years, while an index facilitates access to the variety of topics covered. (Geneva: 1989*).

Deny de Jong and Alex Voets (eds), Considerations, Conclusions and Recom- mendations of the International Conferen- ce, Refugees in the World: The European Community's Response (Utrecht: SIM, 1990*) 63pp,

Ed Mayo, 7992 - European Wealth, Third World Poverty? (London: World Development Movement, 1990*) 20pp. While the formation of a single European market in 1992 would mean increased prosperity for Europe, it could bring economic and environmental disaster to the Third World.

Geoff Tansey, Real Security: East, West, North and South (London: World Development Movement, 1990*) 32pp.

Thomas Stock and Ronald Sutherland (eds), National Implementation of the Future Chemical Weapons Convention (Stockholm: Sipri, 1990*) 171 pp. This book addresses the technical, organiza- tional and political aspects of the national implementation measures of the projected Chemical Weapons Convention. Experts

from several countries in the field of disarmament and from the chemical industry examine and review experiences gained from different areas of arms control and disarmament regulations, national legislation and regulations relevant to the operation of the National Authority in the framework of the projected Convention.

NGLS, Who's Who on Debt and Struc- tural Adjustment: A Directory of Ngos involved in research, information and advocacy (Geneva: Sales UN N'UNCTAD/ NG LS/19, 1990) 227pp.

Fundacio Cidob*, Anuario lnternacional Cidob 1989: Carnbios y actores en la realidad internacional 89, algunas claves para interpretarlos (Barcelona: 1990) 344pp.

Jock A. Finlayson and Ann Weston, Middle Powers in the International System: The GATT, Middle Powers and the Uru- guayRound (Ottawa: North-South Institute, 1990*) 56pp.

UNCTC, New Issues in the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations (UN Sales N"E.90.II.A.15) 52pp; Regional Economic Integration and Transnational Corporations in the 1990s: Europe 1992, North America and Developing Countries (UN Sales NoE.90.11.A.15) 52pp; Transna- tional Corporations, Services and the Uruguay Round (UN Sales N'.E.90.II.A.11) 252pp.

Duncan Poore et al, No Timber Without Trees: Sustainability in the Tropical Forest (London: Earthscan, 1989*) 252pp.

Cota*, Alternatives aux cultures tropi- cales illicites (Bruxelles: 1989).

. Apep, Apdo 21 1, Lima 100, Peru

. Bos, FOB 23, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands B'Tselern, 18 Keren Hayesod St, Jerusalem 92149, Israel

. California Institute of Public Affairs, FOB 10, Claremont, CA 91 71 1, USA , Centre Studi Luca d'Agliano, Via Principe Arnedeo 34, 10123 Torino, Italia , Cidob, Elisabets 12, 08001 Barcelona, Espatia

Cirdap, GPO Box 2883, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh Citgua, Apdo 20-668, Mexico DF 01000, Mexico Cnearc, BP 5098, 34033 Montpellier Cedex 01, France

, Cota, 18 rue de la Sablonniere, 1000 Bruxelles, Belgique . Coordinarnento Donne e Sviluppo, Via Raffaele Cadorna 29, 00187 Roma, Italia . Crrid, 2-A Sector 19-A, Madhya Marg, Chandigarh 160 019, India . Department of Peace and Conflict Research, 0 Agatan 53, 753 22 Uppsala, Sweden . Desco, Leon de la Fuente 110, Lima 17, Peru . Earthscan, 3 Endsleigh Street, London WC1H ODD, UK . Editorial DEI, Apdo 390-2070, Sabanilla, San Jose, Costa Rica . Fiprna, AA 2741, Call, Colombia . Forum des dirigeants africains, FOB 2286, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria . Gresea, Rue Royale 11, 1000 Bruselas, Belgica . Hong Kong Environment Centre, GPO Box 167, Hong Kong

Human Rights Internet, Harvard Law School, Pound Hall, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA , Hungarian Scientific Council for World Economy, FOB 36, 1531 Budapest, Hungary , The Hunger Project, One Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10010-3603, USA , C, Hurst & CO, 38 King Street, Covent Garden, London WC2E 8JT, UK , Ices, 8 Kynsey Terrace, Colombo 8, Sri Lanka , Institut de Science Politique, BFSH2, 1015 Dorigny, Lausanne, Suisse . Institute for World Economics, Acad of Sciences, FOB 36, 1531 Budapest, Hungary . Instituto Matfas Rornero de Estudios Diplornaticos, AV Paseo de la Reforrna Norte 707,

