international foundation for development alternatives

fondation internationale pour un autre developpement

fundacion internacional para alternativas de desarrotlo

IFDA DOSSIER? , JANUARY 1979

C O N T E N T S

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS

Development as l i b e r a t i o n : P o l i c y lessons f rom case s t u d i e s (Denis Gou le t )

D e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and s e l f - r e l i a n c e i n an a g r a r i a n economy (Ami t Bhaduri )

La commerc ia l i sa t ion des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s , f a c t e u r de developpement r u r a l (F1 o r e n t i n Agoua)

The r e l i g i o n and t r a d i t i o n a l va lues i n development i n t h e 80s, w i t h s p e c i f i c re fe rence t o t h e Sarvodaya Movement (A.T. A r i y a r a t n a )

How do we g e t t h e r e ? T r a n s i t i o n s t r a t e g i e s towards another development i n t h e Nor th ( Ignacy Sachs)

Amenagement du temps e t s t r a t e g i e s du d6veloppement (Claude P a t u r l e )

INTERACTIONS

. Technology, domest ic d i s t r i b u t i o n and North-South r e l a t i o n s (Beat Jenny)

. The UNCTAD scene (Chakravar th i Raghavan)

. Small Fishermen's Char te r

. Employment through c r a f t p roduc t ion : o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r women i n Bang1 adesh (Hameeda Hossai n )

. Amenagement s o c i a l du temps: Un en jeu pour 1e changement des s t y l e s de v i e dans l e s pays i n d u s t r i a l i s e s (Michel Sch i ray )

FOOTNOTES

Contributions t o the IFDA Dossier are presented under the so le r e spons ib i l i t y o f t h e i r authors. They are no t covered by any copyright. They may be repro- duced or transmitted i n any form or by any means wi thout permission o f t he authors o r IFDA. In case o f r epr in t , ackn~b}Zedgement o f source and rece ip t o f a copy would be appreciated.

executive committee : ismoil-sabn abdallo, ahmed ben solah, gamani corea, mahbub ui haq (co-chairman), enrlque igiesias, Ian meijer. marc nerfln (president), Justinian f. weyemamu, ignacy sachs, Juan somavia, rnaurice f, strong (co-chairman), ingo thorsson

secretariat, 2, place du marche, ch- 1260 "yon, switzerlond; telephone 41 (23) 61 82 82: telex 28840 ifdo ch: coble fipod. geneva bank swiss credit bank ch- 1211 qenevo 11, switzerland, account no 254288

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

IFDA Dossier 3 was sent to the printer while No.2 was being m ailed.

Thus it does not include any of the 'interactions' or contributions

requested from readers in the Introductory Note to the November

issue. It may, however, be useful to repeat that papers prepared

in the context of the Third System Project are seen as "building

blocks" for the United Nations Development Strategy for the 80s and

Beyond and are, strictly speaking, discussion papers. Readers are

invited to react to them and also to communicate to IFDA any views,

ideas or material they consider relevant. To contribute meaningful-

ly to broadening and deepening the development discussion, the = Dossier should become a permanent "seminar by correspondence".

As it happened, "building blocks" ready for submission constitute

the first elements of a "cluster" on participatory development.

Some, it will be seen, are more descriptive than analytical or

critical. IFDA's role is to promote and stimulate dialogues.

'Objectivity' and 'consensus views' may emerge from the exchange

itself rather than from particular contributions. Authors are free

to express themselves as they see fit. It is for readers to provide

comments and suggest alternative approaches and views. The =A

Dossier should be that of its readers.

Papers appear in their original language, English or French. Future

issues will also include contributions in Spanish. In all cases, a

short summary in the two other languages is provided. At a later

stage, it is expected that documents found of particular interest

may be translated and appear in some English, French or Spanish

publications.

Reference to "technical annexes" is made in two 'building blocks'

included in this issue. These may be obtained from the authors,

with whom direct discussion is invited.

FOOTNOTES

Readers wi l l f ind hereunder some references t o recent publications of i n t e r e s t :

Enrique Oteiza and Anisur Rahman, Technical Co-operati on among Third World Countries (Third World Forum Occasional Paper No.3). Free. Obtainable from Third World Forum Office, c/o IFDA, 2 Place du Marche, CH-1260 Nyon.

Newsletter of the Third World Forum, No.3, November 1978. (Concerned with issues of co l l ec t ive s e l f - r e l i ance . ) Free. Obtainable from TWF, c/o IFDA.

Bjorn Hettne, Current Issues i n Development Theory, SAREC Report R5, 1978 (Swedish Agency f o r Research Co-operation with Developing Countries.)

Jonan Galtung, Develo ment, Environment and Tecnnolo : Towards a Technology fo r Self-Reliance, 3 b n e 1978) - Mahbub u1 Haq, The Poverty Curtain: Choices f o r the Third World, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976)

Geoffrey Barraclough, "Waiting f o r the New Order" and "The Struggle f o r the Third World", The New York Review of Books (Vol.XXV, no.16, 26.10.78 and no.17, 09.11.78)

Richard Jo l ly ( e d i t o r ) , Disarmament and World Development (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1978) with papers by Phi l ip Noel Baker, Frank Barnaby, Robin Luckham, Mary Kaldor, Ruth Leger Sivard, Alva Myrdal, Inga Thorsson, Robert Neild and Brian Johnson

Odette Jankowitsch and Karl Sauvant, The Third World without Su e r owers: The 1 lec ted Documents of the Non-Aligned Countries, Vol . I (New Yorkp ~ceana- Publications I n c . , 1978)

E n t r e l e s surpuissances e t l e s pays pauvres, Les moyens de l a domination f r anca i se" , resume des rapports du Colloque organis6 a Paris du 25 au 27 septembre 1978 sous l e s auspices de l lAssocia t ion des 6conomistes du Tiers Monde; Edmond Maire, Secre ta i re general de l a Confederation f rancaise democratique du t r a v a i l , "La necessaire s o l i d a r i t y du mouvement ouvrier i n t e rna t iona l , Pour un nouvel ordre economique mondial", Le Monde diplomatique, novembre 1978.

Yohannes Noggo, Agrarian Reform and Class Struggle i n Ethiopia (African Environ- ment, Occasional papers s e r i e s ; E N D A , P . O . Box 3370, Dakar, Senegal)

Marc Nerfi n, "Hacia Otro Desarrollo", Socialismo y Par t ic ipa t ion (No.4, Setiembre 1978)(Apartado 1 , Lima 4 , Peru).

To remind

IFDA Dossier 1 , January 1978: A United Nations Development Strategy f o r the 80s and Beyond: Par t ic ipa t ion of the 'Third System' i n i t s Elaboration and Implemen- t a t i on : A Projec t Description.

IFDA Dossier 2 , November 1978: L i s t of on-going projec ts ; 'Building Blocks' by Ignacy Sachs, Gunnar Adler-Karlsson, Francois Le Guay and Reginald Herbold Green; ' In terac t ions ' by Leelananda de Si 1 va, Regi nal d Herb01 d Green and Chakravarthi Raghavan. (Both i ssues a r e avai lable f r e e of charge from IFDA.)

BUILDING BLOCKS

DEVELOPMENT AS LIBERATION: POLICY LESSONS FROM CASE STUDIES

by Denis Goulet Overseas Development Council 1717 Massachussetts Avenue, N . W . Washington, D . C . 20046, U.S.A.

Original language: English

Abstract: Four case s tudies a r e summarized in which oppressed people have

successful ly assumed control over t h e i r own des t in i e s and development s t r a t e g i e s .

Lessons from experience a r e drawn, a t the national and macro-economic l e v e l , from

Guinea-Bissau where the popular l i be ra t ion movement has grown i n t o the national

government without losing c lose contact with i t s consti tuency; from the Sarvodaya

movement in S r i Lanka which has s t a r t ed as a modest development organization of

poor people, based on endigenous socia l and cul tura l va lues , and which has grown

in to a popular movement of one mill ion people (of 14 mi l l ion to t a l population) i n

some 2093 vi l lages* ; f r m the % (self-employed women's associa t ion) i n

Ahmedabad, India , where oppressed s t r e e t vendors, a r t i s a n s , junksmiths and

garment-makers have founded t h e i r own bank (which now has 1000 shareholders

and 10000 deposi tors) t o circumvent usurious lending prac t ices and t o gain access

t o cap i t a l a t t h e i r own terms; and from a Quechua community i n cent ra l Bolivia

where handicrafts producers cooperatives have successful ly maintained s e l f -

re1 iance and cul tura l i den t i t y through conscious choice of appropriate techno1 ogy

a t t h e i r own terms. Lessons in development as a form of Liberation a r e drawn

from the socia l praxis of each of these examples.

* This i ssue a l s o includes a paper by the president of the Sarvodaya Movement

Ce document resume q u a t r e monographies mont ran t comment des groupes opprimes ont , avec succes, p r i s 1e c o n t r b l e de l e u r d e s t i n e t de l e u r s t r a t e g i c de developpement. Des lecons son t t i r e e s de l ' e x p e r i e n c e , au n iveau n a t i o n a l e t macro-economique, de l a Guinee-Bissau 00 1e mouvement de l i b e r a t i o n p o p u l a i r e s ' e s t developpe au p o i n t de deven i r l e gouvernement n a t i o n a l sans perd re c o n t a c t avec sa base; du mouvement Sarvodaya au S r i Lanka q u i a demarr6 c o m e une modeste o r g a n i s a t i o n de developpement des pauvres a p a r t i r des v a l e u r s s o c i a l e s e t c u l t u r e l l e s endogenes, e t q u i s ' e s t developpe en un mouvement p o p u l a i r e regrou- pan t un m i l l i o n de personnes ( s u r une p o p u l a t i o n t o t a l e de 14 m i l l i o n s ) , dans quelques 2000 v i l l a g e s * ; de ( a s s o c i a t i o n de femmes auto-employees) a Ahmedabad, Inde, oCi des vendeuses ambulantes, des a r t i s a n s , des c o u t u r i e r e s o n t fond@ l e u r p ropre banque, q u i a ma in tenan t 1000 a c t i o n n a i r e s e t 10000 depo- san ts , pour r e s i s t e r aux u s u r i e r s e t acceder au c r e d i t 5 l e u r s propres cond i - t i o n s ; e t d 'une communaut~ Quechua, en B o l i v i e c e n t r a l e , oC des coop6ra t i ves a r t i s a n a l e s o n t maintenu avec succes l e m n o m i e e t l e u r i d e n t i t 6 c u l t u r e l l e , en c h o i s i s s a n t consciemment des techniques appropr iees . Quelques conc lus ions s u r 1e developpement c o m e l i b e r a t i o n son t t i r e e s de l a p r a t i q u e s o c i a l e i l l u s t r e e p a r chacun de ces exemples.

DESARROLLO COMO FORMA DE L IBERACI~N: LECCIONES BASADAS EN CUATRO CASOS ESPECI F I COS

Resumen

En 10s c u a t r o casos que se resumen 10s opr imidos l o g r a r o n e l l o s mismos c o n t r o l a r sus d e s t i n e s y s iguen con e x i t o e s t r a t e g i a s de d e s a r r o l l o p rop ias . A1 n i v e l nac io - n a l y macro-econ6mico se e x t r a e n l e c c i o n e s de 1as exper ienc ias de: Guinea-Bissau donde e l movimiento popu la r de liberation d e l p e r l o d o c o l o n i a l 11eg6 a fo rmar e l a c t u a l gob ie rno d e l p a l s s i n perder con tac t0 con e l pueblo; Movimiento Sarvodaya* de S r i Lanka, que empez6 como una modesta o rgan izac i6n que buscaba promover e l d e s a r r o l l o de 70s pobres tomando como base de su acc i6n 10s v a l o r e s s o c i a l e s y c u l t u r a l e s endogenes, y que t i e n e hoy mas de un m i l l i 6 n de adeptos (de una pob lac ion de 14 m i l l o n e s ) en 2000 aldeas; SEWA (assoc iac i6n de mujeres t rabando p o r cuenta p r o p i a ) de Ahmedabad, I n d i a . ~ z e s una asoc iac i6n de vendedores ambulantes, ar tesanos, modestas cus tu re ras , que fundaron su p r o p i o banco ( e l que actualmente cuenta 1000 a c c i o n i s t a s y 10.000 depos i tan tes ) para e v i t a r l a s p r a c t i c e s de usura de que eran 1as v i c t i m a s y obtener c r e d i t 0 a mejores terminos; Una comunidad Quechua en e l c e n t r e de B o l i v i a donde 10s a r t i s a n o s se o rgan iza ron en coopera t i vas y l o g r a r o n c o n t r o l a r e l l o s mismos sus comercios y mantener su i d e n t i d a d c u l t u r a l ya que son e l l o s mismos que e l i g e n l a t e c n o l o g i a apropiada para su t r a b a j o . Cada uno de es tos ejemplos es l a demostrac ion p r s c t i c a d e l d e s a r r o l l o como forma de l i b e r a c i 6 n .

* Ce Doss ie r c o n t i e n t auss i un a r t i c l e du p r e s i d e n t du Mouvement Sarvodaya Es te numero i n c l u y e tambien un a r t i c u l o d e l p r e s i d e n t e d e l Movimiento Sarvodaya

DEVELOPMENT AS LIBERATION:

POLICY LESSONS FROM CASE STUDIES*

Denis Goulet

INTRODUCTION

Which p o l i c y l e s s o n s can be gained from t h e d i v e r s e exper iences of oppressed g roups s t r u g g l i n g t o improve t h e i r l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s and t o shape t h e i r s o c i a l environment i n accord w i t h t h e i r p r i o r i t y v a l u e s ? The p o l i c y i n t e r e s t of t h i s paper c e n t e r s on how communities u t i l i z e " l e v e r a g e p o i n t s " e n a b l i n g them t o overcome c o n s t r a i n t s and r e a c h t h e i r s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e s , w h i l e f o s t e r i n g l a r g e r s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s around them. To b lend a concern f o r b e n e f i t s w i t h t h e c r i t i c a l s e l e c t i o n of q u a l i t a t i v e means f o r g a i n i n g them is t h e v e r y e s s e n c e of development: i t is development conducted i n t h e mode o f l i b e r a t i o n . '

L i m i t a t i o n s of space p r e c l u d e g i v i n g d e t a i l e d p r o f i l e s of t h e c a s e s inc luded here . Tne c a s e s , a s ske tched o u t b r i e f l y , s e r v e a s backdrop f o r drawing o u t u s e f u l p o l i c y l e s s o n s l e a r n e d from them. No c la im is made t h a t t h e examples p resen ted a r e comprehensive o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n scope; t h e s e l e c t i o n is l i m i t e d t o a few r e c e n t s o c i a l experiments d i r e c t l y known t o t h e a u t h o r and of seminal i n t e r e s t t o l a r g e r development i s s u e s . The c a s e s a r e s i t u a t e d a t va ry ing l e v e l s of g e n e r a l i t y . Guinea-Bissau i s a n example of a l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g y a t t h e macro ( o r n a t i o n a l ) l e v e l , w h i l e t h e example from S r i Lanka is " loca ted" a t a n i n t e r m e d i a t e s o c i a l l e v e l : t h a t of a nat ion-wide movement which is non-governmental and does n o t embrace a l l a r e n a s of development s t r a t e g y . Other examples a r e t aken from l o c a l o r r e g i o n a l communities; t h i s i s t h e c a s e of t h e women's e f f o r t s i n t h e c i t y of Ahmedabad i n I n d i a and t h e peasan t c o o p e r a t i v e s i n c e n t r a l Bol iv ia .

I s h a l l f i r s t r e f l e c f on g e n e r a l problems of l i b e r a t i o n and development s t r a t e g y . Next, s p e c i f i c c a s e s a r e d i s c u s s e d w i t h a view t o i d e n t i f y i n g l e v e r - age p o i n t s f o r change c r e a t e d by oppressed groups i n t h e i r s t r u g g l e . F i n a l l y , wider i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r p o l i c y a r e n a s a r e examined.

(1 ) L i b e r a t i o n : Its Scope and Content

To l i b e r a t e means, e tymolog ica l ly , t o s e t f r e e . P o l i t i c a l l y , l i b e r a t i o n evokes such images a s r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t r u g g l e , t h e overthrow of o p p r e s s o r s , and t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of a new s o c i a l o r d e r . Within t h e s p e c i a l c o n t e x t of develop- ment, l i b e r a t i o n connotes a v i c t o r y over p r i v i l e g e , s t a g n a t i o n , and dependency. C a r e f u l a n a l y s i s r e v e a l s t h a t t h e a s p i r a t i o n a f t e r l i b e r a t i o n h a s b o t h n e g a t i v e and p o s i t i v e dimensions: one i s l i b e r a t e d c e r t a i n e v i l s and one is made f r e e human f u l f i l l m e n t , however conceived.

* The document r e f e r r e d t o on page 3, paragraph 3 can be o b t a i n e d f rom t h e Overseas Development Counc i l , USA

There a r e t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s from which a n oppressed populace s e e k s d e l i v e r - ance. ( a ) The f i r s t i s t h e psych ic p a r a l y s i s o r d e s p a i r induced by t h e i n t e r n a l i z a t i o n of self- images which a r e d e s t r u c t i v e of esteem and conf idence . One d e f e n s e mechanism which oppressed peop le u s u a l l y adop t i s a behav ior p a t t e r n which confirms t h e s t e r e o t y p e he ld by t h o s e who c o n t r o l t h e i r l i v e s . They a c t a s i f they too b e l i e v e d t h a t they were i n f e r i o r t o t h e i r mas te r s , l e s s i n t e l l i - g e n t , l e s s e n e r g e t i c , and l e s s r e l i a b l e than they. One e s s e n t i a l p a r t of t h e l i b e r a t i o n p r o c e s s , t h e r e f o r e , c o n s i s t s i n " e x t r o j e c t i n g " ( t h e term i s Paulo F r e i r e ' s ) o r c a s t i n g o u t t h e i n t r o j e c t e d s e l f - p o r t r a i t which o n e ' s e x p l o i t e r s have a v e s t e d i n t e r e s t i n p e r p e t u a t i n g . (b) A second f e a t u r e of l i b e r a t i o n is t h e s u s t a i n e d e f f o r t t o overcome t h e p o l i t i c a l and economic c o n s t r a i n t s which b lock a p e o p l e ' s c r e a t i v i t y . C r e a t i v i t y is f r e q u e n t l y s t i f l e d t o such a d e g r e e t h a t a community comes t o depend on o u t s i d e groups t o d e f i n e f o r i t i t s own needs o r g o a l s . Moreover, economic and t e c h n o l o g i c a l dominat ion by p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s e s s t r i p s s u b o r d i n a t e c l a s s e s of t h e i r a b i l i t y t o s a t i s f y t h e i r own needs-- by i n v e n t i n g t o o l s , by working p r o d u c t i v e l y , o r by o r g a n i z i n g themselves i n response t o t h e c h a l l e n g e s posed by t h e i r own environment. Domination by o t h e r s a l s o d e n i e s a community t h e o p p o r t u n i e s i t needs t o c r e a t e i f i t is t o t r anscend i ts needs. Such t ranscendence could be ach ieved by c u l t u r a l expres- s i o n , g r a t u i t o u s l e i s u r e , even t h e d e s i g n of new forms of s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . Oppression, i n s h o r t , p r e v e n t s human be ings from d e f i n i n g , meet ing, and t r a n s - cending t h e i r own needs. ( c ) The t h i r d l e v e l a t which l i b e r a t i o n is sought i s t h e overcoming of a l l s e r v i t u d e s t o n a t u r e and t o ignorance . A community is oppressed when i t is t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y unable t o mas te r t h e d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e s of n a t u r e . Such t e c h n o l o g i c a l mastery i s c l o s e l y t i e d t o t h e c o g n i t i v e c o n t r o l e x e r c i s e d over n a t u r e . Th is i s t h e reason why every r e v o l u t i o n a r y movement s t r e s s e s t h e v i t a l r o l e played by l e a r n i n g . Large numbers of people need t o be persuaded t h a t they too can g a i n a c c e s s t o knowledge of how n a t u r e impinges upon them, of how s o c i a l systems a f f e c t them, of how t h e i r own t r a n s f o r m a t i v e e f f o r t s cou ld r e l e a s e them from bondages of s u p e r s t i t u t i o n , i n e r t i a , and ignorance .

A f t e r one h a s been l i b e r a t e d from a l l t h e s e e v i l s , however, what does one do w i t h t h e newly-won freedom? The q u e s t i o n then becomes n o t freedom b u t freedom % what? The on ly p o s s i b l e answer is: freedom t o f u l f i l l o n e s e l f , p e r s o n a l l y and c o l l e c t i v e l y , i n o t h e r words, freedom t o pursue humane develop- ment. The l a t e L . J . Lebre t des igna ted t h e q u e s t f o r sound development a s " t h e human a s c e n t . " Yet development i s obv ious ly n o t a h i s t o r i c a l Utopian v i s i o n of p e r f e c t i o n o r s t a t i c b l i s s . On t h e con r a r y , t h e human c o n d i t i o n w i l l always be marked by t ragedy and s u f f e r i n g . ' At i t s bottom f r o n t i e r , a u t h e n t i c development h o l d s o u t a p rospec t i n which a l l pe r sons can t h a t decen t s u f f i c i e n c y of goods which they need t o & f u l l y human. Achieving even t h i s minimal g o a l t a k e s t ime, demands s t r e n u o u s s t r u g g l e and, even when i t succeeds , l e a d s t o admixtures o f good and e v i l . The b e s t t h a t can be hoped f o r , i n m a t t e r s of development, is some r e l a t i v e approximation of success . The f i r s t "bottom t h r e s h o l d goa l" (meet ing everyone ' s b a s i c n e e d s ) , however, l aunches t h e p la t fo rm f o r f u r t h e r s o c i a l e f f o r t . I n d i v i d u a l s and s o c i e t i e s c a n grow i n be ing long b e f o r e t h e y have enough goods, and long they possess more t h a n enough. T h i s i s why, i n 1945, Lord Keynes r a i s e d a t o a s t t o "economics and economists , who a r e t h e t r u s t e e s n o t of c i v i l i s a t i o n b u t of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of c i v i l i s a t i o n . " 4 M a t e r i a l wel l-being merely opens t h e door t o p o s s i b i l i t i e s of f u r t h e r development. Ul t imate ly , t h e r e f o r e , l i b e r a t i o n is % development--for f u l l , comprehensive human development. Economic, p o l i t i c a l , and s o c i e t a l eman- c i p a t i o n have two purposes: t o remove major o b s t a c l e s impeding human develop- ment and, i n t h e p rocess of engaging peop le i n t h e e f f o r t t o overcome t h e s e

o b s t a c l e s , t o t r ans form h i t h e r t o p a s s i v e human be ings i n t o a c t i v e s u b j e c t s c r e a t i n g t h e i r own h i s t o r y .

( 2 ) What i s t h e Source of Development S t r a t e g i e s ?

Much i s w r i t t e n nowadays of a l t e r n a t i v e development s t r a t e g i e s . And numerous c o s t l y i n t e l l e c t u a l e x e r c i s e s a r e sponsored i n v a r i e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r e n a s t o fo rmula te new models of t h e f u t u r e , and t o t r a n s l a t e t h e s e i n t o a l i s t of p o l i c y t a r g e t s . Great emphasis i s p laced on b a s i c human needs a s a f i r s t p r i o r i t y f o r b u i l d i n g up s e l f - r e l i a n c e , o r f o r ach iev ing food s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y . What i s o f t e n overlooked i n d i s c u s s i o n s is t h e i n d i s p e n s a b l e r o l e played by s o c i a l p r a x i s i n c r e a t i n g new s t r a t e g i e s . The main s o u r c e of a l t e r n a - t i v e development s t r a t e g i e s is t h e i n v e n t i v e n e s s of human communities i n need a s they s t r i v e and probe t o r e d e f i n e t h e i r c o r e v a l u e s and v i t a l needs , t o cope w i t h n a t u r e and t h e o u t s i d e f o r c e s which impinge upon them, and t o r e a s s e s s t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s over which they have p r e v i o u s l y had l i t t l e c o n t r o l . Concre te s o c i a l p r a c t i c e i s t h e p r i n c i p a l f o n t of new change s t r a t e g i e s . Consequently, t h i s e s s a y d e r i v e s p o l i c y lessons--admit tedly of a p a r t i a l and t e n t a t i v e n a t u r e ~ f r o m t h e c o n c r e t e exper iences of human communities s t r u g g l i n g t o g a i n new freedoms. Such exper iences a r e t h e most impor tan t s o u r c e of wisdom about development s t r a t e g i e s . It is from them t h a t t r u e a l t e r n a t i v e modes of problem s o l v i n g and models of s o c i a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n must come, and n o t from p u r e l y c e r e b r a l model-bui lding t h a t h a s l i t t l e r egard f o r c o n s t r a i n t s , f o r human d e s i r e s and l i m i t a t i o n s , and f o r t h e u n p r e d i c t a b l e v a g a r i e s of l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s .