Col Morelos, Del Cuauht&moc, 06200 Mexico, DF, Mexico . Integral, CC 27, 5300 La Rioja, Argentina . Intermediate Technology, 103-105 Southampton Row, London WC1 B 4HH, UK . International Institute for Labour Studies, FOB 6, 121 1 Geneva 22, Switzerland . Isis, Casilla 2067 Correo Central, Santiago, Chile . lued, CP 136. 121 1 Geneve 21, Suisse . Iwgia, Fiolstraede 10, 1171 Copenhagen K, Denmark . Karolinska Institute!, IHCAR, Box 60400, 104 01 Stockholm, Sweden . Kurnarian Press, 630 Oakwood Ave, Suite 119, West Hartford, CT 06110-1529, USA . Lawasia, UNSW Law School, POB 1, Kensington 2033 NSW, Australia . North-South Institute, 55 Murray St, Suite 200, Ottawa K1 N 5M3, Canada

Pratec, Purnacahua 1364, Lima 11, Peru Prif, Leirnenrode 29, 6000 Frankfurt am Main 1, Germany Queen Elizabeth House, 21 St Giles, Oxford OX1 3& UK

, Sias, POB 1703, 751 47 Uppsala, Sweden . Sim, Boothstraat 6, 3512 BW Utrecht, The Netherlands . Sipri, Box 7084, 171 07 Solna, Sweden . Socikte pour la protection de I'environnement, 6 rue Saint-Ours, 1205 Geneve, Suisse

. Thai Development Support Committee, 530 Soi St Louis 3, South Sathorn Road, Yannawa, Bangkok 101 20, Thailand

. Third World Forum, BP 3501, Dakar, Senegal

. UNHCRICDR, CP 2500, 121 1 Geneva 2 Depot, Switzerland

. Uniapac, 2 place des Barricades, 1000 Brussels, Belgium Unidad Tecnologica Alimentaria Boliviana del CIEP, Casilla 725, La Paz, Bolivia Unrisd, Palais des Nations, 121 1 Geneva 10, Switzerland World Devlpt Mvt, Bedford Chambers, Covent Garden, London WC2E 8HA, UK Zed Books, 57 Caledonian Road, London NI 9BU, UK

Periodicals

(The addresses of the 152 periodicals mentioned below appear in alphabetical order at the end of this section).

Human Rights * Derechos Humanos: Tibet- The right to Self-Determination and Territorial Integrity' in Netherlands Quarter- ly of Human Rigtits (Vol 8, N03). 'Human Rights of Minorities in Asia and the Paci- fic' in Imadr Bul~lletin (N"9). 'Helsinki Watch's Update Report on Kurds' in Info- Turk (N0168). The Philippine Alliance of Human Rights Advocates believe that "true democracy can heal wounds" in Tugon (Vol X, ?l). 'Los derechos humanos bajo tierra' en El Cane10 (Vol 5, Nn18). 'Derech- OS humanos a la medida del sistema' en Madres de Plaza de Mayo (Aho VI, N070). 'Campagne Maroc: democratic au Sud' dans Flashes-Contacts-Echanges (N369).

Cu/(ures:'Quelquesaspects"interculturels" d'une formation au developpement' dans Peuples & Liberation (NO1 16). 'Sociocu- ltural Systems: The Cognitive Dimension of Cultural Change in Revista lnternacional de Sistemas (Vol 2, N02).

Ethnicity: 'Indigenous Voice: The Yanoma- mi Creation Myth' in Survival (N'27). 'Stripping the Ethnic Heroes . . . ' in Aliran (Vol 10, N'8). 'Looking bact at the Sami nation's struggle' in Peace News (N"2335). 'Heroes que viven en la liberacion indige- na' en Voz Indigena (A60 9, No25-26-27).

'Comunicado Mapuche' en Winay Marka (N013). 'Integration, identidad y movimi- entos indigenas' en David y Goliath (Ano XIX, N"56). 'Mutations difficiles au Sahel: des Touaregs en "campement oblige" dans Peuples en marche (N"55).

Sante *Health: 'Le Sida en Afrique' dans Vie & Sante (N05). 'Sante: les consequen- ces de Tchernobyl' dans L'EnVol (Nc'19). 'Water, Health, Nutrition and Development' in Health for the Millions (Vol XVI, N"5). 'Primary Health Care for the Elderly' in Journal of Social Development in Africa (Vol 5, NL2). 'Mother and Child Health' in Jeevaniya (N15-6). A special insert on 'European Pharmaceutical Export' in Hai News (N025).

Education: 'Education and Development' is the theme of Gengve-Afrique (Vol XXVIII, N"2). 'Reflections on Non-Formal Educa- tion and Evaluation of such Projects' in Development Mirror (Nol). 'Education, Training ...' in Cross Over (Vol 4, N32). Teachers Strike in Lesotho' in Work for Justice (N-26). 'Literacy as a Global Sub- ject' in DSna (Vol XV, N"7-8). 'Good Scho- ols: Why we all need them and How to get them' in Utne Reader (N"41). 'Student Movements in Advanced Western Socie-

ties' in Transnational Associations (N"4). L a situation de l'education en Haiti' dans Liaison (Vol 1, N210). 'Educar para la responsabilidad ecologica' en Codecal (N"22).

Habitat 'La bhsquedad de la categoria de pueblo: retention de tierra y autonomia para las comunidades indigenas en Mexico colonial' y 'La importancia de la tierra y 10s montes para 10s pueblos de indios de la Nueva Galicia' en Encuentro (N917). 'El impuesto a la tierra: una dis- cusion de sus efectos economicos para el caso argentine' en Economics (Atio XXXIV, N 2).

Communication: War of the Media or Media of War' in Euro Radio (NL15). 'Have Women missed the Boat on Communica- tion Technology?' in Development Com- munication Report (DCR) (N070). 'Four Phases of Information Technology' in Futures (Vol 22, N"8).

PxLicipc/on:'LaSolidaridad: movilizacion y participation popular' en Chamiza (N"22). 'Volunteer Village Development Workers: The Cornerstone of Community Participation' in Vibro (N"65).

Rural: 'Do "Poverty-Oriented" projects really reduce Rural Poverty' in Rural Development (Nc' l l ) . 'Rural Poverty and External Aid' in Development Policy Revi- ew (Vol 8, N'3). Cikard News is a publica- tion of the Center for Indigenous Know- ledge for Agricultural and Rural Develop- ment. 'Land Reform in the Caribbean' in Caricorn Perspective (N048). 'People's Participation in Rural Development' in Cirdafrica (Nog-10). Search News is a bi- monthly of Search, a voluntary organisa- tion involved in rural development. Aird News published by Asian Institute for Rural Development, highlights Aird's self- help Rural Integrated Development (Vol 9, N07). 'Alternative Agriculture' in lleia Newsletter (Vol 6, N'3). 'Agrarian Sector:

Serious Structural Problems (in Portugues- e) in Extra (N"4). 'Cereales: Coup de chaleur sur les marches' dans La Lettre de Solagral (N397).

Em.mnrnent 'Global Warming: Facing the Challenge' in Panoscope (N"21). Tomo- rrow's Climate: Greenhouse or Ice Age?' in New Renaissance (Vol 1, N33). Pacific World, a journal on peace and global ecology, abords the theme 'Soviet Eco- logy' in (N916). 'Current Trends in Eco- logy' in EcoCiirrents (N03). 'Communities and ecology' in Chain Reaction (N061). Friends of the Trees Society (August 90) gives a preview of the International Green Front Report. 'Geography and the Study of the Environment' in Science Internation- a l (N041). 'The Greens of North America' in Green Line (N082). 'The Deadly Trade: Toxic Waste Dumping in Africa' in ldoc (Vol 21, N05). 'Sea dumping in Taiwan' in Wise (NT340). 'Embracing the Green Circle' in Earth Island Journal (Vol 5, NP3). In Bidlisiw sa Kaugmaran (Vol 1 , N'1) 'The Environment: Every body's Concern'. 'Environmental Problems in Thailand' in Thai Development Newsletter (NO1 8). 'La crisis ecologica centroamericana' en Alternativas (N02).

Water: 'Clean water for Mafi-Kumase in Ecoforum (Vol 14, N04). Haramata (N"9) features 'A fresh-cut twig of Mango will find the Hidden Water'. 'Assessing the Water Decade' in Grassroots Development (Vol 14, N02). 'Water, a Socialized Com- modity' in EcoSocialist Review (Vol 4. N03). 'Burkina Faso: De I'eau pour les hommes ou Ie betail?' dans Chroniques (No50-51 ) .

Mujeres * Women: 'Especial: Mujer y elecciones' en Mujer Sociedad (Atio X, N"30). 'Mujeres indigenas' en Mujerlfem- press (N0109). 'LQue significa para las mujeres la perestroika?' en Mujeres en accion (No19-20). 'Contribution of a Wo- man to Perestroika' in Mainstream (Annual

Number). In Tok Blong 01 Meri (W2) 'Violence against Women'. In International Rehabilitation Review (Vol XL, N31) 'Somali Women organize to end Female Circum- cision'. 'Women and Politics' is the focus of Socialist Affairs (N"3). 'The have and the have-nots: Working Women' in Cafra News (Vol 4, Nn3). 'Le role des femmes dans Ie developpement' dans Echo (N31 4- 15).