Th is i s n o t t o imply t h a t wel l-conceived models a r e u s e l e s s , b u t r a t h e r t h a t t h e i r optimum u t i l i t y d e r i v e s from p l a c i n g new i d e a s and v i s i o n s i n l i v i n g symbiosis w i t h t h e s o c i a l p r a c t i c e of c o n c r e t e human communities. I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t no ful l -blown theory o r p o l i c y model can emerge from t h e s m a l l number of c a s e s b a r e l y o u t l i n e d i n t h e s e pages. Never the less some impor tan t l e s s o n s appear , and t h e s e a r e worthy of c r i t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n .

I. SOME CASE STUDIES I N SEARCH OF POLICY LEVERAGE:

(A) Guinea-Bissau: A New Nation

The purposes of t h i s paper a r e n o t se rved by d e s c r i b i n g i n d e t a i l t h e economic and s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n h e r i t e d by t h i s new n a t i o n upon a c h i e v i n g independence i n 1974, o r t h e measures t aken by i t s l e a d e r s i n pursu ing a s u i t a b l e development s t r a t e g y . These q u e s t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n Annex A *

document e n t i t l e d Looking a t Guinea-Bissau: A New N a t i o n ' s Development S t r a t e g y . But Guinea-Bissau recommends i t s e l f t o s t u d e n t s of compara t ive development f o r s e v e r a l r easons :

- As a s m a l l coun t ry which is v e r y poor i n n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , s k i l l e d people, and modern i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , i t f a c e s many of t h e same c o n c r e t e d i f f i - c u l t i e s which p r e s s upon numerous o t h e r n a t i o n s (GNP p e r c a p i t a l is $130).

- Its l e a d e r s , most of whom were a c t i v e freedom f i g h t e r s p r i o r t o indepen- dence, a r e e x p l i c i t l y committed t o a p o l i c y which a s s i g n s h i g h e s t p r i o r i t y t o d i s t r i b u t i n g b e n e f i t s i n a j u s t and e q u i t a b l e manner. The b a s i c needs of t h e r u r a l poor come f i r s t .

- The government i n Guinea-Bissau is e a g e r t o l e a r n from t h e developmental

~ x p e r i e n c e s of o t h e r s . . < e v e r t h e l e s s , i t ~ i z d e r s t a n d s t h a t t h e main s o u r c e of n o r m a t i v e gu idance t o d e i i n e i t s ova s t y l e of development i s an e v e r d e e p e r knowledge of i t s s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s .

- to a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e t h e c o u n t r y ' s l e a d e r s h i p , which i s l a r g e l y coter- - ! inous w i t h t h e r u l i n g p a r t y , P A I G C ( A f r i c a n P a r t y f o r t h e Independence o f Guinea and Cape V e r d e ) , l o o k s f u r s o l u t i o n s t o c o n c r e t e problems by c o n s u l t i n g

. . -JLLP. ~ ' 1 e p c p u l ~ c ~ i n w ~ y s x!ii,.ri r e s p e c t I c c a l v ~ l u e s a s ~ i i r h -1s p ~ s s i b l e , even - . I . , e n - :l:e";e :nust b e ch.-i.rLged.

- Tile cot- i . icryl$ rG-LL*ticris w i t h o u c s i d e a i d z iuppl iecs i l l u s t ~ ~ i t e t h o prcic- :iC.~ 2 : ~ ~ . . L r ~ c u l t i c e ? ,.i^b'd 5.2 J I I V n ~ t i o n s t r i v i n g t o b u i l d up gre ' i t ier s e l f -

r + l i ~ r . c e w. i i le , i v o i d i ~ i ,x:es<i-/-e dependency. Because t h e : n a t i 2 n i s ver:: poor , it r.^.~e..is r i 3 u u r c e r m i - i f c r ' s . \ - t i~ knows L-li 11. i t n u s t a l l > w L h i ; a s s i : - - L - i i . . _ .. ., ,. t o . r . Jers ine ITS _ - r ! t - , ' ~ n : i J e n c e LL'.J v f f ~ r t s .

i ) ?<..:, -;,: ::I? ~ . ; k - t l - ;~ :Cn . - ,.ss >;I L J L . - ~ : ? L - C ~ ~ i s t;l;:t C e , ; e i d ; ~ ~ ~ : , r ~ ! : r~~..;; t ~ ~ . , . . ,. - ,)e Tv,isv+d I = ,, ;r< , t : ,:, ~ < r ~ .,F , ( .ess . , t '1,::- j:l ~ ~ ~ m c i ~ ) : i ~ i J F . !>,~rl:-.g Ltlc

~ d ? ~ r i i l a d a r : . i - i !: L : ; i : i ~ ?c?p~c~!e r ; c . t - !I >n Ck~e i ' o r : , ~ ~ u e s c (1>5,--?<), . . kJ~ :~?~ t : : -d i . . ; . # A ' . > , . , I > :. . : !,- 4 .. ,-, : \ ? ~ l ~ , a r (.'-ih~ : I , t.:r<Jte L ~ J : ' ' r ~ ~ ~ l ~ ? : ~ ; . i : iL>,>~.i- :i,>i~., ~ . : j i : ; ,L( ~~~i~ , p 2 , : ; , ? , 7 r L L j ~ ; ~ , . ~ , ~ : ~ . s ~ : ~ , ? :e ~,:1-.5tructiu!1 df ,>c.ic-: ,::: $ I , , :;rc>;.-- . . 2. 1 t:!-s& I:V ,!:,;I:~ :.::I;;:.. : , , I L t h,,:e i : ( , T.L III:-,L f,;r Llir pec,pl+ i f :!:.y ,:i c cr.-i!-,:13:~~ i-,:: I-..? i. 11;;- -.C>.;;.:P': i:: l i v i n g i:.~it'i!i[:ii-'ns." !<^re si;a-i t i .,171:?v, C . i b r ~ l L ; ~ Q . A L > . i r > ; i n . . : ~ , ~ r ; t o ~ i : - . p o l i t ; c a i fr.c(W-i in r c - ~ > , . ~ r . ~ t ; t o u::cJ.~r<~i:-,g t'u-

"si:;' i .k ~t i .~,- ' . , ;~r:~v~-i.~;:~:..?:\t." J i ~ r i n < ,7 , 2 i s s i o n .:.; ,311 agro: i , -~l is t ' 1951--1-3) 11: r : . e r : r . p l d y , l t~:.' i' :t,:.i.. .:c2 c,':, ,:.i,-il 2 t _ r v i t ' e . I".,is ai;rdiiumiesi - ~ i ~ r v ' - b i } Â ¥ > ~ . d : i & L ~ ~ . c!ie rc.;:iu:-is C u t ; i c ' ~ ',:..,~ig.:: ;:in J I ; L O ddi1)- c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i - ? i i s~ r 'L~- s J;'>;!:;!-.t

, . on .:is y i : ; c p 1 ~ . - I : L , I ~ ¥'" . ' i i . i i . - : < p ~ r J t , n r e . C b i i s c , ~ ~ - i . e n t I : ~ , t?;e p o l l t i - " i I p . r ~ ; ne iounc!cr,! > : I I l ? ' - i ((!'A1 :L) !~- i i t ."a r \ ' ~ ~ r d a s L ~ ~ l l i n g d e v r l o p n e n t 3, ~ . i ; o r p l a n

- . I n i t s i:::g-tc~r") . ~ r , . ' g r ~ r . . , < L i c e , , ; ; iea-3is>au ' - i human m i s e r y was ~ : i a - ~ . , S~: ;< "~JS

a p roduc t o r p c l i t i L i i i.':-:> ~ ~ ' i t a l n ' n , ~ n d r i r d e v e l o p n e n t i t s e l f had tc >e 'Â¥c^ovei i f t h e s t i g n u l e f t L;J . - ~ ' l u ! iilisa &'i;rt: i t s e l f t 0 he r o m p l a t e l y wiped . i u c . ' f i n s e x p l i c i t ~ k ; n o . s ~ - , pru:'ie:-1s "i.icfe i t p o s s i b l e f o r [he m c ' b i J i z . i T i o ! ! 2nd p r ~ b l e m - s o l v i n . ; t-.x;~z,:ie,~ce giii;ii.:d 1-y Gdinea-Bissau d u r i n g i t s yeirs o f ^ t r i . : . ;~ i e t o " s p i l l , o v e r , " J S LI were, i n t o t h e pos t - independence quest . f o r ~ i z v i . - i ~ p n e n t . One major u n s t a c t e t-0 t h ~ . i . g."al , r;~-iir;ely, p o l i t i c a l s u b s e r v i e n c e , h.aJ been rrimuved. But- t ne coal i t s e l t - - c i~a i : i s , a p o p u l ~ c e f r e e d from m i s e r y , i g n o r a n c e , and h u i a i l i a c i ~ n - - w a s s t 1 1 1 L i r f ro13 b e i n g r eached . The n a t i o n ' s e x p e r i e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s a c r i f i c e s r e q u i r e d by a sound deve lopmen ta l e f f o r t a r e i b t d i n e d more e a s i l y i f o t h e r s a c r i f i c e s have p receded them, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e s e e a r l i e r s a c r i f i c e s were u n d e r s t o o d t o be i n t r i n s i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e l a r g e r g o a l of r e a c h i n g development . T h i s i s o b v i o u s l y what Nyere re had i n mind when, a t a banquet h o n o r i n g Chou En-Lai i n 1964, he d e c l a r e d t h a t Tanzan- i a n s riiust u n d e r t a k e "an economic Long March" i n o r d e r t o f o r g e bonds be tween l e a d e r s and p e o p l e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o b t a i n e d by Mao's China d u r i n g i t s m i l i t a r y Long March.

2 rile s econd i n s t r u c t i v e e l emen t g l e a n e d from Guinea-Bissau i n i t s e a r l y

: e a r s a s a n independen t n a t i o n i s t h e impor t ance o f a p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p which remains i n c o n s t a n t t ouch w i t h i t s p e o p l e . A c l e a r vi-ew of p r i o r i t i e s m d c o h e r e n t p l a n n i n g of s t r a t e g i e s a r e d o u b t l e s s n e c e s s a r y , a s a r e r e c o u r s e t o s p e c i a l i s t s and t o p r o p e r i n s t i t u t i o n a l i n s t r u n e n t s . But n o t h i n g c a n s u b s t i - t u t e f o r l e a d e r s who l i s t e n t o t h e i r p e o p l e , who d e b a t e o p t i o n s w i t h them a n d , s p e a k i n g more c o n c r e t e l y , who g e t o u t o f t h e i r o f f i c e s i n t h e c a p i t a l c i t i e s and v i s i t t h e c o u n t r y s i d e t o keep l e a r n i n g a b o u t l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s . Most govern- z e n t o f f i c i a l s i n Gu inea -Bi s sau a r e furs ier g u e r r i i l a f i g h t e r s who h a v e l i v e d i n l i b e r a t e d zones unde r c o n d i t i o n s of h a r d s h i p which t h e y s h a r e d w i t h t h e r u r a l popu lace . They t h u s had no c h o i c e b u t t o a d o p t forms of dec i s ion -mak ing which were l a r g e l y n o n - e l i t i s t and c o n s u l t a t i v e . Moreover , t h e key r o l e p l a y e d by c o n s t a n t c r i t i c i s m and s e l f - c r i t i c i s m p r o t e c t s l e a d e r s from h a r b o r i n g t h e i l l u s i o n of s u p e r i o r i t y which u s u s a l l y a s s a i l s t h o s e who h o l d p o s i t i o n s o f l e a d e r s h i p .

A f t e r i ndependence , o n e c o n t i n u e s t o n o t e a n i i n f l agg ing z e a l t o g a i n new r-iwwledge. But knowledge i s b e s t s a i n e d by r e t u r n i n g t o i t s c h i e f s o u r c e : t h e d a i l y s t r u g g l e of t h e p e o p l e i n t h e i r c o n c r e t e c o n d i t i o n s of l i f e . Because government o f f i c i a l s a r e s e r i o u s l y commit ted t o t h i s c o u r s e of a c t i o n , G u i n e a ' s p e o p l e a r e h i g h l y r e c e p t i v e t o t e c l m i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n f rom s p e c i a l i s t s . S i n c e l e a r n i n g is a r e s o u r c e t o be s h a r e d , t h e n a t i o n o u g h t t o mske t h e b e s t u s e of t h o s e who p o s s e s s s p e c i a l s k i l l s . And everybody c a n b e n e f i t f rom t h e s e s k i l l s where r e c i p r o c i t y i n d i a l o g u e i s t h e r u l e ,

3 ) Gu inea -Bi s sau ' s e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e a l e r t s po l i cy -maker s t o t h e need t o p u r s u e e q u i t y and s o c i a l j u s t i c e d i r e c t l y : n e i t h e r ccin b e e x p e c t e d t o r e s u l t a s a by-product o f o t h e r p r i o r i t i e s . P r e s i d e n t L u i s C a b r a l p u b l i c l y d e c l a r e s t h a t a r a t i o n a l p l a n is n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o avoi.1 t h e u n f a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s e r v i c e s t o one r e g i o n a t t h e expense o f a n o t h e r , t o one e t h n i c g roup t o the d e t r i m e n t o f o t h e r s , t o some i n s t i t u t i o n s t o t h e n e g l e c t of o t h e r s . Machinery and s k i l l e d p e r s o n n e l ~ b o t h i n s c a r c e supp ly - - a re c o n s t a n t l y s h i f t e d a round t o meet p r e s s i n g needs n o t r e l a t e d t o t h e s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s t o which t h e y a r e a l l o c a t e d . Many f o r e i g n t e c h n i c i a n s compla in t h a t t h i s p r a c t i c e i s i n e f f i c i e n t . Altiiough i t may be i n e f f i c i e n t f o r a g i v e n p r o j e c t , i t i s n o n e t h e l e s s a u s e f u l d e v i c e f o r a c h i e v i n g a g r e a t e r s p r e a d of t h e b e n e f i t s g a i n e d . The government d o e s n o t u n d e r e s t i m a t e t h e impor t ance o f i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c t i o n and p r o d u c t i v i t y . I t s main p r i o r i t i e s i n a g r i c u l t u r e a r e t o i n c r e a s e , t o d i v e r s i f y , and t o d i s - s e m i n a t e p r o d u c t i o n . But a l l t h e b road i n c e n t i v e sys t ems adop ted ( t a x a t i o n , p r i c i n g , m a r k e t i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s , e t c . ) a r e g e a r e d t o a s s u r i n g a wide d i s t r i b u - t i o n o f b e n e f i t s , whe the r i t be o f f o o d s t u f f s , m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t , e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s , o r p o l i t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n .

4 ) F i n a l l y , o n e l e a r n s f rom Guinea-Bissau t h a t s e l f - r e l i a n c e c a n n o t b e pursued i n i s o l a t i o n f rom o t h e r o b j e c t i v e s . The c o u n t r y r e c e i v e s a n n u a l l y some $50 i n f o r e i g n a s s i s t a n c e p e r c a p i t a , a h i g h f i g u r e f o r a l a n d whose GNP p e r c a p i t a i s $130. The dange r of e x c e s s i v e dependency on o u t s i d e r e s o u r c e s is t h e r e f o r e v e r y r e a l . Measures t a k e n t o c o u n t e r t h i s r i s k have been : t h e i n s i s t e n c e on g r a n t s i n s t e a d o f l o a n s ( a f reedom made p o s s i b l e by t h e excep- t i o n a l p r e s t i g e e n j o y e d by t h e PAIGC i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c i r c l e s , t h a n k s t o i t s h e r o i c l i b e r a t i o n s t r u g g l e and t o t h e p e r v a s i v e humanism o f i t s r e v o l u t i o n a r y v i s i o n a s expounded by Ami lca r C a b r a l ) , d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n i n t h e s o u r c e s o f a i d ( a i d is welcomed f rom a l l who r e s p e c t t h e c o u n t r y ' s s o v e r e i g n t y and p r i o r i t i e s ) , and t n e r e f u s a l o f a i d whenever i t would b e t o o burdensome ( e i t h e r b e c a u s e o f e x c e s s i v e f i n a n c i a l c o s t s o r b e c a u s e i t c a r r i e s " p o l i t i c a l s t r i n g s " ) .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , Guinea-Bissau h a s t o s t r u g g l e i n o r d e r NOT t o become too r e l i a n t on o u t s i d e he lp . The l e s s o n h e r e is t h a t s e l f - r e l i a n c e i s b u t a r e l a - t i v e v a l u e needing t o be balanced a g a i n s t t h e p r e s s i n g urgency t o o b t a i n inc re - mental r e s o u r c e s i f b a s i c needs a r e t o b e met. Moreover, s e l f - r e l i a n c e i s a long-term g o a l which can be r e a l i z e d o n l y i n s t a g e s . To i l l u s t r a t e , Guinea- Bissau aims a t r e a c h i n g b a s i c food s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y w i t h i n a few y e a r s and, over a somewhat longer term, a t f r e e i n g i t s e l f from o u t s i d e c a p i t a l f o r i ts budge ta ry expenses and a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n of i ts developmental inves tment c a p i t a l . To succeed , however, i t must expor t more goods and expand i t s t o u r i s t s e r v i c e s , the reby l i n k i n g i t s e l f t o o u t s i d e systems i n o t h e r ways.

A minute s t u d y of Guinea-Bissau's development e f f o r t s would u n e a r t h o t h e r i n s t r u c t i v e l e s s o n s , among t h e s e : t h e h i g h e r e f f i c a c y of p e r s u a s i o n a l l i e d t o s u p p o r t i v e i n c e n t i v e systems over c o e r c i o n ( f o r i n s t a n c e , farm c o o p e r a t i v e s a r e n o t imposed bu t opened t o v o l u n t e e r s who a r e then he lped t o become p r o d u c t i v e i n t h e hope of s e t t i n g a n example which o t h e r s w i l l wish t o f o l l o w ) , t h e v a l u e of s e t t i n g n o n - e l i t e p r i o r i t i e s i n key s e c t o r s ( f o r example: b a s i c e d u c a t i o n t o a l l Guineans i n s t e a d of c r e a t i n g a u n i v e r s i t y b e f o r e t h e coun t ry i s ready f o r i t ) , c o n s t a n t l y p rov id ing a p o l i t i c a l e d u c a t i o n a l dimension t o problem- s o l v i n g a c t i v i t i e s and , i n a g e n e r a l i z e d way, i n s i s t i n g t h a t t h e b e s t model of problem-solving is t h a t which is c r e a t e d by t h e people themselves a s they keep t e s t i n g o u t new s o l u t i o n s adap ted t o t h e i r own c o n d i t i o n s . And a l t h o u g h l e a d e r s a r e open t o o t h e r models, they r e l y mainly on t h e i r own growing exper- i e n c e t o shape p r e f e r r e d s t r a t e g i e s , the reby d i s p l a y i n g a h igh d e g r e e of con- c e p t u a l s e l f - r e l i a n c e .

(B) A P e o p l e ' s Movement i n S r i Lanka: Sarvodaya 6

The words "Sarvodaya Shramadana" mean " t h e awakening of a l l i n s o c i e t y by t h e mutual s h a r i n g of o n e ' s time, thought and energy."7 Sarvodaya 's s e l f - d e c l a r e d i d e a l i s t o a c h i e v e t h e "well-being of a l l , and n o t on ly of t h e m a j o r i t y ." Its concept of human development s p r i n g s from a n c i e n t Buddhist phi losophy whose c o r e v a l u e s a r e t h e r e s p e c t f o r a l l l i f e and t h e concept of t h e we l l -be ing of a l l . Because t h e s e v a l u e s have been ignored by most moderni- z ing "development" p l a n n e r s , i n c l u d i n g a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and p l a n n e r s i n post- independent S r i Lanka, Sarvodaya i n i t i a t e d a non-governmental p e o p l e ' s movement through awareness-awakening and self-development . I t s s o c i a l a c t i o n aims a t l i b e r a t i o n from e x p l o i t a t i o n through s e l f - r e l i a n c e , i t s e l f n u r t u r e d by a revo lu- t i o n a r y t echn ique t o awaken people t o t h e i r own p o t e n t i a l . Peop le ' s p a r t i c i p a - t i o n is t h e f o u n d a t i o n of t h e movement.

Launched modest ly i n 1956 by A r i y a r a t n e , a h igh s c h o o l t e a c h e r i n Colombo, t h e Movement now r e a c h e s approximately 1 m i l l i o n S r i Lankans ( i n a t o t a l popu- l a t i o n of 1 4 m i l l i o n ) i n almost 2,000 v i l l a g e s . I ts programmes embrace a l l phases of v i l l a g e l i f e (a l though i t i s now a l s o beg inn ing t o e x e r t i ts i n f l u e n c e i n urban c e n t e r s ) r ang ing from c h i l d c a r e and youth e d u c a t i o n t o job c r e a t i o n , community o r g a n i z a t i o n , f a rmer ' s c l u b s , i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i n k a g e s t o b u i l d up s o l i d a r i t y , community k i t c h e n s , and new p a t t e r n s of involvement by monks i n s o c i a l problems.

Mani fes t ly , any a c t i v i t y which c a n grow from a t i n y s e e d t o a l a r g e move- ment, w i t h no government s u p p o r t , must ho ld o u t some l e s s o n s f o r s t u d e n t s of development. Many p o l i c y i n s t r u c t i o n s coming o u t of t h e Sarvodaya exper ience a r e no t fo rmula ted e x p l i c i t l y by t h e Movement's l e a d e r s . Some l i g h t can be gleaned, however, from b r i e f l y examining a few of t h e i r s a l i e n t v a l u e and

procedura l themes. Afterwards, t h i s au thor w i l l add persona l r e f l e c t i o n s based on v i s i t s t o Sarvodaya f i e l d s i t e s and on long c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h i t s founder , A.T. A r i y a r a t n e , and w i t h t h e head of t h e Sarvodaya Research Cent re , Dr. Nandasena Ratnapala .

Phi losophy.

T r a d i t i o n a l Buddhist pedagogy summarizes a l l of l i f e i n a q u a r t e t o f p i t h y say ings :

There i s a problem ( s u f f e r i n g ) There is a c a u s e (c rav ing) There i s a hope (of g a i n i n g r e l e a s e from t h e v i c i o u s c i r c l e of c r a v i n g ) There i s a way ( t h e e i g h t f o l d pa th )

Sarvodaya h a s g iven a h i g h l y imagina t ive y e t s imple and f o r c e f u l r e i n t e r p r e t a - t i o n of t h e s e l o c u t i o n s and a p p l i e d them t o development problems. I n S r i Lanka t h e r e i s indeed a problem: underdevelopment, w i t h i ts t r a i n of i l l s ~ p o v e r t y , d i s e a s e , i n e r t i a , l a c k of se l f -conf idence , hope lessness . And t h i s e v i l h a s a cause : s o c i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n which r o o t s poor and powerless people i n p a s s i v i t y . Never the less , t h e r e e x i s t s a hope of improving: n o t by a w a i t i n g f a v o r s from well-disposed p o l i t i c i a n s o r b e n e f a c t o r s , b u t by g e t t i n g o rgan ized t o s o l v e problems c o l l e c t i v e l y . F i n a l l y , t h e r e a r e ways of a c t i n g e f f e c t i v e l y : t o o l s , i n s t r u m e n t s , t echn iques , work p l a n s which a r e t o b e t r i e d o u t i n c o n c r e t e exper ience , then t r a n s l a t e d i n t o t r a i n i n g c u r r i c u l a , and l a t e r s t i l l t o be widely d i s semina ted i n ways a c c e s s i b l e t o a l l .

P r a c t i c e .

I n i ts e a r l y y e a r s Sarvodaya launched v i l l a g e a c t i o n s by d i s p a t c h i n g s t u d e n t v o l u n t e e r s t o open work camps i n which l a b o r was shared t o b u i l d o r r e p a i r a c c e s s roads , to d i g w e l l s and s a n i t a r y f a c i l i t i e s , and t o perform o t h e r such t a s k s . The c e n t r a l emphasis was p laced , however, on r e v i t a l i z i n g human m o t i v a t i o n s and s o c i a l i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s of c o l l a b o r a t i o n . There fore , physi- c a l l a b o r a t t h e work camps became a spr ingboard f o r b r i n g i n g v i l l a g e r s t o g e t h e r t o a n a l y z e t h e i r c o n d i t i o n s ( t h e problem), t h e s t r u c t u r a l r easons why t h e i r bad c o n d i t i o n s had proven s o r e c a l c i t r a n t t o a t t empted s o l u t i o n s (the r e a s o n ) , t h e b a s i s f o r t h i n k i n g a l t e r n a t i v e approaches might work ( s h a r e your l a b o r and your thoughts a s you have a t t h e work camp and t h i n g s w i l l s t a r t g e t t i n g done!) , and t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f des ign ing a c o n c r e t e p l a n of a c t i o n i n job c r e a t i o n , c rop improvement, u p l i f t of women, a c t i v a t i o n of y o u t h f u l l e a d e r s , e t c .

Constant e d u c a t i o n i n a m u l t i p l i c i t y of modes--all of them a l l y i n g c o n c r e t e a c t i o n t o i n t e l l e c t u a l and a r t i s t i c l e a r n i n g ~ r a p i d l y c r e a t e d a new " c r i t i c a l mass" of human b e i n g s competent and c o n f i d e n t t o t a c k l e d i f f i c u l t t a s k s .

Some P o l i c y Lessons.

1 ) The most obvious l e s s o n o f f e r e d by Sarvodaya, a na t ionwide , non- governmental movement f o r f u l l human development is t h a t p e o p l e ~ e v e n poor , u n t u t o r e d , powerless r u r a l people--are a c o u n t r y ' s g r e a t e s t r esource . People remain a l a t e n t r e s o u r c e , however, u n t i l they a r e s t i r r e d i n t o a c t i o n by a pedagogy which g i v e s people p r i d e i n t h e i r own v a l u e s , shows them how t h e s e v a l u e s can arm them w i t h t o o l s f o r a c t i n g e f f e c t i v e l y i n t h e i r c o n c r e t e

sur roundings , and welds them i n t o s t r o n g community networks o f mutual s u p p o r t i n t h e f a c e of o b s t a c l e s and f a i l u r e s . One of Sarvodaya 's g r e a t e s t achievements i s t o have r e s t o r e d t o l o c a l communities of Bikkhus (Buddhist monks) t h e i r a n c i e n t r o l e a s c a t a l y s t s of community-centered economic and s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s . I n e a r l y c e n t u r i e s p r i o r t o c o l o n i a l r u l e , Bikkhus were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r keeping wate r " tanks" o r v i l l a g e r e s e r v o i r s i n a s t a t e of good r e p a i r , s o t h a t r i c e paddy f i e l d s could always r e c e i v e u n i n t e r r u p t e d i r r i g a t i o n . I t was a l s o t h e i r du ty t o c o l l e c t a p o r t i o n of t h e g r a i n h a r v e s t f o r s t o r a g e i n v i l l a g e s i l o s , t o be r e d i s t r i b u t e d i n between seasons o r i n time of emergency on t h e b a s i s of need. Foreign occupa t ion l e d to a s t r i p p i n g of t h e Bikkhus' economic r o l e s and t h e i r t r a n s f e r t o s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o r t o p r i v a t e , commercially-minded ( n o t t o s a y e x p l o i t a t i v e ) e n t e r p r i s e s . Thanks i n l a r g e p a r t t o Sarvodaya, monks a r e now once a g a i n a c t i v e a g e n t s of community m o b i l i z a t i o n .

Sarvodaya, however, i s n o t founded on s e c t a r i a n a p p e a l s t o Buddhists a lone . Although i ts pedagogy i s organ ized around t h e f o u r g r e a t Buddhist vir tues--Metta ( l o v i n g k i n d n e s s ) , Karuna (compassion), Mudita ( a l t r u i s t i c j o y ) , and Upekka (Equan- imity)--Sarvodaya a l s o works i n Tamil v i l l a g e s and i n l o c a l i t i e s having C h r i s t i a n o r Muslim popula t ions . I t h a s r e c e n t l y extended i t s appea l t o s e c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l s i n c i t i e s . The common emphasis i s on upgrading human p o t e n t i a l by having peop le s h a r e t h e i r e n e r g i e s to accomplish c o n c r e t e t a s k s . Sarvodaya workers a r e t r u e b e l i e v e r s i n t h e i r own s logan : "We Build t h e Road and t h e Road Bui lds U s . "

2 ) S ince i ts c r e a t i o n twenty-two y e a r s ago Sarvodaya has l e a r n e d much i n d e a l i n g w i t h c o n f l i c t . Given i t s commitment t o t h e v a l u e s of non-violence and r e s p e c t f o r l i f e , i t adopts non-violent forms of c o n f l i c t management. An example drawn from one v i l l a g e s i t u a t i o n i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i r approach. The i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e poor v i l l a g e community i n q u e s t i o n wished t o b u i l d a d i r t road over which t o t r a n s p o r t t h e i r produce t o nearby markets . The v i l l a g e r s were blocked from doing s o , however, by a r i c h landowner whose p r o p e r t y would be c rossed by t h e p r o j e c t e d road. A l l e f f o r t s t o g e t h i s pe rmiss ion t o l e t t h e road c r o s s h i s l and proved f u t i l e . F i n a l l y , d u r i n g one of h i s p e r i o d i c v a c a t i o n s o u t s i d e t h e v i l l a g e , t h e Sarvodaya community s imply b u i l t t h e road and awai ted h i s r e t u r n , whereupon t h e y i n v i t e d him t o p r e s i d e over t h e f e s t i v - i t i e s o f i n a u g u r a t i o n . Although t h i s non-violent a c t i o n proved e f f i c a c i o u s , i n o t h e r c i rcumstances Sarvodaya communities s imply keep p r e s s u r i n g e x p l o i t e r s u n t i l t h e i r demands a r e met.

The Movement's c r i t i c s charge them w i t h d e f u s i n g p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n by 'co-opt ing" p o t e n t i a l r e v o l u t i o n a r y you ths away from more r a d i c a l s t r u c t u r a l s o l u t i o n s . A r i y a r a t n e ' s r e p l y t o t h e s e charges is t o i n s i s t t h a t t h e on ly t r u l y r a d i c a l s o l u t i o n s a r e t h o s e which t h e peop le themselves can under take and t h o s e which produce e f f e c t s they can t o l e r a t e . Unfor tuna te ly g u e r r i l l a a t t a c k s o f t e n s e r v e no o t h e r purpose t h a n t o b r i n g c r u e l r e p r i s a l s down upon h e l p l e s s peasan t s . Meanwhile t h e g u e r r i l l a s have f l e d t o s a n c t u a r y t o a w a i t f u r t h e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o s t r i k e . Moreover, d o c t r i n a i r e i d e o l o g i c a l programs simply a l i e n a t e t h e masses, who s t i l l c l i n g t o a n c i e n t v a l u e s a s t h e i r v i t a l s o u r c e of i d e n t i t y and meaning,

Th is a u t h o r once l i k e n e d Sarvodaya 's a t t i t u d e s toward t h e o p p r e s s i v e s t r u c t u r e s of s o c i e t y t o t h e a c t i o n of t e r m i t e s i n a n o l d wooden mansion. L e t us imagine a s p a c i o u s , e l e g a n t , and l u x u r i o u s house i n h a b i t e d by s e l f i s h p leasure - seekers who a r e f o r e v e r banque t ing and r e v e l l i n g , a l l t h e w h i l e d i s - d a i n i n g t h e hungry crowds of beggars l i n g e r i n g a t t h e i r p o r t a l s f o r morse l s from t h e t a b l e . I n t h e i r complacent euphor ia , t h e r e v e l l e r s t h i n k t h a t t h e

people pose no t h r e a t t o t h e i r p r i v i l e g e s : "no enemies can t a k e t h e i r f o r t r e s s away." Meanwhile, however, t h e poor o u t s i d e t h e w a l l s have in t roduced m i l l i o n s of t e r m i t e s who begin e a t i n g away a t t h e beams of t h e house, i t s s u p p o r t i n g r a f t e r s , and s t r u c t u r e . No change i s v i s i b l e a t f i r s t b u t a t t h e r i g h t moment, once t h e " c r i t i c a l mass" o f t e r m i t e s has been reached , t h e e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e suddenly c o l l a p s e s . I n t h e p u b l i c seminar a t which t h i s au thor proposed t h e analogy, A r i y a r a t n e agreed t h a t something l i k e t h i s cou ld perhaps be t a k i n g p l a c e i n Sarvodaya. Large numbers of l i t t l e people a r e improving t h e i r lo t - - economical ly and cu l tu ra l ly - -and g r a d u a l l y empowering themselves t o p rov ide S r i Lanka w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e development s t r u c t u r e s once t h e p r e s e n t ones a r e revea led t o have no s o l i d s u r v i v a l v a l u e o r t o be too d e s t r u c t i v e of c h e r i s h e d s o c i a l v a l u e s . Consequently, Sarvodaya does view i t s program, n o t a s mere problem- s o l v i n g , b u t a s a v e r i t a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e development s t r a t e g y .

(C) Ind ian Women and t h e Three-Fold L i b e r a t i o n . 3

The g e n e r a l p o s i t i o n of women i n I n d i a i s a t t h e lower rungs of n a t i o n a l l i f e i n t h r e e impor tan t a renas : economic r o l e s , s o c i a l freedom, and a c c e s s t o p o l i t i c a l power. A s m a l l number of g i f t e d women, i t i s t r u e , u s u a l l y members of h igher c a s t e s , have r i s e n t o eminent p o s i t i o n s of power and i n f l u e n c e . But t h e l o t of most women is a t e r r i b l y depressed one, bo th i n a b s o l u t e and i n r e l a t i v e terms. 9 Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e r e f o r e , numerous i n i t i a t i v e s launched by Ind ian women t o l i f t themselves up have found i n Gandhi 's w r i t i n g s s t r o n g i n t e l l e c t u a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e i r s t r u g g l e . The Mahatma wro te t h a t :

To c a l l woman t h e weaker s e x i s a l i b e l : i t i s m a n s i n j u s t i c e t o woman. I f by s t r e n g t h i s meant b r u t e s t r e n g t h , then indeed i s woman l e s s b r u t e t h a n man. I f by s t r e n g t h i s meant moral power, then woman is inmeasurably man's s u p e r i o r . Has s h e n o t g r e a t e r i n t u i t i o n , is s h e n o t more s e l f s a c r i f i c i n g , has s h e n o t g r e a t e r courage? Without h e r man could n o t be. I f non-violence i s t h e law of our be ing , t h e f u t u r e is wi th woman.1Â

I n t h i s c o n t e x t , marked by a moral g l o r i f i c a t i o n of woman c o - e x i s t i n g a l o n g s i d e s o c i a l oppress ion , one womens o r g a n i z a t i o n s t a n d s o u t and s u g g e s t s v a l u a b l e l e s s o n s a s t o t h e l i n k a g e of economic improvement t o s o c i a l freedom and p o l i t i c a l empowerment. T h i s i s SEWA, t h e Self-Employed Women's A s s o c i a t i o n of Ahmedabad, i n t h e s t a t e of Guja ra t (Gandhi 's n a t i v e s t a t e ) . Founded i n 1972 a s a n o f f s h o o t of t h e T e x t i l e Labour A s s o c i a t i o n of Ahmedabad, t h e o rgan i - z a t i o n has two o b j e c t i v e s : t o p rov ide economic r e g e n e r a t i o n and s o c i a l u p l i f t t o women who a r e self-employed a s s t r e e t vendors , a r t i s a n s , junksmiths, garment makers, and t h e l i k e . What were t h e i r problems? They lacked c a p i t a l t o buy c a r t s from which t o s e l l v e g e t a b l e s o r t o purchase food a t t h e beg inn ing of t h e day. As a r e s u l t , they would borrow 10 Rupees from w h o l e s a l e r s i n t h e morning and have t o repay them 11 Rupees come evening. Moreover, they were c o n s t a n t l y ha rassed by policemen ( themselves badly pa id ) and would have t o b r i b e them 5 t o 10 Rupees d a i l y t o be l e f t a l o n e on s t r e e t c o r n e r s t o s e l l t h e i r wares. Worse s t i l l , they enjoyed no s o c i a l s t a t u s and were h a b i t u a l l y t r e a t e d w i t h d i s d a i n by a cas te -consc ious p u b l i c and p r e s s .

Now, however, t h e s e women have founded t h e i r own bank which a l r e a d y h a s 1,000 s h a r e h o l d e r s and 10,000 d e p o s i t o r s . Thanks t o t h i s bank, self-employed women can now circumvent u s u r i o u s i n t e r e s t r a t e s and g a i n a c c e s s t o c a p i t a l goods--car ts , me ta l v e s s e l s , and t o o l s . They have i n t h e p rocess a l s o gained a n enormous measure of se l f -conf idence needed t o d e a l w i t h p u b l i c a u t h o r i t i e s ,

the reby f r e e i n g themselves from p r e s s u r e s t o manipu la te them and t o speak d i s - p a r a g i n g l y of them i n newspapers. They have promoted e d u c a t i o n a l s e r v i c e s a s w e l l , h e a l t h c a r e , m a t e r n i t y and widowhood b e n e f i t s , and a hous ing s a v i n g s scheme. More i m p o r t a n t l y , i n terms of longer-range s o c i a l change, SEWA women have l e a r n e d t n a t numerous p u b l i c s e r v i c e s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o them ( e v e r y t h i n g from s o c i a l w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s t o fami ly p lann ing counse l ing t o o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r f u r t h e r c r e d i t ) provided they e x e r t t h e power t o draw on them. Throughout t h e i r e f f o r t s they have never l o s t s i g h t of t h e i r main broad o b j e c t i v e : t o g a i n l e v e r s f o r t h e u p l i f t of weaker s e c t o r s i n s o c i e t y .

SEWA was formed on t h e premise t h a t s o c i a l su rveys and s o c i a l work ought t o p recede o r g a n i z a t i o n around s p e c i f i c t a s k s . Research was needed t o i d e n t i f y c o r r e c t l y how t h e poor l i v e d , how they worked, and what they needed. S o c i a l work, i n t u r n , was necessa ry s o a s t o e s t a b l i s h p r a c t i c a l e n t r y p o i n t s i n t o homes, whence networks of community s o l i d a r i t y and a b a s e f o r f u r t h e r r e c r u i t - ment might t a k e r o o t . Given i t s e a r l i e r a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h t h e Gandhian- i n s p i r e d T e x t i l e Labour A s s o c i a t i o n , SEWA f i r m l y embraced t h e s o c i a l ph i losophy of non-v io len t a c t i o n . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e reason why v u l n e r a b l e women shou ld o r g a n i z e was n o t t o s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t o t h e r s ( s i n c e they were s e l f - employed, t h e r e was no i d e n t i f i a b l e employer a s a t a r g e t of compla in t s ! ) s o much a s t o s t r e n g t h e n themselves. It comes a s no s u r p r i s e , however, t h a t t h e bui ld-up of t h e i r own c a p a c i t i e s v i s -a -v i s t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y l e d t o t h e a r o u s a l of new a s p i r a t i o n s i n SEWA members r e g a r d i n g t h e i r home and neighbor- hood l i f e . Lower-caste women began t o a s p i r e t o g r e a t e r p e r s o n a l e q u a l i t y w i t h t h e m a l e s ~ f a t h e r s , husbands, o l d e r b r o t h e r s , uncles--who c o n s t i t u t e . t h e " s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s " i n t h e i r f ami ly su r roundings . They e x p r e s s resen tment , f o r i n s t a n c e , a t t h e s o c i a l s t igma s t i l l a t t a c h e d t o them i f they r e t u r n home l a t e a t n i g h t from a meet ing. T h e i r d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n is founded on t h e per- d u r i n g double s t a n d a r d which makes no s i m i l a r condemnation of male members of t h e fami ly who behave l i k e w i s e .

Another complaint i s a f r a n k l y economic one. Although many SEWA members r e t a i n c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r e a r n i n g s , t h e g e n e r a l l y low c a s t e p o s i t i o n t h e i r husbands occupy i n t h e s o c i e t y a t l a r g e sometimes l e a d s them t o become p a r a s i t - i c a l and r e l y on t h e i r women t o be t h e main income e a r n e r s i n t h e fami ly . Inasmuch a s household c h o r e s ~ c a r e of c h i l d r e n , p r e p a r a t i o n of meals , washing and c l e a n i n g ~ a r e s t i l l t h e e x c l u s i v e du ty of women, a double burden is imposed on t h e s e working women. One SEWA s u p p o r t e r , a s o p h i s t i c a t e d urban r e s e a r c h e r , pu t i t t h i s way: "The woman's s t a t u s changes from t h a t of be ing a n o c c a s i o n a l supplementary wage-earner t o t h a t of a r e g u l a r l y paid b e a s t of burden." Although t h e poor working woman has genera ted more income f o r h e r s e l f s h e h a s a c t u a l l y l o s t some of h e r s o c i a l freedom, i f on ly i n t h e form of l e s s t ime t o engage i n s o c i a l i z i n g w i t h o t h e r women. Furthermore, a l t h o u g h SEWA a s a p u b l i c e n t i t y now en joys t h e r e s p e c t of s o c i e t y a t l a r g e i n Ahmedabad--good p r e s s from t h e newspaper and c o n s i d e r a t e t r e a t m e n t from t h e munic ipa l g o v e r n m e n t ~ i n d i v i - d u a l women have n o t ga ined a c c e s s t o t h e p o l i t i c a l p rocess . T h i s blockage is u s u a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e s of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s t i l l p e r v a s i v e i n Ind ian s o c i e t y a t l a r g e . The r e l e v a n t p o i n t i s t h a t s u c c e s s f u l p r o j e c t s l e a d i n g t o income g e n e r a t i o n , even when they a r e run and &women, do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y l e a d t o t h e f u l l emanc ipa t ion t h a t i s d e s i r e d from s o c i a l develop- ment: economic improvement, s o c i a l freedom, and p o l i t i c a l a c c e s s . Much depends on t h e o v e r a l l i n c e n t i v e systems a t work i n t h e s o c i e t y .

A l l t h r e e domains a r e v i t a l f o r f u l l emancipat ion. Vina Mazumdar, D i r e c t o r of t h e Women's S t u d i e s Program a t t h e I n d i a n Counci l of S o c i a l

Research, e x p l a i n s t h a t :

I f women a r e t o overthrow t h e weight of t h e s e r e s t r i c t i o n s and p a r t i c i p a t e a s e q u a l s i n t h e s o c i a l p rocess , then they must e n t e r a l l t h e s e c t o r s h i t h e r t o c losed t o them and compete w i t h men f o r a s h a r e . The champions of women's r i g h t s have, over t h e l a s t one hundred y e a r s , g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d t h i s demand beginning w i t h e d u c a t i o n , e n t r y t o p r o f e s s i o n s , p roper ty , equa l r i g h t s i n mar r iage , d i v o r c e and guard iansh ip , t o t h e r i g h t of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n and of a c c e s s t o t h e dominant power and p roduc t ion s t r u c t u r e s . 1 1

Some Lessons.

S e l f - r e l i a n c e cannot be e r e c t e d i n t o a dogma o r t r e a t e d a s an end f o r i t s own sake. SEWA has won many b e n e f i t s by empowering i t s members t o l a y c la ims on, and t o u t i l i z e , e x i s t i n g government s e r v i c e s , whether provided by banks, u n i v e r s i t i e s , r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e s , o r t e c h n i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Whereas i n d i v i d u a l i l l i t e r a t e women, too poor t o d r e s s a s " respec tab le" midd le -c lass i n d i v i d u a l s and unaccustomed t o " p r o f e s s i o n a l " c o n t a c t s , were unab le t o g a i n a c c e s s t o t h e s e s e r v i c e s , an a s s o c i a t i o n of such women could n e g o t i a t e a c c e s s t o them. To i l l u s t r a t e , a l t h o u g h 98% of SEWA women were i l l i t e r a t e , they re fused t o a t t e n d l i t e r a c y c l a s s e s , deeming them a waste of time. A f t e r a l l they were a d u l t s , having p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e of market o p e r a t i o n s and p l e n t y of shrewdness. Consequently, t h e Adult Educat ion Cent re of G u j a r a t U n i v e r s i t y , a l though h e s i t a n t a t f i r s t , agreed t o r u n a ten-day course on t h e " S t r u c t u r e and Behavior of t h e Modern Market Economy" u s i n g card-board models t o s u i t t h e i r i l l i t e r a t e s t u d e n t s . Vina Mazumdar d e s c r i b e s p rogress :

The f i r s t ba tch of r e l u c t a n t s t u d e n t s , coaxed t o a t t e n d by SEWA's s t a f f , tu rned i n t o e n t h u s i a s t i c and keen p a r t i c i p a n t s -- of a n experiment t h a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y now admi t s t o have been memorable f o r themselves a l s o . I l l i t e r a c y became somewhat more p a l a t a b l e t o t h e women a f t e r t h i s exper ience . 12

The r e l e v a n t p o i n t i s t h a t s e l f - r e l i a n c e needs t o be b u i l t up g r a d u a l l y and i n o r g a n i c f a s h i o n . Usual ly t h i s i m p l i e s t h a t o u t s i d e s u p p o r t groups must b e c h e e r f u l l y welcomed a t f i r s t . SEWA could n o t have won i t s e a r l y b a t t l e s a g a i n s t e s t a b l i s h e d banks w i t h o u t t h e backing of t h e T e x t i l e Labour Associa- t i o n . L a t e r , however, i t chose t o have more autonomy v i s -a -v i s t h e TLA, n o t because of any disagreement o v e r p r i o r i t i e s , b u t i n v i r t u e of a mutua l ly recognized need f o r SEWA t o grow i n independence.

The most compell ing l e s s o n t o be gained from SEWA's accomplishments is t h e hopefu l one t h a t even poor marg ina l s e c t o r s i n s t r a t i f i e d s o c i e t i e s can be rendered c o m p e t i t i v e i n h a r s h s o c i a l c o n t e x t s . People must o r g a n i z e n o t o n l y to e a r n income, b u t a l s o t o g a i n decision-making s k i l l s which enhance t h e i r c a p a c i t y t o cope w i t h l a r g e r s o c i a l systems. For example, SEWA once o r g a n i z e d a p r o t e s t meet ing of 5,000 peop le i n f r o n t o f t h e munic ipa l government house t o win permiss ion t o occupy t h e s idewalk t o s e l l t h e i r wares. They d i d n o t s imply n e g o t i a t e p r i v a t e l y accord ing t o "gent lemen's ru les . " N e v e r t h e l e s s , they d i s c i p l i n e d themselves t o observe non-violence and t o a c c e p t neces- s a r y compromises ( t h a t i s , occupying one-half of t h e s idewalk i n s t e a d o f i ts e n t i r e t y ) . s

F i n a l l y , SEWA'S f r u g a l i t y , low e x p e n d i t u r e s , and minimum i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s

r e n d e r i t f l e x i b l e i n i t s d i a l i n g s w i t h t h e o a t s i d e c o r l d . Thus ?%A t u r n s weak-

n e s s e s - - < ~ t h i s c a s e , 1 i - ~ i i t e d a s s e t s - - i n t o s t r e n g t h s . T h i s v e r y s p i r i t o f f r u g a l i t y h a s a l s o a l l o w e d i t t o p r a c t i c e a h i g h l y e g a l L t a r i c i n ~ i s t r i b u t i o n 2 f

b e n e f i t s , t h e r e b y f a c i l i t a t i n g r e c r u i t a e n t ~ ) f new members.

(9) Gain ing T e c h n o l o g i c a l Freedom: B o l i v i a n peasants . ' - '

I n t h e A l t o V a l l e (Upper V a l l e y ) r e g i o n o f c e n t r a l B o l i v i a , s e v e r a l Quechua p e a s a n t communi t i e s a r e e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h new nodes c f economic a c t i v i t y . Sma l l v i l l a g e s c l u s t e r e d a round T i a l a c o and H u a y c a l i h a v e adop ted fo rms of p r o d u c e r c o o p e r a t i v e s which d e p a r t i n s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c i s frc-r. conven- t i o n a l models . T h e i r a p p r o a c h t o t e chno logy c h o i c e s i l l u s t r a t e s s e v e r a l i n p o r t a n t v a l u e s germar-e t o i h e p o l i c y i m p l i c a t i o n s of . *pp rop r id t e t e c h n o l o g y .