Consumers: 'Consumer Education a Must' in ADAIFYI (Vol 4, NTO). In locu Newslet- ter (N-5) 'Women as Consumers' and 'Organizing Consumers in a Changing Vietnam' in (N36). In Consumer Lifelines (Cl N"45) 'Paying through the Nose: How Drug Companies profit from the Common Cold'. Ttie Cuts Patrika is a journal for consumers, published by the Consumer Unity and Trust Society of India. 'Consu- merism' (in Italian) in Quaderni d i Con- troinformazione Alimentare (NP54). 'Los derechos del consumidor' en Revista del Consumidor (NO1 62). 'Berlin: La revolucion de 10s consumidores' en Pensamiento Propio (A60 VIII, N074).

Children * Nifios: 'Children and the En- vironment: Their Needs, Perceptions and Problems' in Environment and Urbani- zation (Vol 2, N"2). Skipping Stones, a non-profit, multi-ethnicchildren'smagazine offers free or reduced rate subscriptions to low-income and Third World children. What has become of our Children?' in Asia Link (Vol XII, N04). 'A Golden Oppor- tunity for Children' in African Kora (Vol 2, Nn4-5). 'Palestinian Children Suffer' in Tanmiya (N320). A special report on Sri Lankan Children in Economic Review (Vol 16, N07). 'A Peaceful Planet - Every Chi- Id's Birthright' in Peace by Peace (Vol 15, N 9). ' Today and Tomorrow: Children in Bolivia' in Bolivia Bulletin (Vol 6, N04). 'Los nihos y la crisis' en La Ruta del Papagayo (N"5). 'Ninos pagan consecuencia de deuda externa' en Boletin Informative, una publicaci6n de la Comision Costarricense

de Derechos Humanos. 'Educando al niiio para la paz' en Madre Tierra (NC3).

Refugees: 'Some Economic Determinants of Third World Professional Immigration to the United States: 1972-87'in World Devel- opment (Vol 18, Nc8). Refugee Abstracts is a publication of the Centre for Docu- mentation on Refugees (CDR), a com- puterized documentation centre which gathers, stores and disseminates informa- tion on all aspects of refugee matters. 'The Attitude of the Local Population towards Vietnamese Boat People in Hong Kong' in Refuge (Vol 9, N"3). 'Women migrants' (in Italian) in Italia Caritas (Anno XXIII, N010). 'Migrations internationales et dynamique culturelle' dans Bi~lletin de I'Arci (NO1 3).

'Ngos * Ongs': Trends and Roles for Ngos in the 1990s' in Pt~ildtirra Notes (Vol 6, N04). 'Banco Mundial - Ongs' en Unitas (NO1 3). 'Ngos, Government agencies and Grassroots Development' in Networker (Vol 1, N02). 'Pesticides: I'approche des Ongs' dans Source de TA (Vol 18, N"3).

Democratic * Dernocracia * Democracy: 'Evolutions des societes socialistes' dans Recherches internationales (N"34). Un numero special sur les pays de I'Est dans Alternatives non violentes (N"76). Tran- sitions vers une nouvelle Afrique du Sud' dans Bulletin Cridev (N097). En Nueva Sociedad (N0107) 'Crimen y violencia en Jamaica: Implicaciones sociopoliticas' y 'La revoluci6n de Europa oriental de 1989' por Andre Gunder Frank en (N0108). Voces del interior: la sociedad sovietica ante la transition' en Afers Internationals (N019). 'Initiatives for Deepening Demo- cracy in the Middle East' by Mohamed Sid-Ahmed in Alternatives (Vol XV, N'3). 'The Future of Democracy' in New Para- digms Newsletter (N"10). 'Socialism is Dead, so why must we talk about it?' in Echoes from Tiananmen (N"4). 'Capital- ism's Failure in East-West German Merger'

in Conjuncture (Vol Ill, NC7-8). 'Social Movements, Social Transformation and the Struggle for Democracy in Africa' in Code- sria Bulletin (N'3). 'USSR in Crisis' in Multinational Monitor (Vol 1 1 , Nc'9).