The economy of t h i s d r y p l a t e a i i , 1-ocated i n t h e p r o v i n c e of Coihabamba and s i t e o f much a r n e d v i o l e n c e i n t h e B o l i v i a n l a n d r e f c r m of 1 9 5 2 , is 9ased l a r g e l y on s u b s i s t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r e a round a p r o t e i n - r i d i na t - i ve c r o p known a s g u i n o ~ . .4 few y e a r s dgo , an i : ~ J i g e n o u s mo,~,enent , s t i l l .:f n o d e s t p r o p o r t i o n s , a r o s e w i t h t h e g o a l c f d i v e r s i f y i n g s o u r c e s of economic income i n ,I r u n n e r wh ich w x l d h e l p r e v i t a l i z e i + u e ~ h u a c u l t u r e ayid s e l f - i J e r i t i t y . I n t h e words o f one o f t h e movement 's l e a d e r s :

C u l t u r a l development o f r,i:ie p e o p l e h a s t..?o e l e m e n t s : t h e dynamiza- t i o n o f t h e tiurcim p o t e n t i a l i t i e s a i d che c u l t u r a l v a l u e s o f t h e community, a n d c h e a s s i m i l a t i o n of t e c h n o l o g y and s c i e n c e a t t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e c u l t u r a l deve lopmen t of t h e peop le , ,

Tne two v i l l a g e s just ment i o n 4 have l aunched two c o o p e r a t j v e s : one Lo p roduce c e r a m i c s f o r s a l e , t h e o t h e r t o make r u g s , ponchos , and o t h e r m a r k e t a b l e woolen a r t i f a c t s . One b r o a d o b j e c t i v e is t o improve t h e economic c o n d i t i o n ~f t h e e n t i r e community, n o t m e r e l y t h a t of members of t h e c o o p e r a t i v e . T h i s corrmi taent t o communal improvement h e l p s e x p l a i n , c e r t a i n , d e c i s i o n s r e a c h e d a f t e r a r d u o u s d e b a t e .

The f i r s t d e c i s i o n is t h a t new t e c h n o l o g y w i l l be j udged " a p p r o p r i a t e " o n l y t o t h e d e g r e e t h a t t h e community a t l a r g e is a b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d 2nd c o n t r o l i t . S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e c e r a m i c s c o o p e r a t i v e d e c i d e d i n December 1974 t o i n t r o d u c e s m a l l e l e c t r i c a l l y powered k i l n s i n t o t h e v i l l a g e . The r e a s o n i n g beh ind t h i s d e c i s i o n is a s f o l l o w s : T r a d i t i o n a l ovens u s e tw igs and wood g a t h e r e d l o c a l l y f o r f u e l , b u t s u c h s o u r c e s a r e now becoming s c a r c e , a s i n much o f t h e wor ld a t l a r g e . Moreover , t h i s f u e l p roduced uneven t e m p e r a t u r e s on t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e of t h e k i l n , a f a i l i n g i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h c e r a m i c s u r f a c e s of u n i f o r m h i g h q u a l i t y . An o u t s i d e a d v i s e r t o t h e c o o p e r a t i v e had , t h r o u g h s i m p l e e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , d i s c o v e r e d a s i m p l e and w o r k a b l e e l e c t r i c oven. Never- t h e l e s s , t h i s s p e c i f i c t e c h n o l o g y was r e j e c t e d b e c a u s e i t n e c e s s i t a t e d b r i n g i n g t o t h e v i l l a g e a p o r t a b l e e l e c t r i c g e n e r a t o r wh ich o n l y t h e c o o p e r a t i v e c o u l d a f f o r d a n d wh ich o n l y a v e r y few p e o p l e c o u l d f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d , m a i n t a i n , and r e p a i r . The p r i n c i p l e i nvoked t o j u s t i f y t h e communi ty ' s d e c i s i o n was t h a t o n l y t h o s e t e c h n o l o g i e s a r e " a p p r o p r i a t e " wh ich a r e i n harmony w i t h a n c i e n t Quechua r u r a l v a l u e s o f m u t u a l h e l p and s h a r i n g t h e b e n e f i t s i n a l l improve- ments . A f t e r l e n g t h y d e l i b e r a t i o n s , i t was d e c i d e d t o a d o p t a k e r o s e n e - f u e l e d oven and t o e x p e r i m e n t w i t h ways o f improv ing t h e r e f r a c t o r y ( o r h e a t - i n s u l a t - i n g ) p r o p e r t i e s o f l o c a l c l a y . The c h o i c e was made b e c a u s e a l l v i l l a g e r s a l r e a d y p o s s e s s e d p r i o r e x p e r i e n c e w i t h k e r o s e n e , and e v e n t h e p o o r e s t among them c o u l d a f f o r d t h e k e r o s e n e oven.

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~.'OLILH Leas . , :hi-r t-x~i:!,; Lcs ~ o u l d b e adduced , e a c h one p r e g n a n t w i t h p o l i c y a L r t i i u se i n s e a r c h 01 " t i no the r development ." One m i g h t , f o r i n s t a n c e , L e e ? h e t r a n s fo rma t i o n cf t h e " T e a t r o C o n s c i e n t i z a d o r " of t h e Colombian A t l a n t i c l i t t c ; r . ; l i n t o a, ITTect t ro Anonino 1 d e n t i f i c a d o r . " ~ 5 The change was d i c t a t e d b e c a u s e t h e t h e a t e r g r o u p ' s f o u n d e r , Manuel Zapa t a O l i v e l l a , came t o unde r s t a t i d a f t e r much t r i a l and e r r o r , t h a t i t i s a m i s t a k e f o r any change a g e n t t o " c o n s c i e n t i c i z e " o r " a r o u s e t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s " of a n o p p r e s s e d g r o u p . The t r u e t a s k c o n s i s t s i n a l l o w i n g t h a t g roup t o e x p r e s s i t s s u p p r e s s e d i d e n t i t y ~ a n d t h i s i n a mode t h a t c a l l s a t t e n t i o n n o t t o some t a l e n t e d i n d i v i - d u a l , bu t t o t h e community a s a w h o l e i n i t s anonymous c o l l e c t i v e i d e n t i t y .

C l e a r l y t h e danger always e x i s t s t h a t even w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d change a g e n t s w i l l n o t r e s p e c t t h e s p e c i f i c i t y of t h e populace they seek t o change: i ts s p e c i f i c v a l u e s , a s p i r a t i o n s , and ways of d e f i n i n g i t s own needs . Th is theme r e p e a t e d l y s u r f a c e s i n d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h Th i rd World c r i t i c s of mainstream development models. One I n d i a n r e v o l u t i o n a r y a c t i v i s t r e c e n t l y d e c l a r e d t o t h i s a u t h o r t h a t "development makes l i f e worse f o r 80% of our peop le , and confirms t h e o t h e r 20% i n t h e i r s e l f i s h n e s s . " He complained t h a t " too many r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s assume t h a t they know b e t t e r than t h e people themselves what i s good f o r them." Hence a l t e r n a t i v e development s t r a t e g i e s which c e n t e r on t h e l i b e r a t i o n of t h e people must p l a c e d e c i s i o n s i n t h e i r hands, even t h o s e i n i t i a l d e c i s i o n s which d iagnose t h e n a t u r e and causes of t h e i r problem.

I n t h e c o u r s e of examining c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e a t t e m p t s by t h e poor t o f r e e themselves of misery and t h e bonds t h a t c h a i n them t o p a s s i v i t y , 1 6 one u n f a i l - i n g l y meets c o n s t r a i n t systems which a f f e c t t h e degree of l e v e r a g e any community can f i n d a s i t s t r u g g l e s t o l i b e r a t e i t s e l f . A few of t h e s e c o n s t r a i n t s a r e now mentioned because , f o r t h e most p a r t , they cannot be removed, a t t e n u a t e d , o r c ircumvented, except by t h e c r e a t i v e s t r a t e g i z i n g of oppressed communities themselves. No e x a c t p o l i c y recommendations a r e p o s s i b l e h e r e , b u t on ly unan- swered q u e s t i o n s .

It m a t t e r s v i t a l l y f o r any oppressed group t o know how t o l e r a n t t h e macro s o c i a l c o n t r o l system w i t h i n which i t l i v e s can b e of sys tem r e v e r s a l s ~ o r l i b e r a t i o n s t r u g g l e s ~ a t l e v e l s lower than t h e macro, t h a t i s n a t i o n a l o r i n t e r - n a t i o n a l s o c i e t y . To i l l u s t r a t e , even a n a u t h o r i t a r i a n government l i k e t h a t found i n B r a z i l can t o l e r a t e a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e of p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n l o c a l problem-solving. The reason i s simply t h a t B r a z i l i s a v a s t coun t ry , h i g h l y d i v e r s i f i e d i n i ts r e g i o n a l p r i o r i t i e s and l i t t l e t h r e a t e n e d a t i t s power c e n t e r by t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n a l problem-solving of n o n - e l i t e s a t t h e community l e v e l . What n a t i o n a l l e a d e r s w i l l n o t pe rmi t , on t h e o t h e r hand, is t h a t t h e phi losophy of p a r t i c i p a t i o n become g e n e r a l i z e d o r l e g i t i m i z e d . Conversely, o t h e r regimes (such a s t h a t of Ferdinand0 Marcos i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ) e x h i b i t l i t t l e t o l e r a n c e f o r " a l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s " even when t h e s e a r e p r a c t i c e d s o l e l y a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l i n remote i s l a n d s of t h e n a t i o n a l a r c h i p e l a g o . The Marcos government f e a r s t h a t any t o l e r a n c e a t t h e micro l e v e l w i l l s t r e n g t h e n t h e f o r c e s of s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n and u l t i m a t e l y e r o d e h i s n a t i o n a l power. He may w e l l b e c o r r e c t i n this assessment . The r e l e v a n t p o i n t h e r e is t h a t l e v e r - age space f o r l i b e r a t i o n is l a r g e l y a f u n c t i o n of how many i n t e r s t i c e s of dev iance e x i s t w i t h i n any n a t i o n a l s o c i e t y . T h i s i s why one must a lways, when speak ing of "ano ther development," i n d i c a t e a t what l e v e l of s o c i e t y l e v e r a g e t o under take t h e a l t e r n a t i v e can b e found.

I m p l i c i t i n t h e remarks j u s t made i s t h e impor tan t d i s t i n c t i o n between d i c t a t o r i a l and t o t a l i t a r i a n governments. At l e a s t on p r i n c i p l e , d i c t a t o r s h i p s can r e s t c o n t e n t t o c o n t r o l t h e major power c e n t e r s of s o c i e t y and p e r c e i v e l i t t l e t h r e a t i n t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n of needs -or ien ted , income-generating innova- t i o n s a t t h e g r a s s - r o o t s . T o t a l i t a r i a n regimes, i n c o n t r a s t , seek t o p r e s c r i b e n o t o n l y what w i l l b e done by everyone, b u t how i t w i l l be done. Change ~ t r a t e ~ i s r t h e r e f o r e , need t o recognize , i n o r n a t i v e t e rms , c h a t c e r t a i n v a l u e s i n h e r e n t i n " a l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s " w i l l be pe rce ived by some oppressors a s a t h r e a t , and by o t h e r s a s something t o l e r a b l e . The e x t e n t of t h e l e v e r a g e which oppressed groups need t o conduct "humane" s o c i a l experiments i s d e c i s i v e l y a f f e c t e d by t h i s pe rcep t ion . Hence, t h e peasan t c o o p e r a t i v e s i n B o l i v i a succeeded l o c a l l y because t h e government, a l t h o u g h d i c t a t o r i a l , could a f f o r d t o t o l e r a t e smal l - sca le dev iance from i t s own dominant development

paradigm.

Another v i t a l c o n s t r a i n t f a c i n g any group is t h e degree of economic a u t a r c h y o r i n t e g r a t i o n i t h a s w i t h o u t s i d e u n i t s . A s m a l l l o c a l i t y o r r e g i o n ( o r even a l a r g e r one, p rov ided i t l i v e s mainly from s u b s i s t e n c e a r g i c u l t u r e ) o r d i n a r i l y f i n d s i t much e a s i e r t o d e v i s e a l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s c e n t e r i n g on t h e p r i o r i t y of b a s i c needs, t h e f o s t e r i n g of more s e l f - r e l i a n c e , and t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f s o l u t i o n s on t h e b a s i s of p r i o r v a l u e s ~ t h a n u n i t s whose s u r v i v a l depends on s i g n i f i c a n t exchange w i t h t h e o u t s i d e world. The key once a g a i n , a s i n Guinea-Bissau's c a s e , i s a r e a l i s t i c a n a l y s i s of s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n s .

L i b e r a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s of a l l t y p e s ~ a r m e d g u e r r i l l a war fa re , s e l f - h e l p s o c i a l i n n o v a t i o n s , and g r a s s - r o o t s o r g a n i z i n g ~ s e e m t o r e q u i r e e x t e r n a l suppor t . Suppor t , i n t h e form of m a t e r i a l and moral a i d , must come from t h e o u t s i d e i f f r a g i l e under tak ings a r e n o t t o be s n u f f e d o u t . I f t h i s need i s a s p e r v a s i v e a s i t a p p e a r s t o b e , then t h e d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n of t h e "ground r u l e s " by which o u t s i d e r e s o u r c e t r a n s f e r o r s o p e r a t e assumes g r e a t importance. Where r e l a t i v e s u c c e s s has been ga ined , o u t s i d e h e l p e r s have r e s p e c t e d t h e goal- s e t t i n g and t h e p rocedures favored by t h o s e o b t a i n i n g he lp . I t is e s s e n t i a l , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h o s e who s e e k o u t s i d e r e s o u r c e s t r i m t h e i r s a i l s t o s u i t t h e c r i t e r i a of p o t e n t i a l h e l p e r s . The p a r a d o x i c a l t r u t h seems t o be t h a t one r e c e i v e s s u p p o r t under f a v o r a b l e terms p r e c i s e l y t o t h e degree t h a t one i s pre- pared t o do wi thou t t h a t s u p p o r t i n o r d e r t o be t r u e t o one ' s deeper and more pr imary o b j e c t i v e s .

Within i n t e r n a t i o n a l c i r c l e s , a s i n most F i r s t World development i n s t i t u - t i o n s , t h e assumption wide ly p r e v a i l s t h a t oppressed popula t ions a r e e a g e r t o a l t e r t h e i r l o t . But B a r r i n g t o n Moore's r e c e n t s t u d y o n t h e causes of s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e and on t h e enormous f a c i l i t y w i t h which most oppressed groups a c c e p t i n j u s t i c e , reminds u s how deep ly s o c i a l o p p r e s s i o n b rands p a s s i v i t y i n t o t h e s o u l of a n ens laved people.^ Even a s they complain and s u f f e r , t h e poor f e a r t o behave d i f f e r e n t l y . And a l though i t is t r u e t h a t most communities h a r b o r l a t e n t l e a d e r s , t h e s e must o f t e n be " sec re ted" by c e r t a i n r i s k - t a k i n g a c t i v i t i e s i n i t i a t e d by o t h e r s .

Consequently any pedagogy aiming a t p r e p a r i n g t h e oppressed t o t a k e e v e n t u a l a c t i o n on beha l f of t h e i r emancipat ion must of n e c e s s i t y be ve ry p a t i e n t . Over two c e n t u r i e s ago Montesquieu wro te t h a t :

It i s u s e l e s s t o a t t a c k p o l i t i c k s d i r e c t l y by showing how much i ts p r a c t i c e s a r e i n c o n f l i c t w i t h m o r a l i t y and reason. Th is s o r t of d i s c o u r s e conv inces everybody, b u t changes n o b o d y . ^

The same c a u t i o n a p p l i e s t o development s t r a t e g y : i t does n o t s u f f i c e t o denounce t h e f a i l u r e s of p r e v a i l i n g approaches. A l l t h o s e who s u f f e r from conven t iona l development s t r a t e g i e s have always known t h a t they ga ined l i t t l e from them. I n o r d e r t o change t h i n g s new s t r a t e g i e s must be dev i sed . But no uniform p r e s c r i p t i o n can come from any source . S p e c i f i c s o l u t i o n s can o n l y grow o u t of r i sk - laden probes made by communities themselves a s they s t r u g g l e t o f i n d t h e i r own way. T h i s , then , i s t h e g r e a t e s t s i n g l e l e s s o n l e a r n e d from every e f f o r t made by oppressed groups t o emancipate themselves from t h e t r i p l e bondage of mise ry , dependency, and p a s s i v i t y . "The kingdom of freedom is w i t h i n them!"

FOOTNOTES.

1On t h i s s e e Denis Goule t , "Development ... O r ~ i b e r a t i o n ? " i n INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT REVIEW, Vol. X I I I , No. 3 (1971/3) , pp. 6-10.

ZL. J . Lebre t , La Montge Humaine ( P a r i s : Les E d i t i o n s ~ u v r i e r e s , 1959) . 3011 t h i s s e e J .M. Domenach, Le Retour du Tragique ( P a r i s : Les E d i t i o n s du

S e u i l , 1967).

^ c i t e d i n Benjamin Higgins , Economic Development : Problems, P r i n c i p l e s , and P o l i c i e s (N.Y.: W.W. Norton, 1968), rev. e d . , p. 3.

S in such c i rcumstances development could on ly mean prov id ing e s s e n t i a l goods t o t h e p o p u l a t i o n a t l a r g e . There was never any t empta t ion t o conceive of i t a s aggrega te GNP growth o r r a p i d i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n .

6Numerous p u b l i c a t i o n s d e s c r i b e t h e phi losophy and performance of Sarvodaya. See, e+., Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement, S r i Lanka: Ethos and Work P lan , J u s t i f i c a t i o n 1977 (Moratuwa, S r i Lanka: Sarvodaya P r e s s , 1976) . For one e v a l u a t i o n of t h e Movement s e e Sarvodaya Research Cent re and t h e I n t e r - n a t i o n a l Development Research Cent re , Canada, Sarvodaya Study-Service i n S r i Lanka 1975-76 (Colombo, S r i Lanka, 1977).

^'from A.T. A r i y a r a t n e , A P e o p l e ' s Movement f o r Se l f -Re l iance i n S r i Lanka, (Moratuwa, S r i Lanka: Sarvodaya P r e s s , 1977), p. 1.

8 ~ o r background on t h i s c a s e s e e Devaki J a i n , From D i s s o c i a t i o n t o Rehabil- i t a t i o n , Report on a n Experiment t o Promote Self-Employment i n an Urban Area (Bombay: A l l i e d P u b l i s h e r s , 1975). Cf. E l a R. B h a t t , P r o f i l e s of Self-Emplo ed Women (Ahmedabad, I n d i a : S e l f - ~ m ~ l o ~ e d Women's Associa-

9011 t h i s s e e C r i t i c a l I s s u e s on t h e S t a t u s of Women (New Delhi : Ind ian Counci l of S o c i a l Sc ience Research, 1977).

l o c i t e d on back cover (wi thou t s o u r c e g iven) of P r o f i l e s , 3. &. l l ~ i n a Mazumdar, " T r a d i t i o n a l Women and T h e i r I n t e g r a t i o n i n Modern Develop-

ment: An I n q u i r y I n t o Two Models i n I n d i a , " unpublished paper (1978) t o appear i n a for thcoming book prepared under t h e a u s p i c e s of Overseas Development Counci l on Drawing S t r e n g t h from T r a d i t i o n a l Values f o r Development.

l z v i n a Mazumdar, x. &., pp. 26-7.

1 3 ~ h i s c a s e s t u d y i s adap ted from Denis Goulet , The Uncer ta in Promise: Value C o n f l i c t s i n Technology T r a n s f e r (N.Y.: IDOC North America, 1977) , pp. 119-121.

l40n t h i s s e e Inter-American Foundat ion, They Know How.. .An Experiment i n Development A s s i s t a n c e (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1977).

^on t h i s s e e Manuel Zapata O l i v e l l a , I d e n t i d a d d e l Negro en L a America (Bogota: Fundaci6n Colombiana de I n v e s t i g a c i o n e s F o l c 1 6 r i c a s , 1976).

See a l s o v a r i o u s l e a f l e t s by Zapata d e s c r i b i n g t h e "Teatro ~ n g n i m o I d e n t i f i c a d o r " pub l i shed by t h e same founda t ion , of which he is t h e d i r e c t o r .

16011 t h e n o t i o n of dependency a s bondage, s e e Krishna Kumar, ed . , Without Bondage: E x p l o r a t i o n s i n T r a n s c u l t u r a l I n t e r a c t i o n s (Honolulu: The U n i v e r s i t y of Hawaii P r e s s , 1978).

17Fron Montesquieu, Ouvres compl>tes ( P a r i s : p l g i a d e N R F , 19491, Vol. I, p. 112, and c i t e d i n A l b e r t 0. Hirchman, The P a s s i o n s and t h e I n t e r e s t s : P o l i t i c a l Arguments f o r C a p i t a l i s m Before I t s Triumph ( P r i n c e t o n , N. J . : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1977), p. 77.

1 8 ~ a r r i n ~ t o n Moore, Jr., I n j u s t i c e : The S o c i a l Bases o f Obedience and Revolt (White P l a i n s , N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, Inc . , 1978).

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS

D E C E N T R A L I S A T I O N AND S E L F - R E L I A N C E I N AN AGRARIAN ECONOMY: AN A N A L Y S I S BASED UPON A G R I C U L T U R A L COOPERATIVES I N NORTH V I E T NAM

b y A m i t B h a d u r i Centre f o r Economic S tud ies and P lann ing School o f S o c i a l Sc ience Jawahar la l Nehru U n i v e r s i t y New D e l h i - 110057 I n d i a

O r i g i n a l language: E n g l i s h

A b s t r a c t : The paper i s a d e s c r i p t i o n and a n a l y s i s o f t h e degree o f economic and

s o c i a l e q u a l i t y ach ieved i n p o s t - r e v o l u t i o n V i e t Nam through t h e work o f a g r i c u l -

t u r a l coopera t i ves .

The a u t h o r , an l n d i a n economist , has snen t severa l years l i v i n q and conduc t ing

t-esea-rh i n V i e t Nam, and con t inues t o s tudy s o c i a l e q u a l i t y G t h i s

c o u n t r y . Three d i s t i n c t aspects o f e q u a l i t y a r e examined. E q u a l i t y i n pe rsona l

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f income and t h e r e s u l t i n g p a t t e r n s o f occupa t iona l e q u a l i t y . 'The

q u a l i t y o f l i f e ' i s cons ide red i n t h e c o n t e x t o f e q u a l i t y between t h e c i t y and

t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . And f i n a l l y t h e e q u a l i t y between t h e sexes i s d i scussed . The

A g r i c u l t u r a l Coopera t i ve i n t h e s o c i a l p r a c t i c e o f e q u a l i t y has a t l e a s t two

m a j o r s u p p o r t i v e r o l e s . F i r s t , as a d e l i v e r y system f o r c o l l e c t i v e consumpt ion

goods such as educa t ion and h e a l t h , and as the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l base o f t h e w e l l -

developed p u b l i c d i s t r i b u t i o n system f o r e s s e n t i a l commodit ies i n t h e c o u n t r y .

Secondly , t h e c o o p e r a t i v e system suppor ts t h e s o c i a l p r a c t i c e o f e q u a l i t y by

p r o v i d i n g an e f f e c t i v e organ t o deal w i t h t h e r u r a l employment q u e s t i o n .

I n a d d i t i o n t o examin ing t h e p r i n c i p l e o f v o l u n t a r i s m i n coopera t i ves , t h e

concep t o f 'work democracy' i s l ooked a t as a c o n c r e t e t a n g i b l e phenomenon,

which r e s u l t s i n i n v o l v i n g a g r e a t e r degree o f con t inuous p a r t i c i p a t i o n by the

members .

DECENTRALISATION E T AUTONOMIE DANS UNE ECOMWIE 'NCK/MRE; UNE ANALYSE

BASEE SUR LES COOPERATIVES AGRICOLES AU VIET-NAM DU NORD

Resume

Ce document d e c r i t e t analyse 1 ' 6 g a l i t e economique e t s o c i a l e r e a l i s e e au V i e t - Nam apres l a rev01 u t i o n au t r a v e r s des coopera t i ves a g r i c o l e s .