D6veloppements * Desarrollo: 'La C hi n e et Ie developpement' dans Histoires de developpement (NO1 0). 'La medida del desarrollo' en Boletin Informativo de Fundacion Codespa (Atio 1, N"3). En Socialismo y Parficipacion (N750) 'Re- encontremos la dimension utopica'. One of the feature articles of CWD Networker (May-Aug 90) is 'India: Development or Displacement?'. Gilbert Rist's 'Devel- opment as Part of the Modern Myth: The Western Socio-cultural Dimension of Development' and Gerald Berthoud's 'Modernity and Development' in The Euro- pean Journal of Development Research (Vol 2, N71). '100 innovations for Develop- ment' in Appropriate Technology (Vol 17, N"2).

Paix * Peace: 'Paix et developpement: La paix est-elle I'absence de guerre' dans EcoAfrica (Vol 3, N'5). 'Cambodia: which way to Peace' in Indochina Issues (N091).

Economics * Econ6mia: 'There's more to a People's Development than money' in Africa South (N07). 'Exposing the Secret Agenda of the GATT Trade Talks' in Third World Economics (N03). GATT Tales is a monthly briefing on issues in international agricultural trade and development polici- es. 'GATT and Eastern Europe Update' in Food Matters (N08). Overviews and pros- pects of the Uruguay Round in Capitulos (N'24). 'Is power from Nuclear Plants Necessary? Is it Economical?' in lumda (N"2-3). 'Economic development policies in the Arab Gulf countries' in Raw Mate- rials Report (Vol 7, NG3). 'GATT: Ie dernier set' dans CH+6 (N"47). Dans Whydah 'Solutions economiques pour une nouvelle Afrique du Sud' (Tome 2, Nc'3). 'El BID en la proxima decada' en Comercio Exterior

(Vol 40, N"7). 'La unificacion alemana o la crisis de 10s paradigmas' en Actualidad Economica (N31 1 8).

Nord-sud: 'Nord-Sud: Developper les pratiques alternatives' dans Silence (N31 3- 5). 'Le reamenagement geopolitiques en Afrique australe' dans Afrique 2000 (N"2). 'La crise du Golfe, prelude a I'affrontement Nord-Sud' dans Futuribles (N"147). 'North- South Dialogue: Will it be revived?' in Development S Socio-Economic Progress (N048).

South-South: Imputs and Reflections concerning the South Commission Report in South Letter (Nc'7), 'South-South Trade and Development' in Maapallo (Vol 10, N03). 'Pan-Africanist Resurrection' in Apri Newsletter (Vol V, N34). 'Cooperation regionale Sud-Ouest de I'Ocean Indien: pour un constat' dans Bulletin Ibion (N'4).

Places: 'News from Nigeria' in No Nation Bulletin (N06). 'Popular Resistance in Tanzania: Lessonsfrom the Sungu Sungu' in Africa Development (Vol XIV, N"4). Events and issues concerning apartheid in South Africa (in Portuguese) in Terra Solidaria (N"22-23). 'Looking for a Way out: Hungary under Pressure of Debts' in The International Spectator (Vol XXV, N03). 'Zaire: Le syndrome de la servitude' dans Realites africaines (N5 ) . 'Imaginaire et Gouvernment" dans un mouvement po- pulaire a Nova Iguaqu' dans Cahiers dii Bresil contemporain (Nog).

New Periodicals: In the first issue of Third World Resurgence, a monthly magazine of the Third World Network, 'Seeing Green through Third World's Eyes' (N21). The Journal of Human Ecology (Vol 1, Nc'l) published by the Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, a quarterly welcomes contribu- tions concerning concepts and modelling, to better understand problems in actual human societies, environmental health virsus population health, biological and

Consumer Lifelines, locu, POB 1045, 10830 Penang, Malaysia Cross Over. Carirnac, Uwi, Mona Campus, Kingston 7, Jamaica

. The Cuts Patrika, 3-B Camac Street, Calcutta 700 016, India , CWD Networker, FOB 3637, Karnaladi, Kathmandu, Nepal

DSna, Sawodaya Vishva, Samadhi, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka . David y Goliath, CLACSO, AV Callao 875, 3' E, 1023 Buenos Aires, Argentina . OCR, 1815 North Fort Myer Drive, Suite 600, Arlington, VA 22209, USA

Def, Dept of World Sew, LWF, POB 2100, 121 1 Geneve 2, Suisse , Development Mirror, Diakonia, ~ l v s j o GArdsvgg 3, 125 30 ~ l v s j o , Sweden

Development Policy Review, ODI, Regent's College, Inner Circle, Regent's Park, London NW1 4NS, UK