L ' a u t e u r , un economiste i n d i e n , a oasse p l t i s i e u r s annees au Viet-Nam e t i 1 con- t i n u e i e t u d i e r l e problems de 1 ' e g a l i t e dans ce pays. T r o i s aspects d i f f e r e n t 8 de l ' e g a l i t e son t examines: l ' e g a l i t e dans l a d i s t r i b u t i o n du revenu personnel e t l a s t r u c t u r e q u i en r e s u l t e dans l ' e g a l i t 6 p r o f e s s i o n n e l l e ; l a q u a l i t e de l a v i e e s t consideree dans 1e c o n t e x t s de l ' e g a l i t e e n t r e v i l l e s e t campagnes, e t e n f i n , l ' a u t e u r examine auss i l ' e g a l i t e e n t r e l e s sexes. La c o o p e r a t i v e a g r i c o l e dans l a p r a t i q u e s o c i a l de 1 ' 6 g a l i t . e j o u e au moins deux r o l e s p r i n c i p a u x . Premie- rement, comme systeme de d i s t r i b u t i o n de s e r v i c e s c o l l e c t i f s comme l ' e d u c a t i o n e t l a san te , e t comme base o r g a n i s a t i o n n e l l e d ' u n systeme p u b l i c de d i s t r i b u t i o n des b iens e s s e n t i e l s dans l e pays. Deuxiemement, l e systeme c o o p e r a t i f s e r t de base a l a p r a t i q u e s o c i a l e de l ' e g a l i t e en f o u r n i s s a n t un moyen e f f i c a c e de resoudre l a q u e s t i o n de 1 'emplo i .

Ou t re l e p r i n c i p e de l ' a d h e s i o n v o l o n t a i r e aux coopera t i ves , 1e concept de demo- c r a t i e au t r a v a i l e s t examine comme un phenomene t a n g i b l e p e r m e t t a n t l a p a r t i c i - p a t i o n c o n t i n u e des membres de l a c o o p e r a t i v e .

Resumen

E l i n fo rme d e s c r i b e y a n a l i z a l a i n f l u e n c i a de l t r a b a j o de l a s coopera t i vas a g r i - c o l a s en e l grado de i g u a l d a d s o c i a l a lcanzado en e l Vietnam de l N o r t e despues de l a r e v o l u c i f i n .

E l a u t o r es un economista i n d i o que v i v i f i v a r i o s atios en Vietnam dedicandose a t r a b a j o s de i n v e s t i g a c i f i n y que actualmente s igue es tud iando l a soc iedad d e l p a i s , sobretodo e l grado de i g u a l d a d a lcanzado en e l l a . Tres aspectos de esa i g u a l d a d l e i n t e r e s a n : Igua ldad en l a distribution de l a s remuneraciones y sus r e s u l t a d o s p r 5 c t i c o s a1 n i v e l d e l empleo. Lx " c a l i d a d de v i d a " que se cons ide ra en f u n c i f i n de l a ausencia de d i f e r e n c i a s e n t r e l a c i u d a d e e l campo, y f i na lmen te se menciona l a i g u a l d a d e n t r e 10s dos sexos.

La c o o p e r a t i v a a g r i c o l a c o n t r i b u y e para l a i g u a l d a d s o c i a l p o r l o menos de dos maneras: p r imero como proveedora de s e r v i c i o s a l a c o l e c t i v i d a d (education, sa1 ud) y como sosten de un s is tema de d i s t r i b u c i f i n de 10s a r t i c u l o s de p r imera necesidad b i e n organizado. Segundo, a t r a v e s de su a c c i o n sobre e l empleo en 10s medios r u r a l e s . E l in forme a n a l i z a ademas e l v o l u n t a r i a d o en 1as c o o p e r a t i v a s a g r i c o l a s y e l concept0 de "democracia del t r a b a j o " que se examina como fenomeno t a n g i b l e que p e r m i t e l a cons tan te participation de losmiembros a 10s o b j e t i v o s comunes.

D e c e n t r ~ l i s a t i o n and sel i -Re l i ance i n an -- A a r a r i a n Economy: An a n a l y s i s b a s e d upon

A c r i c u l t u r a l C o o p e r a t i v e s i n North V i e t Name

S e c t i o n 1. The S o c i a l P r a c t i c e o f E q u a l i t y . - --- - - -

I t i s n o t a l t o o e t . h e r unexpec ted t h a t p o s t - r e v o l u t i o n V i e t Nam would a c h i e v e a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e o f economic and s o c i a l e q u a l i t y , " v e r t h e l ~ s s , t h e e x t e n t and scope o f t h e s o c i a l p r a c t i c e o f e o u a l i t y , which h a s been a c h i e v e d i n t h e North o f t h e c o u n t r y w i t h i n a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t span o f time, i s t r u l y s t r i k i r : ~ . An economist ' s normal - h a b i t o f t h o u ~ h t c o n s t r a i n s him t o t r e a t t h e s o c i a l phenomenon of e q u a l i t y a s a l m o s t e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e nar rower c o n c e p t o f e q u a l i t y i n t h e d i s t r i o u t i o n o f o e r s o n a l income. And y e t , one of t h e r e a l l e s s o n s o f o b s e r v i n g t h e Vietnamese s o c i e t y i n o p e r a t i o n , i s t o o e s t r u c k oy t n e f a c t t h a t t h e s o c i a l p r a c t i c e o f e n u a l i t y i s i n d e e d a f a r w i d e r phenomenon.

Broadly s p e a k i r . ~ , one c o u l d d i s t i n g u i s h t h r e e d i s t i n c t a s p e c t s : ( a ) e q u a l i t y i n p e r s o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f income and t h e r e s u l t i n g p a t t e r n o f o c c u o a t i o n a l e q u a l i t ', (b) e , q a l i t y Between the c i t y and t h e c o u n t r y s i d e and ( c ) f i n a l l y , t h e e o u a l i t v between t h e sexes .

v i t n p r o p e r t y i r~come c o n s t i t u t i n g a n e g l i g i b l e p r o p o r t i o n o f n a t i o n a l i ncorne i n North V i e t Nam.1 e a r n e d p e r s o n a l income ( i . e . s s l a r i e s an4 waqes) r e o r e s e n t s f a i r l y a c c u r a t e l y t h e s o c i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of p u r c h a s i n g cower. While i n 1976, no d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n was a v a i l a b l e o n t h e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p e r s o n a l income, one d o e s have i n f o r m a t i o n on e a r n i n g s by occu- p a t i o n s which provicics a f a i r l y good i d e a o f t h e r a n g e w i t h i n which p e r s o n a l income m u l e normally v a r y . The minimum income o f a n a d u l t worker i n u rban a r e a s w i t h l i t t l e work e x p e r i e n c e was a o o u t 6 0 North Vietnamese d o n a s 2 p e r m0nt.h I n 1976, w h i l e t h e maximum income i n a few s p e c i a l i z e d o c c u p a t i o n s w i t h c o ~ s i d e r a o l e work e x p e r i e n c e could go u p t o 200 t o 220 dongs. The a v e r a g e income o f a worker i n e n a g r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i v e was a b o u t 5 0 dongs t o wnicn mus t be added a t l e a s t a n o t h e r 15 t o 20 dongs o e r a d u l t member i n a fami ly , a s a d d i t i o n a l month ly e a r n i n g from t h e

1, The two main s o u r c e s o f p r o p e r t y income r e s u l t s from some forms o f p r i v a t e ownersh ip of u r b a n d w e l l i n g s and a g r i r ' u l - t u r a l l a n d . B u t the e x c e e d i n g l y low h o u s e r e n t a s wel l a s t h e t r a n s i t i o n from t h e ' lower- ' t o ' n i g h e r - l e v e l ' o f a g r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i v e s , make p r o p e r t y ir.come i n t h e form o f r e n t a n i n s i g - n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n ( n o t a c c o u n t i n g f o r more t h a n two p e r c e n t ) o f n a t i o n a l income ( p r i v a t e l y c a l c u l a t e d on ' / testern c o n v e n t i o n s i nc l u d i ng t h e ' s e r v i c e s e c t o r ').

2. ~t t n e o f f i c i a l exchange r a t e o f 1976, one U.S. d o l l a r was a l m o s t e q u a l t o t h r e e Marth Vietnamese dongs.

s o u r c e o f p r i v a t e - o r f a m i l y - p l o t i n a c 0 o p e r a t i v e 3 ~ Thus, t h e r a n g e o f t h e maximum t o minimum income i s around a low r a t i o o f 4 1 1 i n North V i e t Nam.

B u t a mere q u a n t i t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t a b o u t t h e r a n g e o f v a r i a - t i o n i n p e r s o n a l income h a r d l y d o e s j u s t i c e to t h e p r e v a i l i n g p a t t e r n o f e q u a l i t y among o c c u p a t i o n s . The mos t s t r i k i n g a s p e c t o f o c c u p a t i o n a l e c p a l i t y i s t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f s y s t e m a t i c a l l y h i g h e r income from r e n t a l a s opposed t o manual work. Thus, t h e a v e r a g e monthly e a r n i n g of a d o c t o r w i t h some e m e r i e n c e can b e a r o u n d 1 0 0 d o ~ i g s , w h i l e t n a t o f a t r a i n e d n u r s e w i t h s i m i l e r e x p e r i e n c e w i l l b e a b o u t t h e same. A p r o f e s s i o n a l cook, s k i l l e d b r i c k l a y e r o r s t r e e t - s w e e p e r c a n e a r n u u t o 1 2 0 dongs, w h i l e a f u l l U n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r d o c s n o t u s u a l 1 y e a r n any more. The c h a i r m e n and c h i e f a c c o u n t a n t s o f many a q r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i v e s o f t e n e a r n c o n s i d e r a o l y less t h a n some o f t h e b e s t workers i n the sams c o o p e r a t i v e s and, what i s s t i l l more i m p o r t a n t , u s u a l l y a p a r t o f t h e i r income i s a l s o e a r n e d t h r o u g h manual work done i n t h e c o o p e r a t i v e , , Thus, c o n s i d e r e ~ l e e q u a l i t y i n t n e d i s t r i b u - t i o n o f p e r s o n a l income i s combined w i t h e s t a b l i s h i n g s o c i a l v a l u e s w h i m t e n d t o d i s c r i m i n a t e l e s s among v a r i o u s o c c u p a t i o n s i n t e r m s o f t h e i r i m p l i e d economic and s o c i a l s t a t u s .

T n i s p r i n c i p l e o f e q u a l i t y e x t e n d s n o t o n l y a c r o s s occuoa- t i o n s b u t a l s o a c r o s s space . Thus, i t d o e s n o t m e r e l y mesn t h a t income e a r n e d by a member o f an a g r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i v e o r a s t a t e - f a r m worker i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e i s more o r l e s s t h e same a s e a r n i n g o f an urDan worker . I t i m p l i e s someth ing more funda- m e n t a l t h a n e p a l i t y o f e a r n i n g s . The well-known d i f f e r e n c e i p .

' t he q u a l i t y o f l i f e " be tween r u r a l and u r b a n a r e a s which e x i s t s i n most s o c i e t i e s end p a r t i c u l a r l y i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , i s l a r g e l y a b s e n t i n V i e t Nam. -There a r e two i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s which c o n t r i b u t e s u b s t a n t i a l l y t o t h i s gap be tween u r b a n and r u r a l l i f e . F i r s t , s o c i a l and i n f r h s t r u c t u r a l f a c i l i t i e s t e n d t o b e much h i g h e r i n u r b a n a r e a s and s e c o n d l y , a c c e s s t o s u e c i a l i z e d s k i l l s and s e r v i c e s i s v e r y o f t e n a n a l m o s t e x c l u - s i v e p r i v i l e g e o f t h e b e t t e r - o f f UrDall p o p u l a t i o n . I n b o t h t h e s e r e s p e c t s , the s p a t i a l p a t t e r n o f develonment seems t o have b e e n f a r more un i form i n f c r t h V i e t Nam. T h i s u n i f o r m i t y h a s l a r g e l y b e e n a c h i e v e d t h r o u o h t h e a a r i c u l t u r a l c o o u e r e t i v e movement t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . Thus, each a g r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i v e h a s a p r i m a r y h e a l t h c e n t r e which i s l i n k e d t o t h e d i s t r i c t h o s p i t a l f o r a l l c a s e s n e e d i n g s p e c i a l i z e d t r e a t m e n t .

3. F i v e p e r c e n t o f t n e c o o p e r a t i v e l a n d i s r e s e r v e d a s a r u l e f o r f a m i l y c u l t i v a t i o n , u s u a l l y l a n d a t t a c h e d t o t h e r e s i d e n c e o f the fami ly . I n ' l o w - l e v e l ' c o o o e r a t i v e s , t h i s p l o t o f l e n d i s the p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y o f t h e f a m i l y which it e v e n h a s t h e r i g h t t o s e l l . I n ' h i g h - l e v e l ' c o o p e r a t i v e s , t h i s becomes c o l l e c t i v e p r o p e r t y o n which t h e f a m i l y r e t a i n s t h e "occupancy r i g h t " i . e . o f u s i n g and d e r i v i n g income from it.

S i m i l a r 1 y, a l l c o o p e r a t i v e s have p r i m a r y s c h o o l s l i n k e d to a s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l i n g sys tem. Thus, b a s i c n e e d s o f hous ing , h e a l t h and e d u c a t i o n are met th rough t h e c o o p e r a t i v e sys tem i t s e l f . More i m p o r t a n t p e r h a p s i s the f a c t t h a t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e s e s e r v i c e s a r e u s u a l l y no worse i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e - h o u s i n g c o n d i t i o n s o n an a v e r a g e was c e r t a i n l y b e t t e r i n r u r a l t h a n i n u r b a n a r e a s o f North V i e t Nam i n 1976. I t i s a l s o n o t an a l - t o g e t h e r unusual p r a c t i c e t o f i n d t h a t sone o f t h e most d i s t i n - g u i s h e d d o c t o r s a r e a t t a c h e d to d i s t r i c t h o s p i t a l s , r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g e x c l u s i v e l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n a few b i g u r b a n h o s p i t a l s . Again, t h e main l e s s o n which one l e a r n s i n t h i s r e s p c t i s t h a t , t h e economic a n a l y s t ' s n o t i o n o f the c o o p e r a t i v e sys tem a s e s s e n t i a l l y ail o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r a l l o c a t i n g c o l l e c t i v e 1 & o u r i s a h i g h l y p a r t i a l and p e r h a p s m i s l e a d i n g view. For , it h a s a n o t h e r economic r o l e which is a t l e a s t e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t - and, t h a t i s t o s e r v e a s t h e b a s i c o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p i v o t o f a c o u n t r y - w i d e " d e l i v e r y sys tem" o f b a s i c needs. The economic ach ieve- m e n t s o f t h e Vietnamese c o o p e r a t i v e movement becomes a p p a r e n t a s soon a s i t s r o l e a s a " d e l i v e r y sys tem" i s r e a l i z e d .

The q u e s t i o n of e q u a l i t y amonq s e x e s i s a more i n t r i c a t e one . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o c a o t u r e t h i s phenomenon a d e q u a t e l y i n t e r m s o f c o n v e n t i o n a l c l i c h e l i k e "ecpa l . pay f o r e p ' a l work. "4 I n d e e d , t h e n o t i o n o f s e x u a l e q u a l i t y q e s c o n s i d e r a b l y d e e p e r i n V i e t n a w s e s o c i e t y . Even t o t h e mos t s u p e r f i c i a l o b s e r v e r , i t w i l l be a n p a r e n t t h a t , n o t t i n l y d o women have a l m o s t c o ~ l e t e e c o n o m i c independence, b u t more fundamenta l ly , t h e y p e r f o r m a l l s o r t s o f work i n e v e r y f i e l d which were t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e s e r v e d f o r men.5 Given t h e f a c t t h a t u n t i l r e c e n t l y V i e t Nam was a t r a d i t i o n a l a g r a r i a n s o c i e t y w i t h s t r o n g f e u d a l v a l u e s , t h i s i s u n q u e s t i o n a o l y a r e m a r k a b l e achievement . One c o u l d s p e c u l a t e t o what e x t e n t such r a o i d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f s o c i a l V a l u e s a r e t h e outcome o f t h e e x i g e n c i e s o f a long-drawn war, r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g t h e consequence o f a d e l i b e r a t e s o c i a l p r o c e s s ; b u t such s ~ e c u l a t i o n s seem somewhat m e a n i n g l e s s i n t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t . F o r , t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a " p e o p l e ' s war" i s such, t h a t i t i s

-- -- 4., Tne e v i d e n c e t h a t I p e r s o n a l l y c o l l e c t e d i n e l e v e n

a g r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i v e s o f North V i e t Nam i s mixed and ambiguous 0-1 t h i s p o i n t . There i s l i k e l y t o be some ( n o t s i g n i - f i c a n t ) d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n pay, o p e r a t i n g t h r o u g h t h e sys tem o f 'works-poi.1t '. I t was n o t p o s s i o l e f o r me t o come t o a n y d e f i n i t e q u a n t i t a t i v e a s s e s s m e n t o n t h i s p o i n t .

5 - T h i s i n c l u d e s , f o r e x w l e , heavy a g r i c u l t u r a l work o f t i l l i n g , t r a d i t i o n a l l y done o n l y b y men. An i n t e r e s t i n g c o n t r a s t o  £ t e came t o mind between t h e s o c i a l p o s i t i o n o f women i n V i e t Kam and i n i n d u s t r i a l c a u i t a l i s m of w e s t e r n Europe . In the l a t t e r c a s e , t y p i c a l l y some j o b s ( such a s s e c r e t a r i a l j o b ) a r e a lmos t e x c l u s i v e l y meant f o r women a s a p a r t o f the s o c i a1 convention!

i m p o s s i b l e t o s e p a r a t e i n a m e a n i n a f u l way t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s f o r t h e war from o t h e r s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s a t work. Conse- q u e n t l y , t h e emerg ing s e n s e o f e q u a l i t y among t h e s e x e s i s p e r h a p s b e t t e r t r e a t e d a s a p a r t o f t h e o v e r a l l s o c i a l t r p n s - f o r m a t i o n o f V i e t Nam,

S e c t i o n 2. Role o f a q r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i v e s i n t h e s o c i a l p r a c t i c e o f e o u a l i t y .

~t i s d i f f i c u l t t o imaa ine how this i m p r e s s i v e s t r u c t u r e o f e q u a l i t y , b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d e a r l i e r , c o u l d b e m a i n t a i n e d i n b r t h V i e t Nan w i t h o u t a p i v o t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e b e i n g ass igned t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i v e s . There seems t o b e a t l e a s t two m a j o r ways i n which t h e c o o p e r a t i v e system c a r r i e s o u t i t s s u p p o r t i v e r o l e o f t h e p r a c t i c e o f s o c i a l e o u a l i t y .

F i r s t , a s a l r e a d y i n d i c a t e d , i t o p e r a t e s a s a d e l i v e r y s y s t e m f o r c o l l e c t i v e consumption m o d s 1 i k e e d u c a t i o n and h e a l t h . A t the, s a n e t ime , t h e c o o p e r a t i v e i s a l s o t h e o r g a - n i z a t i o n a l b a s e o f t h e well-developed p u b l i c d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m f o r e s s e n t i a l co:nrnodities i n t h e c o u n t r y . The two-way e x c h a n g e between i n d u s t r i a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l qoods i s 1 a r g e l y c o n d u c t e d th rough the c o o p e r a t i v e system. The menbers o f a n a g r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i v e q e t t h e i r e s s e n t i a l food-s tuf f , ~ a r t i - c u l a r l y r i c e , a t r e a s o n a b l e , c o n t r o l l e d p r i c e d i r e c t l y from the c o o p e r a t i v e . A t t h e same t i^ne, t h r o u g h t h e o b l i g a t o r y s e l l i n g q u o t a o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p roduce f o r e ach c o o p e r a t i v e , t h e S t a t e i s a b l e to p r o c u r e f o o d g r a i n s a t f i x e d p r i c e s f o r the sys tem o f p u b l i c d i s t r i b u t i o n i n u r b a n a r e a s . By f u l f i l l i n g t h e w o t a o b l i - g a t i o n , t h e c o o p e r a t i v e s o b t a i n i n r e t u r n b a s i c m a n u f a c t u r e d g o o d s l i k e t e x t i l e and f u e l from t h e S t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s . T h e r e a r e u s u a l l y two o t h e r t y p e s o f c o o p e r a t i v e s t o f a c i l i t a t e t h i s e x c h a n g e b e tween u r b a n and r u r a l a r e a s : A con-irnerci a1 c o o u e r a t i v e whose f u n c t i o n s i n c l u d e p u r c h a s e and s a l e o f floods, ~ a r t i c u l a r l y r e t a i l t r a d i n g i n S t a t e i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t s a s tell a s p u r c h a s e o f a o r i c u l t u r a l p roduce from t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i v e o n b e h a l f o f t h e S t a t e . There i s a l s o a c r e d i t c o o n e r a t i z , u s u a l l y formed t h r o u g h c o n t r i b u t i o n o f s h a r e s by c o o p e r a t i n g members. It p e r f o r m s t h e f u n c t i o n s o f a convnercial bank f o r i n d i v i d u a l members a s wel l a s f o r t h e whole a g r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i v e , b y t a k i n g d e p o s i t s and a d v a n c i n g l o a n s on i n d i v i - d u a l a s w e l l a s c o l l e c t i v e b a s i s . But normal ly , t h e c r e d i t c o o p e r a t i v e advances s h o r t term s e a s o n a l l o a n s t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i v e , w h i l e l o n o e r term l o a n s (of 3 t o 5 y e a r s ) a r e g r a n t e d b y t h e C e n t r a l o r S t a t e Bank. ?e f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t from t h e S t a t e t h u s o p e r a t e s normal ly t h r o u g h t h e c e n t r a l b a n k i n g sys tem, b u t i s o c c a s i o n a l l y d p l e a a t e d a l s o t o t h e l o c a l c r e d i t c o o p e r a t i v e s a s an e x e r c i s e i n d e c e n t r a l i z e d

a d m i n i s t r a t i o ? o f c r e d i t .

s e c o n d l y , t h e c o o p e r a t i v e s y s t e m s u p p o r t s t h e s o c i s l p r a c - t i c e o f e q u a l i t y b y p r o v i d i n g a n e f f e c t i v e o r g a n t o d e a l w i t h the r u r a l e n i ~ l o y m a n t q u e s t i o n . I t h a s b e e n a wel l -known p r o b l e m i n mo5t d e v e l o p i n g a g r a r i a n e c o n o m i e s o f A s i a t h a t , a n y d i r e c t a t t a c k o n p o v e r t y and i n e q u a l i t y t e n d s t o o e t d i f fuse ' " ! b e c a u s e t h e g o v e r n - n e n t s s e l d o m h a v e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a b i l i t y t o " r e a c h " t h e Door and unemployed d i r e c t l y . I t becomes e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t f o r gove rnmen t - run p u b l i c w o r k s programmes t o c r e d o the r i o h t k i n d o f j o b s , a s ~ x p e n d i t u r e l e a k a g e s t a k e p l s c e t h r o u c h r o n t r p c - t o r s and o v e r h e a d c o s t s o f r n a i n t c ' i n i n q a n a & i n i s t r a t i v e " i p r h i n o r y f o r organ! z i n f l sucli p r o n r a m e s . A s a r - s u l t, o u i t e a s u h s t ? n t i ~ l p o r t i o n o f the e x p e n d i t u r e on p u b l i c w o r k s u s u a l l y l e a k s i n t o c r e a t i n g j o b s and income f o r c o n t r a c t o r s a n 4 b u r e e a u c r a t s , i n s t e a d o f b a n s f i t t i n o t h e i n t e n d e d p o o r e s t s e c t i o n s o f t h e o o o u l ~ t . i o n . O r g a n i z a t i o n 05 a - r i c u l t . u r a l c o o ~ e r a t i v e s s t t h e v i l l a g s l e v e l i n "forth V i e t !!-n d o e s o r o v i c ' e t h e o o v c r n l e l t 7 , ~ i t h a n ? ^ m i n i s t r a - t i v e f r a w w o r t Â¥.h c h c a n s u m o r t s u c h n 3 d b l i c w c r 9 : o q r a n V n < ; s f p r m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y . Such work programmps t h e n beco'ne i ~ ~ e , - t r r - ? i t proorarl:T.-,.s o f t h ? c o o p e r a t i v e , a t t i n e s n . - ' r t l y f i n a n c e d b y a a r a n t o r s o f t l o a n f r o m t h e S t a t e t h r o u ~ h , t h e C e n t r p . l ?a;'-., hut ? l s o a t ti%--s, 0: - :c lus ivel y f inanc?:? by t h o c o o ~ p r ~ t i V e i t s .? : f . T h i s a c h i ? v - s z c o - c i d e r a b l e d e q r e " o f d c s r e n t r a l i n a t i o n i n t h e n l a n n i nn of :>Â¥.I ir Â¥.:ark a m a g r i c u l t u r a l i  ¥ " i v e s t m e n t s b o t h i n t - r m s o f t h e -it-.':sicc-1 f o r ^ of t h e i n v e s t m e n t a s w ~ l l a s i t s f i n z n c i n o a r r a ' n r i ^ n t s .

T h i s r i o c c n t r r l i z s t i o r ~ of i n v e s t n e n t 6 ~ m i n o t h r o u r ' 5 t'"e a c r i c : i l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i v e s i s o a r t i c u l s r i y f a c i l i tat-"!v a n o t h e r i m ' i o r t a n t f a c t . I n t h e a b s e n c e o f ST/ s i c n i f i c a n t o r i v a t e o r o o e r t y r i a h t s o n l a n d , t h e t r i c k y o u e s t i o ~ o f , "w'-io ~ h o u l d b e n e f i t and who s h o u l d pay f o r ~ - i o l i c works" , i s l a r o ~ l y so lve" ) . F o r example , a r o a d o r irritation w o r k s procramme f i n a n c e d by t h o oove rnmen t may r e - s u i t i n s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n lane'! v a l u e s i n a r rc i rket economy. % u s , t h e gove rnmen t p a y s f o r the prograi rme w h i l e p r i v a t e l a n d o w n e r s r e a p t h e b e n e f i t s and, i n t h e a b s e n c e o f the rover?-nent 's a b i l i t y t o t ?x s w s ~ t h e t ~ e n ~ f i t s , t h e a s r o c i ~ t e d e r m l o y m e r t ~ n e r p ' t i o n -'rocr+m'ne f p i l s t o become s ~ l f - f i n e n c i n a o v e r t i m e . T h i s i s a d i l e m s which i s l a r c p l y e v o l v e d u n 4 e r c o o > e r a t i v ~ p r o p e r t y r e l a t i o n s , a s t h e c r i n c i c ' l e o f o r g c - n i z a t - i o n t c ' l d s t o ap r : rox ime te t h e i 5 e n t h a t " t h o s ~ , '. .'ho b c n s f i t shou1'-1 Â¥-'a'/ ( e x c e n t when t h m q r a n t e l e - 1 - n t f r o ^ t?,p C c n t m l I'?nh i n t h o  £ i n z n c n ~ o f cuch ?rccrr-'Tm?s b=cc.vp ?,re- r i o m i n a t ) . Th: m a j c r l e s s o n whir t i o n e s e c . v s t o l e a r n i r tl-'is c o n t e x t i s t h a t , . " -1 f - f inanc i nr; s h o u l d b e an i m ~ o r t s n t c--mÂ¥^~onen

d e s c r i c t i o n G? th? i n t e r r e 1 cited w o r k i i n o f t h e s e three t y z s o f c o o p e r a t i v e s i l i a s p c i f i c case.

o f a n y programme o f d e c e n t r a l i z e d p u b l i c works, i f it i s to become s e l f - s u s t a i n i n q o v e r t i m e and u n a b a t e d p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y r i g h t s i n l a n d f r e q u e n t l y appear a s a h i n d r a n c e t o t h e p r o c e s s . Thus, a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e c o o p e r a t i v e a p p e a r s to b e a c r u c i a l component i n t h e de- c e n t r a l ! z a t i o n o f i n v e s t m e n t p l anning. This , i n t u r n , e n t a i l s a s i t s p r e c o n d i t i o n i m p o r t a n t r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f e i t h e r a g r a r i a n p r o p e r t y r i g h t s o r o f t h e t a x sys tem s o a s t o be a b l e to t a x e f f e c t i v e l y c a p i t a l g a i n s a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l . B u t t h e r e l i e s p r e c i s e l y t h e p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n - a government which i s c a p a b l e o f s i n c e r e 1 y o p e r a t i n g such a t a x s t r u c t u r e i s s u r e l y a 1 s o c a p a b l e o f b r i n g i n g a b o u t t h e r e q u i s i t e c h a n g e s i n p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y r i a h t s , which a f t e r a l l , o f t e n t u r n o u t t o b e a s i m p l e r a1 t e r n a t i v e ?

S e c t i o n 3. P r i n c i p l e o f V o l u n t a r i n e s s i n C o o p e r a t i v e s .

The development of t h e movement f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l coopera- t i o n i n North V i e t Ham combined two d i s t i n c t p r o c e s s e s o v e r t i m e - i t w a s a p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s a s w e l l a s a t echno- economic p r o c e s s . As a p o l i t i c a l c a ~ o a i g n , i t was s t a r t e d i n t h e m i d - f i f t i e s f o r t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e p o o r to l o w e r m i d d l e p e a s a n t s a g a i n s t t h e emerging t r e n d towards " c a ~ i t a l i s m i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e " , which had begun t o r e a p p e a r f o l l o w i n g t h e a n t i - f e u d a l l a n d - r e f o r m o f 1953-56. S i n c e t h e e a r l i e r l and- r e f o r m o f 1953-56 h a d m o b i l i z e d t h e poor to l a n d l e s s p e a s a n t s o n t h e p o l i t i c a l s l o g a n o f "le.nd t o t h e t i l l e r s " , Dy c r e a t i n g s m a l l s c a l e p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y i n l a n d i n t h e form o f smal l p e a s a n t p r o p r i e t o r s h i p , t h e d r i v e f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i o n w e n t a g a i n s t t h e newly-won p r o p e r t y r i g h t s o f t h e p e a s a n t s . . T h i s c r e a t e d a dilemma t h a t had to be s o l v e d t h r o u g h exceed ing- l y c a r e f u l h a n d l i n g of t h e problem. w i t h t h e l a u n c h i n a o f t h e campaign f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i o n i n e a r l y 1959, t h e c o n f l i c t i n h e r e n t i n t h e s i t u a t i o n was l a r g e l y s o u g h t t o De r e s o l v e d o n the b a s i s o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of a " t r i p l e p r i n c i p l e " i n a g r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i o n - v o l u n t a r i n e s s i n p a r t i c i p a t i o n , m u t u a l b e n e f i t i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f work and e m p h a s i s on d e m o c r a t i c manaoe 'wi t . Thus, t h e h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n compel l e d tAe p o l i t i c a l campaign t o mcome d e m o c r a t i c , Dased upon t h e p r i n c i p l e o f V o l u n t a r y p a r t i c i p a t i o n . The A p r i l 1959 r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e P a r t y C e n t r a l Committee s t a t e d t h i s . i n no u n c e r t a i n t e r m s :

" I t i s e s s e n t i a l t o e d u c a t e them (smal l and poor p e a s a n t s ) , to p e r s u a d e them s o t h a t t h e y j o i n o f t h e i r own f r e e w i l l . w h i l e t h e y a r e r e f l e c t i n g , weigh ing t h e p r o s and cons, we must h a v e t h e p a t i e n c e t o w a i t f o r them and c o n v i n c e t h m by means o f t h e c o n c r e t e r e s u l t s o f c o o p e r a t i v e farming, s u c h a s h i g h e r y i e l d s , h i g h e r r e t u r n s .

"When t h e y j o i n t h e c o o p e r a t i v e , one must t a k e c a r e o f t h e i r l e g i t i m a t e i n t e r e s t s and work o u t a j u s t , a p p r o p r i a t e s o l u t i o n to p r o o l e m s a r i s i n g from land , c a t t l e and f a r m - t o o l s t h e y bri ng i n *

his p r i n c i p l e of vo lun ta r iness , which a l s o l e f t each coopera t ive farmer f r e e to leave the coopera t ive a t any time, was mainta ined throughout t h e coopera t ive movement. Th i s made t h e t r a n s i t i o n from p r i v a t e t o coopera t ive product ion i n a g r i c u l t u r e a gradual process . The e a r l y s t a g e s o f t h e p rocess were c h a r a c t e r i s e d by 'low-level ' coopera t ive based upon mutual a i d teams. They were b a s i c a l l y labour coopera t ives w i t h consi- d e r a b l e p r i v a t e ownership r i g h t s t o land. R igh t s t o p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y i n v a r i a b l y meant p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y income i n the f o m of r e n t which could t y p i c a l l y c o n s t i t u t e 2 5 t o 30 percent of t h e produce o f the coopera t ive . With the development of the coopera- t i v e movement, t h i s sha re of r e n t was g radua l ly reduced, e.s t h e p r i n c i p l e of payment according t o work began t o r ep lace payment on t h e b a s i s of p rope r ty ownership. A coopera t ive reached the "high-level ", when r e n t and o t h e r p rope r ty income became an i n s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of the t o t a l coopera t ive income, a s l a n d became c o l l e c t i v e p r o p e r t y of the coopera t ive . This process o f gradual t ransformat ion from "low-" to "high- level" coopera t ive can b e s t be i l l u s t r a t e d wi th concre te examples, s ay of coooera- t i v e s i n Thai Binh province, , m e r e , f o r in s t ance , t h e p ropor t ion p a i d o u t as r e n t decreased gradual ly from 30 percent of income i n 1959 t o 15.2 pe rcen t i n 1962, 8 p e r c e n t i n 1964 and 0.3 p e r c e n t i n 1965. m i s small remaining p ropor t ion cont inued t o De given on1 y t o households 1 acking 1 abour force , t y p i c a l l y c h i l d l e s s o l d people o r d i sab led persons. To-day, i n North Vie t Nam, t h e 'high-level ' coopera t ive i s t h e predominant form of a g r i - c u l t u r a l o rgan iza t ion , wi th 93.2 pe rcen t o f peasant households a s members o f such coopera t ives i n 1 9 7 5 . ~ And, i n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, even today, the S t a t u t e s o f A g r i c u l t u r a l Cooperatives (h igh- level ) emphasi s e those o r i g i n a l p r i n c i p l e s of v o l u n t a r i - ness, mutual b e n e f i t and democratic f u n c t i o n i n g i n i t s ve ry f i r s t two a r t i c l e s . 6

Along with p o l i t i c a l mob i l i za t ion of t h e poorer peasantry , t h e campaign f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l coopera t ion had t o be techno- economical ly success fu l . Th i s was p a r t i c u l a r l y impor tant ; for,. w i thou t such success o v e r time, i t would have been imposs ib le t o ma in ta in t h e p r i n c i p l e o f vo lun ta ry p a r t i c i p a t i o n ; nor would i t have been f e a s i b l e t o have democratic d e c i s i o n making a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l , which u s u a l l y presupposes a s i g n i f i c a n t degree of s e l f - r e l i a n c e . P a r t l y t h e "de l ive ry system" o f b a s i c needs o r g a n i zed through t h e coopera t ives , which h a s b r i e f l y been d e s c r i b e d above, added t o t h e i r a t t r a c t i o n and t h u s enab led t h e

7. Source: Daily newspaper o f North Vie t Narn, &an Dan d a t e d 24.12., 1975.

8. Source: S t a t u t e s of Aqr icu l tu ra l Coopera t ives (hi qh- l e v e l ) , Rural Publ ishing House, V ie t Nam, 1976.

p r i n c i p l e o f v o l u n t a r y p a r t i c i p a t i o n t o be come o p e r a t i v e . More i m p o r t a n t , however seems t o b e t h e c o n c e p t o f "work-democracy" which became a m a t e r i a l f o r c e u n d e r l y i n g t h e deve lopment o f t h e c o o p e r a t i v e movement.

S e c t i o n 4, "Work-D2mcracy" i n C o o p e r a t i v e s .

Democracy a t work p l a c e , i n c o n t r a s t to a s e t o f a b s t r a c t d e m o c r a t i c o r c i v i l r i g h t s , i s a more t a n g i b l e phenomenon, a s i t g e t s d e f i n e d i n r e l a t i o n to the day-to-day work a r r a n g e m e n t s among t h e members o f a c o o p e r a t i v e . Although t h e a b s t r a c t o r g e n e r a l r i g h t s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e S t a t u t e s , which members o f an a g r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i v e u s u a l l y e n j o y , a r e q u i t e i m p r e s s i v e , 9 the v e r y O a s i s o f work-democracy l i e s n o t i n coded rules and s t a t u t e s , Out i n the way work i s a c t u a l l y o r g a n i z e d .

I n a f a i r 1 y 1 a r g e , ' h i g h - l e v e l ' c o o p e r a t i v e , p r o d u c t i o n i s o r g a n i z e d b o t h a l o n g " v e r t i c a l " a s w e l l a s " h o r i z o n t a l " p a t t e r n o f d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r . A v e r t i c a l p a t t e r n means g r o u p i n g o f c o o p e r a t i v e w o r k e r s i n "work teams" ( c o n s i s t i n g u s u a l l y o f anywhere between 10 t o 200 workers ) , where e a c h work team i s e n t r u s t e d w i t h a s p e c i f i c work l i k e i r r i g a t i o n , p l a n t a t i o n , an imal husbandry, f i s h i n g , c o n s t r u c t i o n e t c . But e v e n f o r e a c h s p e c i f i e d j o o e.g. i r r i g a t i o n , t h e r e may be s e v e r a l work teams o r a " p r o d u c t i o n b r i g a d e " s p r e a d o v e r d i f f e r e n t a r e a s o f t h e c o o p e r a t i v e and t h i s i s d e s c r i b e d a s t h e h o r i z o n t a l a s w e c t o f d i v i s i o n of l a b o u r . S i n c e t h e s e work teams c o n s t i t u t e t h e fundamenta l u n i t s f o r o r g a n i z i n g p r o d u c t i o n , i n t e r - t e a m a s w e l l as i n t r a - t e a m r e l a t i o n s l a r g e l y d e f i n e t h e f u n c t i o n a l b a s i s o f a c o o p e r a t i v e .

Each work-team e l e c t s i t s head a i d d e p u t y head10, t o k e e p r e c o r d s o f f l ~ o r k - p o i n t s " o n t h e b a s i s o f which p e r s o n a l income g e t d i s t r i b u t e d . B u t t h e b a d e p r i n c i p l e o f a s s i g n i n g "work- p o i n t s " i n a c o o p e r a t i v e , b o t h a t the i n t e r - and a t t h e i n t r a - team l p v e l , i s t h o r o u g h l y d i s c u s s e d and t h e n approved i n t h e G e n e r a l Assembly of a l l the members i n a c o o p e r a t i v e . Thus, w i t h i n a work-team a p e r s o n a l i z e d sys tem o f a s s i q n i n g work-load t a k i n g i n t o account h e a l t h c o n d i t i o n etc. may owera te , w h i l e i n t e r - t e a m c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o what would be t h e r a t i n g o f v a r i o u s j o b s i n t e r m s o f work-points i s c o l l e c t i v e l y d e c i d e d a t t h e Genera l Assemblye

9, See u. 10. w, A r t i c l e 13,

It w i l l be n o t e d t h a t , w i t h o u t e x a g g e r a t i o n , t h i s work-point s y s t e m i s p e r h a p s one o f t h e mos t d e m o c r a t i c a s p e c t s o f o r g a n i z a - t i o n o f work and income d i s t r i b u t i o n . For, it i s t h e e n e r a 1 body o f workers who d e c i d e o n t h e work-points c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o e a c h t y p e o f j o b a s w e l l a s the working d a y s f o r e a c h member. T h i s i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f rom t h e " f a c t o r y s y s t e m n u n d e r c s p i - t a l i s m where w o r k e r s a r e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a g i v e n wage s t r u c t u r e .

Secondly, such a c o l l e c t i v e d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s u s u a l l y t e n d s to r e d u c e t h e g a p be tween 'management' and L o r k e r s '. I n many c o o p e r a t i v e s , e l e c t e d members o f the Management as w e l l a s A u d i t Committee have to supplement t h e i r ( c o l l e c t i v e l y d e c i d e d ) be low a v e r a g e income by d o i n g normal manual work a s members o f a work- team.

F i n a l l y , i t w i l l be o f some i n t e r e s t e v e n t o academic e c o n o m i s t s t o n o t e t h a t t h e d i v i s i o n between "consumption" and * i n v e s t m e n t " o f t h e n e t income of t h e c o o p e r a t i v e i s t y p i c a l l y a r r i v e d a t t h r o u g h c o l l e c t i v e d i s c u s s i o n s a t t h e G e n e r a l Assembly ( w i t h i n t h e l e g a l l y s t i p u l a t e d r a n g e o f 5-10 p e r c e n t ) . The d e m o c r a t i c e l e m e n t i n t h i s p r o c e d u r e may w e l l b e c o n t r a s t e d a g a i n s t i n v e s t m e n t d e c i s i o n s t a k e n by t h e ' "board o f d i r e c t o r s " i n a l a r g e c o r p o r a t i o n .

mese are some o f t h e c o n c r e t e e l e m e n t s o f work-democracy. And p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e i t i s a democracy o f the work p l a c e , i t i n v o l v e s f a r more c o n t i n u o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n by the members. ~ u t t h e r e a l s o l ies t h e dilemma - c o n t i n u o u s p a r t i c i p a t i o n a t the l e v e l o f t h e l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a d e q u a t e f o r e n s u r i n g d e m o c r a t i c f u n c t i o n i n g o f the macro- p o l i t i c a l sys tem. For , i t may l e a v e u n d e f i n e d t h e r e l a t i o n be tween t h e S t a t e and t h e c o o p e r a t i v e o r between t h e l o c a l o r g a n s o f t h e P a r t y and t h e c o o p e r a t i v e . To a n o u t s i d e r i t seems t h a t b o t h t h e s t r e n g t h and t h e weakness o f t h e a g r a r i a n s o c i a l i s m i n V i e t Nan" a r e j u x t a p o s e d p r e c i s e l y h e r e . on the o n e hand , there d o e s u n d o u b t e d l y e x i s t a g e n u i n e democracy o f t h e work p l s c e , u n s u r p a s s e d b y a l m o s t any " f a c t o r y s y s t e m " u n d e r c a p i t a l i s m . But, o n t h e o t h e r hand, the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n such work-democracy and p o l i t i c a l democracy i r . t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t i s still v i r t u a l l y n o n - e x i s t e n t . Although it sounds a h e r e s y today, t h e f u t u r e o f a g r a r i a n s o c i a l i s m i n V i e t N a n would seem t o l i e I n s u c c e s s f u l l y o o u n t e r p o s i n g t h e s e l f - r e l i a n t , d e c e n t r a l i zed economic power o f the c o o p e r a t i v e s and t h e i r p r a c t i c e o f work- democracy a g a i n s t p o s s i b l e t e n d e n c i e s o f p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t a r i a - n i s m b y t h e S t a t e o r the P a r t y . These a r e o f c o u r s e mere s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t a d e s i r a b l e f u t u r e course. But i n the meantime, t h e c r u x o f t h e m a t t e r i s s i m p l e : i n a p o o r p e a s a n t economy work-democracy h a s f a r g r e a t e r d i r e c t r e l e v a n c e and a p p e a l compared to p o l i t i c a l democracy i n t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t . It i s t r u e t h a t t h e v e r y p r o c e s s o f s u c c e s s f u l economic deve- l o p m e n t w i l l b e g i n to r a i s e t h o s e v e r y i s s u e s o f p o l i t i c a l

democracy and i t s r e l a t i o n t o work democracy which have less immedia te r e l e v a n c e i n t o - d a y ' s V i e t Main . But, then , t h e method of h i s t o r y h a s a l w a y s been t o s o l v e t h e main c o n t r a d i c - t i o n s of today , o n l y b y r a i s i n g new c o n t r a d i c t i o n s f o r tomorrow. I t i s n o t l i k e l y t h a t V i e t Nam o r any o t h e r c o u n t r y w i l l p r o v e t o b e an a l t o q e t h e r e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s g e n e r a l scheme.

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS

LA C O V E R C I A L I S A T I C N DES PRODUITS AGRICOLES, FACTEUR D E D E V E L O P M E N T RURAL

p a r F l o r e n t i n Agoua Ca i sse N a t i o n a l e du C r e d i t A g r i c o l e B o i t e P o s t a l e 999 Cotonou, B e n i n

Langue o r i g i n a l e : F r a n c a i s

Ce document d e c r i t e t a n a l y s e un programme d ' a l p h a b e t i s a t i o n r u r a l combine avec l a m ise s u r p i e d de c o o p e r a t i v e s r u r a l e s hasees s u r l a p a r t i c i p a t i o n p o p u l a i r e e t e n t r a i n a n t une c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n g r a d u e l l e des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s . C e t t e e x p e r i e n c e a l i e u dans l a p r o v i n c e de Borgou dans l a Repub l i que p o p u l a i r e du B e n i n . Les i n c o n v G n i e n t s , en p a r t i c u l i e r l ' e x p l o i t a t i o n des p o p u l a t i o n s l o c a l e s , de l a c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n a g r i c o l e c o n v e n t i o n n e l l e s o n t d e c r i t s e t 1e document m o n t r e comment 1es v i l l a g e o i s o n t , g race au programme d ' a l o h a b e t i s a - t i o n , f o rme l e u r s p r o p r e s s o c i e t e s c o o p e r a t i v e s e t o n t p r i s l e c o n t r 6 l e de l a c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n de l e u r s p r o d u i t s . Le document m o n t r e ega lemen t comment c e t t e e x p e r i e n c e p e u t e t r e e tendue a des zones p l u s l a r g e s du B e n i n r u r a l . L 1 @ t u d e c o n c l u t q u ' u n deve loppement r u r a l i n t e g r e e t e q u i t a b l e ne o e u t 6 t r e p o s s i b l e que s ' i l d e v i e n t l ' a f f a i r e des p l u s l a r g e s masses r u r a l e s .

C O M M E R C I A L I Z A T I O N OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS, AN ELEMENT OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

A b s t r a c t

The pape r i s a d e s c r i p t i o n and a n a l y s i s o f a r u r a l a l p h a b e t i z a t i o n programme, combined w i t h t h e deve lopmen t of r u r a l c o o p e r a t i v e s , based on p o p u l a r p a r t - i c i p a t i o n , and w i t h a g r a d u a l c o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s . The scene o f t h e a c t i o n i s t h e Borqou p r o v i n c e o f t h e Democ ra t i c R e p u b l i c o f B e n i n . The d i s a d v a n t a g e s and e x p l o i t a t i o n f o r t h e l o c a l p e o p l e , o f t r a d i t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r a l m a r k e t s a r e d e s c r i b e d , and i t i s shown how p e o p l e i n a number o f v i l l a g e s have, w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e a l p h a b e t i z a t i o n programme, formed t h e i r own c o o p e r a t i v e s o c i e t i e s and have t a k e n c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r own a g r i c u l t u r a l commerce. I t i s a l s o shown how t h i s deve lopmen t e x p e r i e n c e c o u l d be ex tended o v e r w i d e r a reas o f r u r a l Ben in . The s t u d y c o n c l u d e s t h a t e q u i t a b l e i n t e g r a t e d r u r a l deve lopmen t can o n l y he accomp l i shed i f i t becomes t h e b u s i n e s s o f t h e l a r g e masses o f r u r a l peop le .

Resumen en Espa701 en l a p a g i n a 12

F. Agoua

L A C O M M E R C I A L I S A T I O N D E S P R O D U I T S A G R I C O L E S , F A C T E U R D E D E V E L O P P E M E N T R U R A L

I n t r o d u c t i o n

La c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s ~ e u t - e l l e e t r e un f a c t e u r de deve- loppement r u r a l ?

Une exper ience en cours dans l a P rov ince du Borgou (Republ ique P o p u l a i r e du Ben in ) nous permet t ra de donner une reponse 2 c e t t e q u e s t i o n .

La Prov ince du Borgou e s t s i t u e e dans l e Nord-Est de l a Republique P o p u l a i r e du Benin. A 1 l e s t , e11e a une f r o n t i e r e commune avec l e N i g e r i a , au n o r d avec l e N ige r , a 1 ' o u e s t l a P rov ince de 1 'A tacora , au sud l a P rov ince de Zou. E l l e s t e t e n d s u r p l u s de 400 km du nord au sud e t 180 km de l ' e s t a l ' o u e s t . C ' e s t l a p l u s v a s t e Prov ince de l a Republ ique P o p u l a i r e du Benin, avec 52.000 km2, s o i t e n v i r o n 48% du t e r r i t o i r e n a t i o n a l . Sa p o p u l a t i o n rep resen ts 15% e n v i r o n de l a p o p u l a t i o n t o t a l e b e n i n o i s e . Avec 407.127 h a b i t a n t s , l a P rov ince du Borgou possede l a p l u s f a i b l e d e n s i t e de p o p u l a t i o n , 7.08 h a b i t a n t s au km2 e n v i r o n .