. Development & Socio-Economic Progress, 89 Abdel Aziz AI-Saoud Street, 11451-61 Manial el-Roda, Cairo, Egypt

. Earth Island Journal, 300 Broadway, Suite 28, San Francisco, CA 94133, USA

. ECIJO, AfardIAward, BP 3304, Dakar, Senegal

. Echoes from Tiananmen, 57 Peking Road, 3rd Floor, Kowloon, Hong Kong

. Ecoafrica, Anen, FOB 53844, Nairobi, Kenya

. EcoCurrents, 248 Fellows Ave, Syracuse, NY 13210-2626. USA

. Ecoforum, ELCI, POB 72461, Nairobi, Kenya

. Economica, Univ Nac de La Plata, Calle 48 Nc'555, La Plata, Argentina

. Economic Review, Sir Chittarnpalam A Gardinar Mawatha, Colombo 2, Sri Lanka

. EcoSocialist Review, DSA, 1608 N Milwaukee, Chicago, IL 60647, USA Encuentro, El Colegio de Jalisco, AP 38-64, 44450 Jalisco, Mexico

. Environment and Urbanization, 3 Endsleigh Street, London WC1 H ODD, UK

. L'EnVol, Quartier Fontsainte, 13100 Beaurecueil, France The European Journal of Development Research, Gainsborough House, 11 Gains- borough Rd, London E1 1 1 RS, UK

. EuroRadio, BP 42, 04300 Forcalquier, France , Extra, CFA, CP 3658, Maputo, Mozambique . Flashes-Contacts-Echange, BP 208, 2012 Luxembourg . Food Matters, 38-40 Exchange Street, Norwich NR2 lAX, Norfolk, UK . Friends of the Trees Society, POB 1064, Tonasket, WA 98855, USA . Futures, Butterworth Heinemann Ltd, POB 63, Guildford GU2 5BH, UK . Futuribles, 55 rue de Varenne, 75341 Paris Cedex 07, France . Gaff Tales, Center for Rural Affairs, POB 405, Walthill, NE 68067. USA . Geneve-Afrique, Case postale 136, 121 1 Geneve 21, Suisse . Grassroots Development, 1515 Wilson Boulevard, Rosslyn, Virginia 22209, USA . Green Line, 34 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 lHZ, UK . Hai News, IOCU, POB 1045, 10830 Pulau Pinang, Malaysia . Haramata, IIED, 3 Endsleigh Street, London WC1 H ODD, UK . Health for the Millions, VHA, 40 Qutab Inst. Area, New Delhi 110 016, India . Histoires de dkveloppement, 30 rue Sainte Helene, 69002 Lyon, France , ldoc, Via S Maria dell'Anima 30, 00186 Roma, Italia . lleia Newsletter, POB 64, 3830 AB Leusden, The Netherlands

Imadr Bulletin, M Jiichiro Mern Hall, 3-5-1 1 Roppongi, Minato-Ku, Tokyo, Japan , Indochina Issues, 201 1 S Street, NW, Suite 740, Washington, DC 20009, USA . Info-Turk, 38 rue des Eburons, 1040 Bruxelles, Belgique . International Rehabilitation Review, 25 E 21 st St. New York, NY 1001 0, USA . International Spectator, Via Angelo Brunetti 9, 00186 Roma, Italia

. locu Newsletter, Emrnastraat 9 , 2595 EG The Hague, The Netherlands , Italia Caritas, Viale F Baldelli 41. 00146 Roma, Italia . lumda Newsletter, 13 Alipur Rd, Exchange BIdg, Delhi 110 0054, India . Jeevaniya, '2-315 River Bank Colony, Lucknow 226 018, India , Journal of Human Ecology, Universidad Autonorna de Madrid, E-28049 Madrid . Journal of Social Development in Africa, P Bag 66022, Kopje, Harare, Zimbabwe , La Lettre de Solagral, 13 bd St Martin, 75003 Paris, France . Liaison, BP 2481, Port-au-Prince, Ha'iti

Maapallo, Helsinki Univ, Dept of Geography, Hallituskatu 1 1 , 00100 Helsinki, Finland . Madres de Plaza de Mayo, Hipolito Yrigoyen 1442, 1089 Buenos Aires, Argentina . Madre Tierra, AA 1794, Call, Colombia

Mainstream, F-24 Bhagat Singh Market, New Delhi 110 001, India . Mujer/Fempress, Casilla 16-637, Santiago 9 , Chile . Mujeres en accion, Isis International, Casilla 2067, Santiago, Chile . Mujer y sociedad, AV. Nicolhs de Pierola 677, Of 503, Lima 1, Peru