Le groupe e t h n i q u e dominant e s t forme p a r l e s Bar iba , s u i v i des Gando, des Boko, des MokolIG, des Dendis, tous a g r i c u l t e u r s , e t e n f i n 1es e leveurs peu lh nomades.

Le c l i m a t de t ype t r o p i c a l soudanien ne comporte qu 'une s a i s o n de p l u i e e t une longue s a i s o n seche. Le reseau hydrographique e s t c a r a c t e r i s e p a r t r o i s groupes de cours d 'eau : Le N i g e r e t ses a f f l u e n t s (Sota, A l i b o r i , Mekrou); l 'Ouem@ e t 1 'Okpara.

Les s o l s s o n t en genera l de t ype f e r r u g i n e u x t r o p i c a l avec quelques f o i s des a ' f f l eu rements de l a t e r i t e . Ces s o l s quand i l s s o n t co r rec tement c h o i s i s con- v i e n n e n t 2 l a p l u p a r t des c u l t u r e s .

Nous sommes en presence d 'une Prov ince don t l e s p o t e n t i a l i t e s phys iques e t humai- nes son t r e l a t i v e m e n t impor tan tes .

Ce s o n t done l e s premiers r e s u l t a t s de c e t t e exper ience en cours dans l a P rov ince de Borgou q u i f e r o n t l ' o b j e t de n o t r e communication.

I. De l a Commerc ia l i sa t ion des P r o d u i t ~ i c o l e s aux S t r u c t u r e s Socio: P r o f e s s i o n n e l l e s Rura les

Le developpement r u r a l e s t l ' a f f a i r e des masses p o p u l a i r e s , ma is comment l e s amener 2 prendre conscience des c a p a c i t e s q u ' e l l e s r e c e l e n t ?

Que l a 6 t e n o t r e cheminement dans l a P rov ince de Borgou?

Avan t de 1e d e c r i r e , pennet tez-nous de vous exposer br ievement comment l a c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n t r a d i t i o n n e l l e des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s e t a i t o r g a n i s e e :

1. La c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n t r a d i t i o n n e l l e des p r o d u i t s a g r e

a ) l e s p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s d ' e x p o r t a t i o n

Les p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s d ' e x p o r t a t i o n de l a P rov ince du Borgou c o n s t i tu@s p a r 1es air.andes de k a r i t e , l e s a rach ides , I e co ton notamment, e t a i e n t c o l l e c t e s p a r l e s commercan ts - t ra i tan ts dans l e s v i l l a g e s pour l e c o m ~ t e des grandes compagnies d ' i m p o r t - e x p o r t .

A l a p roc lamat ion de l ' i ndependance en 1960, un o f f i c e de c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s a 6 t 6 c ree , mais , embo i tan t I e pas aux grandes compagnies e t rangeres d ' i m p o r t - e x p o r t , c e t organisme se s e r t a u s s i de commerqan ts - t ra i tan ts pour l a c o l l e c t e p r i m a i r e . Nous s i g n a l e r o n s que l e co ton a e c h a p ~ e au monopole de c e t o f f i c e de c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n . C ' e s t l a C.F.D.T ( 1 ) q u i , avec des equipes d ' a c h a t c o n s t i t u e e s p a r ses agents d'encadrement de l a p r o d u c t i o n c o t o n n i e r e , c o l l e c t e l e co ton au n iveau des v i l l a g e s . En 1973, e11e a e t e remplacee p a r une S o c i e t e N a t i o n a l s A g r i c o l e pour 1e Coton (SONACO) t rans fo rmee en decembre 1975 en S o c i e t e N a t i o n a l e pour l a P r o d u c t i o n A g r i c o l e (SONAGRI).

b ) Les p r o d u i t s v i v r i e r s

L e commerce des denres v i v r i e r e s p o r t e s u r l e sorgho, l e mais, 1es ignames, l e r i z , l e s cassettes de manioc ou d ' ignames e t c . . . Les commerqants- t ra i t a n t s se r e n d e n t s u r l e s marches t r a d i t i o n n e l s , c o l l e c t e n t ces p rodu i t s pour 1e compte de g r o s s i s t e s des grandes v i l l e s de l a P rov ince . Des femmes se renden t a u s s i s u r ces marches pour vendre des p r o d u i t s manufactures de p remie re n e c e s s i t e ( s e l , suc re , a l l u m e t t e s , e t c , ) , e t ache ten t des p r o d u i t s v i v r i e r s q u ' e l l e s revenden t au d e t a i l dans l e s gros c e n t r e s .

Les g r o s s i s t e s des grandes v i l l e s e x p o r t e n t l a quas i t o t a l i t 6 des p r o d u i t s ent reposes pendant un laps de temps v e r s l a P rov ince de l l A t a c o r a , l e Togo, l e N i g e r ou l e N i g e r i a .

Comme nous I e cons ta tons , I e p r o d u c t e u r a g r i c o l e l i v r e son p r o d u i t a des i n t e r m e d i a i r e s q u i f o n t des bene f i ces q u i ne r e v i e n n e n t pas dans l e m i l i e u r u r a l en vue de c o n t r i b u e r a l ' a m e l i o r a t i o n des c o n d i t i o n s economiques e t s o c i a l e s des l a r g e s masses p o p u l a i r e s .

La c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s d o i t e t r e consideree comme un pro longement normal des a c t i o n s de v u l g a r i s a t i o n a g r i c o l e e t l e s p roduc teurs o rgan ises dans ce sens.

Dans l a P rov ince du Borgou, n o t r e cheminement a 6 t 6 l e s u i v a n t : s e n s i b i l i - s a t i o n des p o p u l a t i o n s r u r a l e s ; c o n s t i t u t i o n du c a p i t a l s o c i a l ; e l e c t i o n du Conse i l d l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ; f o r m a t i o n des responsables e l u s des paysans;

. .. .

( 1 ) C.F.D.T.: Compagnie F ranca ise des T e x t i l e s , 9 r u e Lou is David, P a r i s 16

p r i s e en cha rge de l a c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s ; i n i t i a t i o n p r o - g r e s s i v e du C o n s e i l d l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a c e r t a i n e s t a c h e s .

2 . La s e n s i b i l i s a t i o n des p o p u l a t i o n s rural::

Le s e n s i b i l i s a t i o n des p o p u l a t i o n s r u r a l e s a debu te a l a r a d i o - d i f f u s i o n n a t i o n a l e dans l e cad re des em iss ions r u r a l e s en 1968, m a i s , 1es paysans de l a P r o v i n c e de Borgou n ' o n t eu un i n t e r l o c u t e u i - avec q u i d i s c u t e r d i r e c t e m e n t de l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n du monde r u r a l q u ' e n 1970.

Avan t de se r e n d r e dans l e s v i l l a g e s pou r 1es seances de s e n s i b i l i s a t i o n . l e Responsable de 1 ' A c t i o n C o o p e r a t i v e dans l a P r o v i n c e t i e n t des seances de t r a v a i l avec chacun des Chefs de S e c t e u r de P l o d e r n i s a t i o n R u r a l e en vue di; c h o i x des v i l l a g e s . Les c r i t s r e s r e t e n u s s o n t : ( i ) l a bonne e n t e n t e dans 1e v i l l a g e ; ( i i ) l a m a i t r i s e p r o g r e s s i v e des t e c h n i q u e s c u l t u r a l e s oa r l e s paysans.

Le theme e s s e n t i e l des seances de s e n s i b i l i s a t i o n des paysans e s t l a p r i s e en c h a r g e de l a c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n des p r o d u i t s .

Apres une i n t r o d u c t i o n l i r n i n a i r e de I ' o b j e c t de l a r e u n i o n , 1es paysans posen t des q u e s t i o n s s u r l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n p o s s i b l e d ' u n e c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n d o n t i l s s e r o n t e n t i e r e m e n t r e s p o n s a b l e s . Nous saurons p a r l a s u i t e q u ' e n 1970, dans l e s c i n q p r e m i e r s v i l l a g e s q u i a v a i e n t e t e r e t e n u s , personne ne c r o y a i t v r a i m e n t l a chose p o s s i b l e , j u s q u ' a u j o u r 013 l a b a s c u l e e s t a r r i v e e dans l e v i l l a g e pou r l ' a p p r e n t i s s a g e de l a pesee, l e j o u r 00 1e p r e s i d e n t a r e c u l e s f onds n e c e s s a i r e s p o u r p a y e r l e s p r o d u i t s des membres.

A l ' i s s u e des seances de s e n s i b i l i s a t i o n dans l e s v i l l a g e s r e t e n u s , i 1 e s t demand6 aux paysans de se r e u n i r sans 1es agen ts d ' encad remen t t e c h n i q u e p o u r d i s c u t e r de l a p r i s e en mains de l e u r s a f f a i r e s , d ' e l i r e l e u r C o n s e i l d l A d m i n i s - t r a t i o n e t de nous s o u m e t t r e l a l i s t s de l e u r s membres avec l a m e n t i o n de l a p a r t s o c i a l e payee p a r chacun d ' e u x .

3 . La c o n s t i t u t i o n du c a p i t a l s o c i a l

Le c a p i t a l s o c i a l du Groupement V i l l a g e o i s e s t c o n s t i t u e de p a r t s s o c i a l e s n o m i n a t i v e s de 1 .000 F r s / H e c t a r e ( 2 ) de c o t o n ou de r i z c u l t i v e a l a d a t e de l a c r e a t i o n du groupement . La p a r t s o c i a l e e s t payab le p a r t r a n c h e s s u c c e s s i v e s d o n t l a d e t e r m i n a t i o n du mon tan t e s t l a i s s e e 2 l a d i s c r e t i o n de chaque paysan.

Dans c e r t a i n s v i l l a g e s , l e s paysans o n t c o n s t i t u e l e u r c a p i t a l de demarrage avec des c o t i s a t i o n s de 25 F r s CFA chacun. C ' e s t seu lemen t a p r e s l a commercia- l i s a t i o n de l e u r s p r o d u i t s q u ' i l s o n t paye des t r a n c h e s s u b s t a n t i e l l e s . 11 e s t b i e n e n t e n d u que l e m o n t a n t de l a p a r t s o c i a l e s ' e n t e n d a l a d a t e de c r e a t i o n du groupement v i l l a g e o i s . S i p a r l a s u i t e 1e paysan augmente ses s u p e r f i c i e s emblavees, i 1 ne p a l e pas pou r a u t a n t des p a r t s s u p p l e m e n t a i r e s . Les p a r t s s o c i a l e s s o u s c r i t e s a l a c r e a t i o n du groupement v i l l a g e o i s s o n t l i b e r a b l e s s u r p l u s i e u r s annees c u l t u r a l e s .

( 2 ) 1 F r CFA = 0,02 FF

Nous considerons l e paiement de l a part soc i a l e , quelque s o i t l a f a ib l e s se de son montant,comme une preuve de 11int t?r6 t que 1e paysan porte a son organisa- t ion socio-professionnelle. La const i tu t ion de ce capi ta l e s t de toute facon indispensable pour f a i r e face aux depenses inherentes a la commercialisation des produits (achat de cahiers , de crayons, de bics , e t c . ) .

4 . L 'e lec t ion d u Conseil dlAdministration

Selon 1 'importance du v i l l a g e , 1 ' e f f e c t i f du Conseil dlAdministration va r i e de 9 A 15 membres. 11 e s t consei l le aux paysans de f a i r e en so r t e que tous l e s qua r t i e r s du v i l l age so i en t representes au se in du Conseil , qu'un t i e r s de 1 ' e f f e c t i f s o i t reserve aux femmes.

Cette e lec t ion des membres du Consei 1 dlAdministration e s t l a i s s e e 2 1 ' ini t i a - f i v e des paysans du v i l l a g e . Les premieres l i be ra t ions de tranches de pa r t s soc i a l e s e t an t f ixees 2 u n niveau relativement bas, 25 a 100 Frs CFA, tous l e s producteurs l i be ren t des tranches de parts socia les e t pa r t i c ipen t a 1 ' e l ec t ion des membres du Conseil dlAdministration.

Des ins t ruct ions s t r i c t e s sont donnees a l ' encadreur rural du v i l l age en vue de sa non immixtion dans l e choix des paysans.

A l ' i s s u e de p lus ieurs so i rees de longues d iscuss ions , l e s paysans annoncent a l ' encadreur rural l e s noms retenus par eux pour l e s fonctions de Pres ident , de Sec re t a i r e , de Tresor ier , de Peseurs, de ContrCjleur d u Groupement Villageois ( c e controleur du Groupement Villaqeois ne f a i t pas pa r t i e du Conseil dlAdminis- t r a t i o n ) .

Dans ce r t a in s v i l l ages , 1es paysans nous suppl ient de l e s a ider 2 la designa- t i on de leurs representants , ce 2 quoi nous nous rpfusons, considcrant que ces e l ec t ions l i b r e s devront t r adu i r e l a pr ise de responsabi l i tes e f f ec t ives de l a pa r t des paysans.

Un a deux mois environ avant l a commercialisation, l ' encadreur rura l du v i l l age forme dans la so i ree 1es peseurs. A pa r t ceux qui sont e lu s aux fonctions de peseurs, de nombreux paysans viennent apprendre a peser.

L'encadreur rural forme aussi l e s e c r e t a i r e dans l a tenue du r e g i s t r e des membres, des cahiers de comptabil i te simple, des f i ches de commercialisation, e t c .

E n raison de 1 'analphabetisme quasi general des populations ru ra l e s , i1 a e t e mis en place d@s 1971, une equipe d 'a lphabet isa t ion fonct ionnel le qui aide l ' encadreur rural dans la formation des responsables e lu s des Groupements Vi l lageois .

5 . La formation des responsables e lu s des paysans par l a Section Alphab6tisation Fonctionnel l e

L 'a lphabet isa t ion fonct ionnel le e s t l e f e r de lance des Groupement Vi l lageois . E l l e permet en e f f e t aux paysans de prendre en mains l eu r s a f f a i r e s dans l e u r univers socio-cul t u re l .

Les c o u r s se d e r o u l e n t en t r o i s e t a p e s : 1 e r e @ t a p e : Cours A; 2eme e t a p e : Cours B, 3eme e t a p e : Cours C.

Le Cours A e s t consac re a 1 ' a p p r e n t i s s a g e de l a pesee, au c a l c u l des p o i d s g r a c e a 1 ' e m p l o i d ' u n b o u l i e r . 11 du re en moyenne 20 2 25 heu res r e p a r t i e s s u r 7 i 14 j o u r n e e s . A p a r t l e s paysans des ignes p a r l e Groupement V i l l a g e o i s des a u l i t e u r s 1 i b r e s peuven t v e n i r l e s s u i v r e .

Le Cours B , c l e s t 1 ' a p p r e n t i s s a g e de l ' e c r i t u r e , de l ' e x e c u t i o n des q u a t r e o p e r a t i o n s a r i t h m e t i q u e s . I 1 d u r e en moyenne 30 5 50 heu res r e p a r t i e s s u r 10 a 25 j o u r s .

Le Cours C : Les e leves -paysans a p p r e n e n t a l i r e , a r e d i g e r de p e t i t s t e x t e s dans l e u r l angue . I 1 d u r e en moyenne 65 a 100 heu res r e p a r t i e s s u r un a deux mo is .

Les c o u r s A e t B s o n t d ' u n e i m p o r t a n c e c a p i t a l e p o u r l e demarrage de l a c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n p r i m a i r e des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s p a r l e s paysans p o u r l e s paysans. Le Cours C p e n n e t aux paysans de p r e n d r e p r o g r e s s i v e m e n t , v e r i t a b l e - ment en c h a r g e 1e deve loppement r u r a l i n t e g r a l e t ha rmon ise dans l e c a d r e de l e u r s s t r u c t u r e s s o c i o - p r o f e s s i o n n e l l e s .

6 . La p r i s e en cha rge de l a c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s

Au nom des Groupements V i l l a g e o i s de l a P r o v i n c e , l e CARDER ( C e n t r e d l A c t i o n R e g i o n a l e p o u r 1e Deve loppement R u r a l ) s i g n e avec l ' o r g a n i s m e cha rge de l ' e x p o r - t a t t o n du p r o d u i t , l a SONACEB ( S o c i e t e N a t i o n a l e de C o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n e t d l E x p o r t a t i o n du B e n i n ) , un c o n t r a t de c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n . Ce c o n t r a t s t i p u l e l e s o b l i g a t i o n s de chacune des p a r t i e s . L ' o r g a n i s m e cha rge de l ' e x p o r t a t i o n du p r o d u i t f o u r n i t l a s a c h e r i e , l a f i c e l l e , l e f o n d s de r o u l e m e n t . En c o n t r e - p a r t i e , l e s Groupement V i l l a g e o i s , p a r l e CARDER, s ' e n g a g e n t a f o u r n i r dans un d e l a i d e t e r m i n e un p r o d u i t de q u a l i t e marchande.

A l ' i s s u e des o p e r a t i o n s de c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n , des f r a i s de march6 s o n t payes aux G r o u p e m e n t s V i l l a g e o i s . 11s v a r i e n t de 1 .000 2. 1.200 F r s . l a t onne c o m m e r c i a l i s e e . Ces f r a i s de marche ne s o n t pas r e p a r t i s a chaque membre au p r o r a t a de ses a p p o r t s mais c o n t r i b u e n t 2 l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n des r e s s o u r c e s du Groupement V i l l a g e o i s q u i 1es i n v e s t i t dans des equ ipements soc io-economiques c o l l e c t i f s 5 s a v o i r : b a s c u l e s , a p p a r e i l s de t r a i t e m e n t p h y t o s a n i t a i r e s , a c h a t de m o u l i n s a maTs, m i s e en p l a c e de c a i s s e s pharmact iu t iques v i l l a g e o i s e s , c o n s t r u c t i o n de magas ins de s t o c k a g e , d ' e c o l e s , de d i s p e n s a i r e s , c o n t r i b u t i o n f i n a n c i e r s a l a c r e a t i o n d ' u n magas in p o p u l a i r e en vue d ' a s s u r e r l ' a p p r o v i s i o n - nement des masses p o p u l a i r e s au m o i n d r e c o i t en p r o d u i t s m a n u f a c t u r e s de p r e m i e r e n e c e s s i t e , c o n s t r u c t i o n de s i l o s a g r a i n s ; ces deux d e r n i e r e s a c t i o n s s ' i n s c r i v e n t dans 1e c a d r e d ' u n e c o o p e r a t i v e p o l y v a l e n t e au n i v e a u de l a Commune R u r a l e .

7 . L ' i n i t i a t i o n p r o g r e s s i v e du C o n s e i l d l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n 2. c e r t a i n e s t s c h e s - -. - - -. . . -- - - -- .- - -- - . - - . - -- -

Le C o n s e i l d l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n du Groupement V i l l a g e o i s e s t p r o q r e s s i v e m e n t i n i t i e : ( i ) a l a p l a n i f i c a t i o n des b e s o i n s en semences, en e n g r a i s , en p r o d u i t s

de l u t t e c e n t r e l e s p a r a s i t e s des p l a n t e s , en o u t i l l a g e a g r i c o l e ; ( i i ) a l a d i s t r i b u t i o n , l a r e c u p e r a t i o n des p r e t s en n a t u r e .

A i n s i degage de c e r t a i n e s t s c h e s i n g r a t e s du v u l y a r i s a t e u r a g r i c o l e ( d i s - t r i b u t i o n des semences, des e n g r a i s , des p r o d u i t s p h y t o s a n i t a i r e s , e t c . ) l ' e n c a d r e u r r u r a l se consac re mieux i sa t i c h e de c o n s e i l l e r a g r i c o l e a s a v o i r l ' a p p l i c a t i o n c o r r e c t s des t e c h n i q u e s c u l t u r a l e s , l ' a p p r e n t i s s a g e de l a t enue de f i c h e s de c u l t u r e aux paysans, e t c .

* * * La p r i s e en charge de l a c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n p r i m a i r e des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s

p a r l e s paysans l e u r pe rme t de d i s p o s e r de r e s s o u r c e s f i n a n c i e r e s p o u r dynamise r l e u r s s t r u c t u r e s s o c i o - p r o f e s s i o n n e l l e s .

Grace 2 ces r e s s o u r c e s f i n a n c i e r e s ge rees e t c o n t r o l 6 e s p a r e l les-memes, l e s masses r u r a l e s s ' e q u i p e n t s u r l e p l a n soc io -economique , d e c h a r g e n t 1 ' e n c a d r e u r de c e r t a i n e s t i c h e s i n g r a t e s du v u l g a r i s a t e u r a g r i c o l e .

P rog ress i vemen t , l e deve loppement se t r o u v e p r i s en c h a r g e p a r l e s i n t 6 r e s - s6s eux-memes e t s ' amorce l a l u t t e p o u r l a l i q u i d a t i o n des d i f f e r e n c e s e n t r e l a v i l l e e t l a campagne.

Dans l a deuxieme p a r t i e de n o t r e communicat ion, nous nous a t t a c h e r o n s 2 e x p l i q u e r comment ces s t r u c t u r e s s o c i o - p r o f e s s i o n n e l l e s r u r a l e s c o n s t i t u e n t l a s o l u t i o n d ' a v e n i r p o u r un deve loppement r u r a l i n t e g r a l e t ha rmon is6 des l a r g e s masses p o p u l a i r e s des campagnes.

11. Les S t r u c t u r e s S o c i o - P r o f e s s i o n n e l l e s R u r a l e s : C l e p o u r un Deve loppement R u r a l I n t e g r a l e t Hat-mcnise

1 T y p o l o g i e des Groupements V i l l a g e o i s

Dans l a P r o v i n c e de Borgou, 1e p rocessus 6 v o l u t i f des Groupements V i l l a g e o i s nous l e s f a i t c l a s s e r en t r o i s g rands t y p e s :

Groupement V i l l a g e o i s 'G1: P r i s e en cha rge de l a c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n p r i m a i r e des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s .

Groupenlent V i l l a g e o i s G2: A c q u i s i t i o n ~t p o s s ~ s s i o n c o l l e c t i v e s rip c e r t a i n s m a t e r i e l s : a p p a r e i l s de t r a i t e m e n t p h y t o s a n i t a i r e s , b a s c u l e s , e t c .

Groupement V i l l a g e o i s G3: A c c u m u l a t i o n f i n a n c i e r e au n i v e a u du Groupement V i l l a g e o i s g r a c e a l a p o s s e s s i o n c o l l e c t i v e de b a s c u l e s e t d ' a p p a r e i l s de t r a i t e m e n t p h y t o s a n i t a i r e s q u i f a i t p r o g r e s s e r l e p r i x du k i l og ramme de c o t o n .

C o n s t r u c t i o n de magas ins ou de s i l o s de s t o c k a g e dans l e v i l l a g e .

F inancement d ' u n magas in p o p u l a i r e au n i v e a u de l a Commune R u r a l e en vue de s a t i s f a i r e i un rno indre c o u t l e s b e s o i n s des membres des Groupements V i l l a g e o i s en p r o d u i t s de t o n s o m a t i o n c o u r a n t e , en p i e c e s de rechange de c h a r r u e , en a p p a r e i l s de t r a i t e m e n t p h y t o s a n i t a i r e s , en m a t e r i a u x de c o n s t r u c t i o n , en mobi 1 i e r , e t c . . .

A ce s t a d e l e Groupement V i l l a g e o i s f i n a n c e l ' a c t i o n s o c i a l e axee s u r l a l u t t e c o n t r e l ' a n a l p h a b e t i s m e , l ' e t a t s a n i t a i r e d e f i c i e n t .

C e t t e t y p o l o g i e des Groupements V i l l a g e o i s n ' e s t pas une s imp le vue de l ' e s p r i t , une p r o j e c t i o n de s p e c i a l i s t s des ques t ions r u r a l e s , mais l e r e s u l t a t d ' o b s e r v a t i o n s de t e r r a i n . 11 e s t en e f f e t c l a i r que des l ' i n s t a n t ou 1es paysans d ' u n v i l l a g e s 'engagen t 2 c r e e r l e u r Groupement V i l l a g e o i s , c e l u i - c i f a i t p a r t i e des G1. Une f o i s l a c o n m e r c i a l i s a t i o n achevee, l e s p a r t s l i b e r e e s , l e s f r a i s de commercial i s a t i o n payes p a r 1 'organisms s tockeur , l e f inancement d 'une bascu le e t des a p p a r e i l s de t r a i t e m e n t p h y t o s a n i t a i r e s pen t e t r e env isage p a r l e Groupement V i l l a g e o i s qu i passe au G2.