Multinational Monitor, FOB 19405, Washington, DC 20036, USA Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights, Boothstr 6 , 3512 BW Utrecht, Netherlands

. Networker, Npta, Box 399, Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria

. New Paradigms Newsletter, 29 Fairford Crescent, Downhead Park, Milton Keynes MK15 9AF, UK

. New Renaissance, Weisenauer Weg 4, 6500 Mainz 42, Germany

. No Nation Bulletin, c/o Soren Groth, NygSrdsplatSn 36, 610 70 Vagnharad, Sweden

. Nueva Sociedad, Apdo 61.712, Caracas 1060-A, Venezuela

. Pacific World, PRIM, POB 10-123, The Terrace, Wellington, New Zealand

. Panoscope, 9 White Lion Street, London NI 9PD, UK

. Peace by Peace, 224 Lisburn Road, Belfast BT9 6GE, N. Ireland

. Peace News, 55 Dawes St. London SE17 1 EL, UK

. Pensamiento Propio, Apdo C-163, Managua, Nicaragua

. Peuples & Liberations, ITECO, 31 rue du Boulet, 1000 Bruxelles, Belgique

. Peuples en marche, 10 rue Lanterne, 69001 Lyon, France

. Pliildhrra Notes, 20 Jose Escaler Street, Loyola Heights, Quezon City, Philippines

. Quaderni d i controinformazione alimentare, Via Bazzini 24, 20131 Milano, Italia

. Raw Materials Report, POB 81519, 104 82 Stockholm, Sweden

. Realitks africaines, Case postale 69, 3000 Berne 22, Suisse

. Recherches internationales, IRM, 64 bd A. Blanqui, 75013 Paris, France

. Refuge, York Univ, Suite 234, 4700 Keele Street, North York, Ont M3J 1P3, Canada

. Refugee Abstracts, CDR, UNHCR, CP 2500, 121 1 Geneve 2 Depot, Suisse

. Revista del consumidor, AP 20600, Mexico DF 03210, Mexico

. Revista international de sistemas, Or G h e z Ulla 4, 28028 Madrid, Espafia

. Rural Development, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Roma, Italia

. La Ruta del Papagayo, Apdo 63171, Chacaito, Caracas 1067-A, Venezuela

. Science International, ICSU, 51 Bd de Montmorency, 75016 Paris, France

. Search News, 21 9/26 6th Main, 4th Block, Jayanagar, Bangalore 560 01 1 , India

. Silence, 4 rue Bodin, 69001 Lyon, France Skipping Stones, 80574 Hazelton Road, Cottage Grove, OR 97424, USA

. Socialismo y Participation, Ave J.F. Sanchez Carrion 790, Lima 17, Peru

. Socialist Affairs, Maritime House, Old Town, Clapham, London SW4 OJW, UK

. Source de TA, BP 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, Pays-Bas South Letter, South Commission, CP 228, 121 1 Geneve 19, Suisse

. Survival, 310 Edgware Rd, London W2 1 DY, U K , Tanmiya, Case postale 602, 1211 Geneve 6, Suisse , Terra Solidaria, Rua Pinheiro Chagas 77, 2Â E , 1000 Lisboa, Portugal . Thai Development Newsletter, 530 Soi St. Louis 3 , South Sathorn, Yannawa, Bangkok

10120, Thailand . Third World Economics, 87 Cantonment Rd, 10250 Penang, Malaysia

Third World Resurgence, 87 Cantonment Rd, 10250 Penang, Malaysia . Tok Blong 01 Meri, YWCA, FOB 3940, Samabula, Suva, F i j i . Transnational Associations, UAI, 40 rue Washington, 1050 Bruxelles, Belgique . La Tribune Fonda, 18 rue de Varenne, 75007 Paris, France

Tugon, FOB 1767, Manila, Philippines . Unitas, Casilla 8666, La Paz, Bolivia . Utne Reader, 1624 Harmon Place, Minneapolis, MN 55403, USA . Vibro, Jl Asern Baris Raya 2 , Rt 010/014, Tebet Jakarta 12830, Indonesia . Vie <S Sante, BP 21027 Dakar Ponty, Senegal . Voz Indigena, AV. San Eugenio 981, Lima 13, Peru

Whydah, Academy Science Publishers, FOB 14798, Nairobi, Kenya . Wiriay Marka, Calle S Vicenq 3, pral 2", E-08001 Barcelona

Wise, FOB 5627, 1007 AP Amsterdam, The Netherlands . Work for Justice. POB 1388, Maseru 100, Lesotho , World Development, 11th Fl, 1815 H St, NW, Washington, DC 20006, USA

(continued from cover page 3)

Regional space

Horacio Berretta, En busqueda de afirmar la democracia social en America Latina (CEVE, Igualdad 3585, Villa Siburu, 5003 Cordoba, Argentina) 3pp.

Christopher B. Jones, The Impact of Sea Level Rise on the Pacific Islands (Ctre for Dev Stud, Porteus 17718, Hawaii Univ, 2424 Maile Way, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822) 7pp.

Etienne Le Roy, L'elaboration de cultures communes comme reponse a la crise de I'Etat et des economies en Afrique francophone (Universite de Paris 1-Sorbonne, 14 rue Cujas, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France) 24pp.

Prosper Mpawenayo, Developing Countries Institutions in Emerging Technologies Transfer (IRST, BP 227, Butare, Rwanda) 4pp.

Yash Tandon, Foreign Ngos, Uses and Abuses: An African Perspective (7 Dougal Avenue, The Grange, Chisipite, Harare, Zimbabwe) 13pp.

Global space

g Sohail Inayatullah, Rethinking Science: Sarkar's Reconstruction of Science and Society (555 12th Avenue, Honolulu, Hawaii 96816) 9pp. ~Acha l Mehra, The War on Morality in the Morality of War (Albright College, FOB 15234, Reading, PA 19612-5234, USA) 11 pp. * U d o E. Simonis, International Development Strategy for the 1990s (WZB, Reich- pietschufer 50, 1000 Berlin 30, Germany) 7pp.

ifda dossier 80 Januarylmarch 1991 materials received for publication

N.B. Listing a paper below does not imply that it will be published. Decisions in this respect are based on the need for balance between themes, actors, regions and languages. The editors regret that time makes it impossible to engage in correspon- dence with authors about oapers. Papers may be obtained directly from the author.

Inner space J.P. Maas, In Our Image, After Our Likeness (The University of the South Pacific,

School of Humanities, FOB 1168, Suva, Fiji) 23pp

Local space Jean-Claude Bolay, Tiers Monde: Y a-t-il une methode pour gerer Ie developpement

urbain? (IREC, Dept d'Architecture, Case 555, 1000 Lausanne, Suissej 10pp. Chetana = Vikas, An Effort of Rural Development and Consciousness Raising

(Gopuri, Wardha 442 001, Maharashtra, India) 16pp. Katharine Coit, The Production of Housing in the Third World: Why the Gap Between

Research and Practice? (171 East 71 st St, New York, NY 10021, USA) 11 pp. Antonio Colorner Viadel, El cooperativismo como factor de desarrollo en 10s parses

de America Latina (Fac Derecho, Univ Aut de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Espanaj 10pp. Carlos Alberto Flood, Agricultura suburbans y periurbana en pequefia escala: Una

propuesta para la produceion local de alimentos (CIPES, Zabala 2677, 1426 Buenos Aires, Argentina) 19pp. Also in English: Small Scale Sub-Urban and Peri-Urban Biological Agriculture: A Social-Oriented Program of Local Food Production, 18pp.

Franqois Greslou et Pierre de Zutter, L'exemple de /'agriculture paysanne andine: La rnodernite des societes traditionnelles (24 rue du Jeu, 34830 Clapiers, France) 7pp.

Rarnesh Manandhar, Summary Report & People's Declaration of the Seminar "Strategies for Settlements: People's Way' (The PNG Univ of Techn, Dept of Archit and BIdg, PMB, Lae, Papua New Guinea) 4+4pp.

Claudio Schuftan, Reshaping the City: A Need for Professional Renewal and Multidisciplinary Cooperation, 1 Opp; Resolutions for the New Development Decade, 3pp; Activism to Face World Hunger: Exploring New Needed Commitments, 12pp. (Box 40874, Nairobi, Kenya).

Tsasa-Tsasa, Protection des droits de I'enfant (BP 11 41, Kinshasa, Gornbe, Zaire). Yahya Yousif, Small-Scale Rural Dairy Industries in El Obeid Ads (ADS El Obeid,

UNDP FOB 913, Khartoum, Sudan) 3pp.

National space

Abdelharnid Abdouli, Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment in Cdpitdi-Poor Countries, (POB 2102, Khartoum, Sudan) 4pp.

Williarn H . Boyer, Democracy Type 11: Electing the Future (17575 Jordan Rd, Sisters, OR 97759, USA) 5pp.

(continued on page 144)

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