La possession c o l l e c t i v e d 'une bascule e s t un voeu des paysans. Comment p o u r r a i e n t - i l s apprer 'dre 2 peser s ' i l s ne possedaient pas de bascu le? La l o c a t i o n de bascules aupres de l ' o r g a n i s m e q u i s 'occupe de l ' e x p o r t a t i o n des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s ne r e s o u t pas l e probleme, c e l u i - c i n ' e n possedant qu 'une q u a n t i t e l i m i t e e l ' egard du nombre de Groupements V i l l a g e o i s demandeurs.

La possession c o l l e c t i v e des a p p a r e i l s de t r a i t e m e n t p h y t o s a n i t a i r e s f a i t p a r t i e a u s s i des voeux des paysans. Tres souvent en e f f e t , l e s a p p a r e i l s de t r a i t e m e n t s p h y t o s a n i t a i r e s s o n t d e s t i n e s 2 p l u s i e u r s v i l l a g e s q u i s ' e n s e r v e n t 2 t o u r de r o l e . I 1 f a u t que l e s paysans a t t e n d a n t que l e u r s camarades du v i l l a g e v o i s i n f i n i s s e n t l e s t ravaux p h y t o s a n i t a i r e s pour a l l e r l e s chercher , ce q u i occasionne des p e r t e s de temps a un moment ou l e s paysans n ' o n t aucune env ie d ' e n oe rd re .

Dans l e c a h i e r des doleances des paysans f i g u r e presque t o u j o u r s en bonne p lace l ' a m e l i o r a t i o n du p r i x du ki logramme de co ton . Quand on l e u r e x p l i q u e que l a possession c o l l e c t i v e des a p p a r e i l s de t r a i t e m e n t p h y t o s a n i t a i r e s f a v o r i s e r a l ' a m e l i o r a t i o n de ce p r i x , 1e chemin q u i c o n d u i t du G1 au G2 e s t b i e n pa rcouru ensemble p a r l e s t e c h n i c i e n s e t l e s paysans.

11 r e s t e e n s u i t e 2 p a r c o u r i r ensemble l a d i s t a n c e q u i separe l e s G2 des G3. Les c o n d i t i o n s d ' e x 6 c u t i o n de ce pa rcours s o n t - e l l e s r e m p l i e s ?

Nous repondons p a r 1 ' a f f i r m a t i v e :

- 1es paysans s o u h a i t e n t m e t t r e 2 l ' a b r i d ' e v e n t u e l s i n c e n d i e s , l e u r bascu le e t l e u r s a p p a r e i l s de t r a i t e m e n k p h y t o s a n i t a i r e s cherement acqu is ( n e c e s s i t e de c o n s t r u c t i o n d ' u n magasin c o u v e r t de f e u i l l e s de t o l e s ) . 11s s o u h a i t e n t auss i c o n s t i t u e r des reserves a l i m e n t a i r e s en c o l l e c t a n t l e s s u r p l u s de ce rea les q u i s e r o n t conserves dans des s i l o s c o l l e c t i f s en maconnerie;

- l e s besoins s a n i t a i r e s non s a t i s f a i t s son t v ivement r e s s e n t i s p a r l e s p o p u l a t i o n s s i t u e e s l o i n du moindre p e t i t c e n t r e med ica l ;

- pour ce q u i concerne l a l u t t e c o n t r e l ' ana lphabe t i sme, des l ' i n s t a n t oG l e s paysans dec iden t de p rendre en charge l a c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n a g r i c o l e i l s se renden t b i e n compte de l e u r i n c a p a c i t e a l ' a s s u r e r sans un p r e a l a b l e a p p r e n t i s s a - ge de l e c t u r e , d ' e c r i t u r e e t de c a l c u l . Le Groupement V i l l a g e o i s prend f i n a n - c i s rement en charge t o u t l e m a t e r i e l d i d a c t i q u e necessa i re a l a f o r m a t i o n de ses membres.

Les Groupements V i l l a g e o i s c o n s t i t u e n t de v e r i t a b l e 8 s t r u c t u r e s d ' a c c u e i l de l a m o d e r n i s a t i o n du monde r u r a l .

11s p e r m e t t e n t auc communautes r u r a l e s : de s ' o r g a n i s e r p o u r a r r e t e r des p l a n s e t a g i r ; de d e f i n i r l e u r s b e s o i n s e t de c e r n e r l e s c o n t o u r s de l e u r prob lemes i n d i v i d u e l s e t communs; d ' e l a b o r e r des p l a n s c o l l e c t i f s e t i n d i v i d u e l s p o u r r e p o n d r e a l e u r s b e s o i n s e t r e s o u d r e l e u r prob lemes; d ' e x e c u t e r ces p l a n s en se s e r v a n t au maximum des r e s s o u r c e s de l a comrnunautP; de se r e n d r e compte p r o - g r e s s i v e m e n t de l e u r s p r o p r e s c a p a c i t e s .

Le f a i t de p o u v o i r se r e t r o u v e r , a g r ~ c u l t e u r s e t cad res t e c h n i q u e s p o u r d i s c u t e r des prob lemes d ' o r g a n i s a t i o n de l a c o l l e c t e p r i m a i r e des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s e t des i n v e s t i s s e m e n t s c o l l e c t i f s a c a r a c t e r e soc io -economique , d o i t p e r m e t t r e p a r 1 ' e n q u e t e - p a r t i c i p a t i o n d 'amener p r o g r e s s i v e m e n t l e s a g r i c u l t e u r s a de n o u v e l l e s i d e e s , a un d e s i r de p r o g r @ s c o n t i n u p a r l a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n du mode de p r o d u c t i o n .

L ' a m e l i o r a t i o n du mode de v i e a c t u e l des p o p u l a t i o n s r u r a l e s e s t l ine neces- s i t e . Son i n f l u e n c e s u r l a m o r t a l i t e , l ' e d u c a t i o n , l a f o r m a t i o n des j e u n e s , s u r l a p r o s p e r i t e de l a r e g i o n e s t p reponde ran te . 11 e s t c l a i r que l ' e v o l u t i o n a i n s i amorcee, p a r 1es b e s o i n s q u ' e l l e tree, d e v i e n t un a c c e l e r a t e u r p u i s s a n t de 1 ' e f f o r t des f o r c e s de t r a v a i l .

Au 31 decembre 1975, t o u s 1es v i l l a g e s de l a P r o v i n c e du Borgou e t a i e n t e r i g e s en Groupements V i l l a g e o i s GI s o i t 317 d o n t p l u s de l a m o i t i e e t a i t au s t ade G2.

Dans l e c o u r a n t de l ' a n n e e 1975, 1es peysans de l a Commune R u r a l e de B o r i o u v r a i e n t 1Â p r e m i e r magas in p o p u l a i r e de l a P r o v i n c e en f a i s a n t p a s s e r 5 Groupements V i l l a g e o i s au s t a d e G3 avec un c a p i t a l de 1 .400.000 F r s CFA.

Au c o u r s du p r e m i e r t r i m e s t r e 1976, 36 Groupements V i l l a g e o i s de 5 Communes Ru ra les r e u n i s s a i e n t un c a p i t a l s o c i a l de 5 .160.000 F r s . CFA ce q u i l e u r p e r m e t t a i t d ' o u v r i r l e u r s magas ins p o p u l a i r e s .

A l a f i n de l ' a n n e e 1977, nous denombrons 17 magas ins p o p u l a i r e s t o t a l i s a n t un c a p i t a l s o c i a l de p r @ s de 15.000.000 F r s . CFA.

Les c o n d i t i o n s f i n a n c i e r e s s o n t a c t u e l l e m e n t r e m p l i e s p o u r m e t t r e en p l a c e d ' a v a n t a g e de magas ins p o p u l a i r e s ma is l e f a c t e u r l i m i t a n t r e s t e l a p e n u r i e de cad res q u a l i f i e s dans l e s prob lemes de g e s t i o n en vne de 1 ' i n i t i a t i o n des paysans -ge ran ts a l e u r s n o u v e l l e s t z c h e s a i n s i que dans l e domaine de l ' a n i m a t i o n e t du c o n t r o l e des c o o p e r a t i v e s .

Pou r l a campagne de c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n 1977-1978 nous e n r e g i s t r o n s :

a) au t i t r e des e x p l o i t a t i o n s a g r i c o l e s e t des menages

D e s i g n a t i o n des ; P r i x de l a tonne ; Q u a n t i t e commerc ia l i - ; Va leu r des p r o d u i t s ; ; Produi t s ( m i l l i e r s de FCFA); see ( m i l l i e r s de T ) ; ( m i l l i e r s de FCFA);

'A rach ides en C O Q ~ 40 2.191 87.649

; Coton 4 3 8.394 360.925 I

R i z paddy 36 1,6 58 I

M a i s 30 85 1 25.530

S o r g h o 25 405 10.126

Igname 20 21 421

b ) au t i t r e des o r g a n i s a t i o n s s o c i o - p r o f e s s i o n n e l l es r u r a l e s

;Des igna t ion des ; F r a i s de march6 ; Q u a n t i t e commerc ia l i - ; Va leu rdes p r o d u i t s ; p rodu i t s a l a tonne(FCFA) ; see ( m i l l i e r s de T ) ; ( m i l l i e r s de FCFA);

Amandes de k a r i t e ; 1.000 4.848 4.848 I

A r a c h i d e s e n coque; 1.000 , 2.191 2.191

C o t o n 1.765 8.394 ; 14.815 a

R i z paddy ; 1 .OOO 1,6 1,6

M a f s ; 1 .OOO 851 85'1 S o r g h o 1 .OOO 405 405

; Igname ; 1.000 2 1 21

T o t a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.132

Ces deux tab leaux nous p e r m e t t e n t de c o n s t a t e r qu 'en p l u s des 600 m i l l i o n s de FrsCFA r e p a r t i s i n d i v i d u e l l e m e n t aux p roduc teurs à 23 m i l l f o n s de Frs CFA r e v i e n n e n t c o l l e c t i v e m e n t aux o r g a n i s a t i o n s s o c i o - p r o f e s s i o n n e l l e s r u r a l e s . Ces f r a i s

de marche augmentent l e u r c a p i t a l . 11s l e u r p e r m e t t e n t de passer du p a l i e r G1 aux p a l i e r s G2 e t G3.

Au p a l i e r G3, e l l e s i n v e s t i s s e n t dans l a c o n s t r u c t i o n de magasins ou de s i l o s de s tockage au n iveau du v i l l a g e ; f i n a n c e n t un magasin p o p u l a i r e au n i veau communal pour s a t i s f a i r e 2 un moindre tout l e s beso ins des membres en p r o d u i t s manufactures de p remie re n e c e s s i t e e t l ' a c t i o n s o c i a l e axee su r l a l u t t e c e n t r e

. 1 'analphabet isme, l ' e t a t s a n i t a i r e d e f i c i e n t , e t c . .

Par une r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n des t r a n s p o r t s des l i e u x de c o l l e c t e aux cen t res de t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , l a s o c i e t e p r o v i n c i a l e de c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n des p r o d u i t s a g r i - c o l e s peu t r e d u i r e l e s f r a i s d 'approche, ce q u i 1 u i pe rmet t ra de d i sposer davantage de ressources f i n a n c i e r e s en vue de son autof inancement .

Au t o t a l , l a p r i s e en charge de l a c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s au n iveau de l a P rov ince p a r une s o c i e t e r e g i o n a l e , son e x e c u t i o n au n iveau des v i l l a g e s p a r l e s s t r u c t u r e s s o c i o - p r o f e s s i o n n e l l e s r u r a l e s , c o n s t i t u e n t un f a c t e u r de te rm inan t de developpement r u r a l . En e f f e t , l e developpement r u r a l i n t e g r a l e t harmonise des l a r g e s masses p o p u l a i r e s ne se r e a l i s e r a que dans l a mesure 00 i 1 dev iendra l e u r a f f a i r e e t ne r e s t e r a p l u s seulement c e l l e des t e c h n i c i e n s du M i n i s t e r e du D6veloppement Rura l e t de ] ' A c t i o n Coopera t i ve .

Conclus ion

L ' e x p e r i e n c e en cours dans l a P rov ince du Borgou e s t r i c h e d'enseignements pour l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n du developpement r u r a l i n t e g r e e t harmonise. Des a g r i c u l - t e u r s anal phabetes r e u s s i s s e n t grace 5 1 'a1 p h a b e t i s a t i o n dans l e u r 1 angue a prendre en charge l a c o l l e c t e p r i m a i r e de l e u r s p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s , t i e n n e n t l e s comptes de l e u r s o r g a n i s a t i o n s s o c i o - p r o f e s s i o n n e l l e s , l i s e n t des f i c h e s techn iques , l e u r j o u r n a l r u r a l , p a r t i c i p e n t de maniere a c t i v e a l a r e d a c t i o n de ce j o u r n a l r u r a l .

La p r i s e en charge de l a c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n p a r 1es p roduc teurs eux-mSmes a c o n t r i b u e a l a d i s p a r i t i o n p r o g r e s s i v e du c l i m a t de s u s p i c i o n ( 3 ) . Cela a pennis aux cadres techniques de se m e t t r e en p o s i t i o n de d ia logue avec ces p o p u l a t i o n s organisees, c ' e s t - 2 - d i r e passer de 1 ' a t t i t u d e du f o n c t i o n n a i r e 2 q u i l e s paysans d o i v e n t soumiss ion, paysans auxquels i 1 e t a i t den ie t o u t e i n i t i a t i v e c r e a t r i c e , pour passer a un s tade dynamique grace aux s t r u c t u r e s de p a r t i c i p a t i o n des communautes r u r a l e s .

C e t t e exper ience prouve, q u ' a chaque f o i s qu 'une p o p u l a t i o n s ' e s t rendue compte de ses propres capac i tes e t a u t i l i s e avec p r o f i t l ' a i d e techn ique e t m a t @ r i e l l e d i s p o n i b l e , non seulement e l l e m u r i t , mais e l l e c o n t r i b u e en o u t r e a resoudre 1e probleme n a t i o n a l p l u s vas te de l a p r o d u c t i o n , de l a c o n s t r u c t i o n .

La p r i s e en charge de l a c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s , 1 ' i n v e s - t i ssement des commissions de c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n dans l e s p r o j e t s c o l l e c t i f s 2 c a r a c t e r e economique, s o c i a l , c u l t u r e l ne c o n s t i t u e n t q u ' u n p r e m i e r pas dans l a v o i e de 1 ' e d i f i c a t i o n d 'une s o c i e t e n o u v e l l e .

Ces a c t i o n s pe rmet ten t 2 l ' e t a p e a c t u e l l e d ' e l i m i n e r au n i v e a u des communau- t e s v i l l a g e o i s e s l e s abus des commercan ts - t ra i tan ts mais l e probleme de f o n d demeure. I 1 s ' a g i t de l a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n p r o g r e s s i v e du mode de p r o d u c t i o n .

( 3 ) auparavant l e s 6quipes d ' a c h a t de co ton -g ra ine p a r exemple e t a i e n t c o n s t i - tuees p a r des agents de l a v u l g a r i s a t i o n a g r i c o l e

11 e x i s t e en e f f e t une i n t e r a c t i o n d i ? l e c l i q u e e n t r e l a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n du mode de p r o d u c t i o n e t l a r e v o l u t i o n t e c h n i q u e . C ' e s t l a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n du mode de p r o d u c t i o n q u i o u v r e l a v o i e a une v e r i t a b l e r e v o l u t i o n t e c h n i q u e . Seu l 1e reg roupemen t des e x p l o i t a t i o n s a g r i c o l e s pe rme t d ' u t i l i s e r r a t i o n n e l l emen t l a c h a r r u e , l e t r a c t e u r , d ' u n i r 1es e f f o r t s en vue de l a r e a l i s a t i o n des t r a v a u x de p e t i t e h y d r a u l i q u e r u r a l e .

La t r a n s f o r m a t i o n du mode de p r o d u c t i o n c r e e l e s bases soc io-economiques capab les de f a i r e p r o g r e s s e r l a r e v o l u t i o n t e c h n i q u e q u i , en r e t o u r , c o n s o l i d e 1es nouveaux r a p p o r t s de p r o d u c t i o n q u i c r e e n t l e s bases m a t e r i e l l e s e t t e c h n i - ques pou r p a r f a i r e sans a r r e t 1es r a p p o r t s de p r o d u c t i o n s o c i a l i s t e s .

Les nouveaux r a p p o r t s de p r o d u c t i o n s o c i a l i s t e s (de chacun s e l o n ses c a p a c i t e s , a chacun s e l o n son t r a v a i l , e t ceux q u i t r a v a i l l e n t p l u s gagnen t p l u s ) , p e n n e t t e n t de p r o c e d e r a de nouve l l e s r e p a r t i t i o n s du t r a v a i l e n t r e l e s a n c i e n s , l e s femmes e t 1es j eunes , de d e v e l o p p e r l a p r o d u c t i o n , d ' a m ^ l i o r e r l a v i e du Peup le , e t d ' a c c r o f t r e avec r a p i d i t e 1 ' a c c u m u l a t i o n en vue de 1 ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n s o c i a l i s t e , d ' a p p r e n d r e aux f o r c e s de t r a v a i l a g e r e r democrat iquement l e u r s u n i t p s de p r o d u c t i o n .

Dans l a p r o v i n c e du Borgou, l e s c o n d i t i o n s s o n t remol ies p o u r que l e s cad res a t o u s 1es n i v e a u x d e c l e n c h e n t , sous l a r e s p o n s a b i l i t e des i n s t a n c e s du P a r t i de l a R e v o l u t i o n P o p u l a i r e du B e n i n , une v a s t e campagne de t r a n s f o r m a t i o n du mode de p r o d u c t i o n dans l e s campagnes.

A l ' i s s u e des t r a v a u x de l a Con fe rence P r o v i n c i a l e s u r l a C o o p e r a t i o n a g r i c o l e t enue a Parakou, C h e f - l i e u de l a P r o v i n c e , l e s 3 , 4 , 5 e t 6 mars 1973, c e t t e v a s t e campagne demarre . Ses e f f e t s s ' i n s c r i v e n t ~ r o g r e s s i v e m e n t dans l e paysage p a r 1es v a s t e s @tendues de t e r r e m ises en v a l e u r p a r l e s rnembres des c o o p e r a t i v e s de p r o d u c t i o n a g r i c o l e .

COMERCIALI Z A C I ~ N D E L O S PRODUCTOS A G R ~ C O L A S E L E M E N T 0 D E L D E S A R R O L L O R U R A L

E l i n f o r m e a n a l i z a y d e s c r i b e un programa l l e v a d o a cabo en l a p r o v i n c i a de Borgou de l a Republics P o p u l a r de B e n i n . Se t r a t a de un programa de a l f a b e - t i z a c i 6 n de 10s campesinos l i g a d o a l a p a r t i c i p a c i 6 n p o p u l a r en l a f o r m a c i 6 n de c o o p e r a t i v a s r u r a l e s que t i e n e n como o b j e t i v o ~ n o d i f i c a r q radua lmen te 1as c o n d i c i o n e s de c o m e r c i a l i z a c i 6 n de 10s p r o d u c t o s a g r i c o l a s . E l i n f o r m e a n a l i z a 10s aspec tos e x p l o t a t i v o s y 1as d e s v e n t a j a s de 10s s i s temas t r a d i c i o n a l e s de ven ta de 10s p r o d u c t o s a g r i c o l a s e e x p l i c a como en c i e r t a s a l d e a s , 10s campesinos con l a ayuda d e l programa de a l f a b e t i z a c i 6 t i han formado coope ra - t i v a s y c o n t r o l a n de f a c t o e l comerc io de sus p r o d u c t o s a g r i c o l a s . E x p l i c a tarnbien c6mo se pueden a p l i c a r l a s mismas e s t r a t e g i a s a o t r a s r e g i o n e s d e l p a t s . La c o n c l u s i 6 n es que un d e s a r r o l l o r u r a l e q u i t a t i v o y b i e n i n t e q r a d o en l a n a c i b n s o l o se puede a l c a n z a r a t r a v 6 s de l a p a r t i c i p a c i b n de l a s masas r u r a l e s en l a s o l u c i h n de sus p rob lemas .

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS

THE RELIGIOUS AND TRADITIONAL VALUES I N DEVELOPMENT I N THE 8Os, WITH SPECIF IC REFERENCE TO THE SARVODAYA MOVEMENT (SR I LANKA)

by A .T .Ar i ya ra tna 'Methmedura", Sarvodaya Ins ti t u t e 77 de Soysa Road Moratuwa, S r i Lanka

O r i g i n a l language: E n g l i s h

A b s t r a c t : The Sarvodaya Movement, founded i n 1958, has a c t i v i t i e s i n over 2,300

v i l l a g e s i n S r i Lanka. It i s s o l i d l y r o o t e d i n Buddh is t r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s and

p r a c t i c e s , as they p r e v a i l among the v a s t m a j o r i t y o f r u r a l f o l k . The p r imary

aim o f Sarvodaya i s t h e t o t a l awaikening o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y based on

t h e f o u r Buddh is t v i r t u e s : Met ta ( F r i e n d l i n e s s ) , Karuna (Compassion), Mudhi ta

( A l t r u i s t i c J o y ) , and Upekkha (a balanced s t a t e o f m ind) . Ten b a s i c human needs

a r e i d e n t i f i e d which a r e then ca te red f o r by t h e a1 t r u i s t i c a c t i o n s o f f e l l o w

human beings, o f which Shramadana ( s h a r i n g o f ones t ime, though t and energy) i s

t h e c e n t r a l element. Through Shramadana, t h e Movement has at tempted t o c o n s t r u c t

a s o c i a l and economic i n f r a s t r u c t u r e based on a s t r o n g community s p i r i t .

A conference h e l d i n S r i Lanka i n A p r i l 1978 w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f rom 12

c o u n t r i e s on 'Sarvodaya and World Development' agreed t h a t Sarvodaya draws

s t r e n g t h from r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n w i t h o u t dependence on any p a r t i c u l a r r e l i g i o n

and t h a t Sarvodaya concepts and a s p i r a t i o n s a r e r e l e v a n t t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l develop-

ment. I n t h e f i e l d s o f personal r e l a t i o n s h i p s , community o r g a n i z a t i o n , t o t a l

educa t ion , s i m p l i c i t y i n p a t t e r n s o f l i v i n g , over-coming o f t h e s t r e s s e s o f a

r a p i d l y moving i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c u l t u r e , a g r e a t deal o f exper ience based on

Sarvodaya c o u l d f l e w from t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s t o the r i c h .

Le Mouvement Sarovaya, fond6 en 1958, e s t a c t i f dans p l u s de 2 '300 v i l l a g e s du S r i Lanka. I 1 e s t so l i dement ancre dans l e s croyances e t l e s p r a t i q u e s du bouddhisme, r e l i g i o n predominante au S r i Lanka. L ' o b j e c t i f p r i m o r d i a l de Sarvodaya e s t l ' e v e i l t o t a l de l a p e r s o m a l i t e b a s e s u r l e s q u a t r e v e r t u s bouddh is tes : Me t ta ( a m i t i e ) , Karuna (compassion), Mudhi ta (1e p l a i s i r a l t r u i s t e ) e t Upekkha ( l ' e q u i l i b r e m e n t a l ) . D i x besoins humains fondamentaux s o n t i den- t i f i e s q u i s o n t s a t i s f a i t s p a r l e s a c t i o n s a ' ! t r u i s t e s des e t r e s humains, dont l e Shramadana ( p a r t a g e r son temps, ses pensees e t son e n e r g i e ) e s t l ' e l e m e n t c e n t r a l . Par 1e moyen de Shramadana, l e mouvement e s s a i e de c r e e r une i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e s o c i a l e e t Gconomique s u r l a base d ' u n f o r t e s p r i t communautaire.

Une conference tenue au S r i Lanka en a v r i l 1978 avec l e s rep resen tan ts de 12 pays s u r "Sarvodaya e t l e developpement mond ia l " a c o n c l u que l e mouvement Sarvodaya t i r e sa f o r c e des t r a d i t i o n s r e l i g i e u s e s sans dependre p o u r a u t a n t d 'aucune r e l i g i o n en p a r t i c u l i e r e t que l e s concepts e t a s p i r a t i o n s de Sarvodaya peuvent s ' a p p l i q u e r au d6veloppement i n t e r n a t i o n a l . Dans lesdomaines des r e l a - t i o n s pe rsonne l les e t de l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n communautaire, de l ' e d u c a t i o n t o t a l e de l a s i m p l i c i t e dans l e s s t y l e s de v i e , du depassement des tens ions r e s u l t a n t s de 1 ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n , beaucoup d 'exper iences basees sur Sarvodaya p o u r r a i e n t c o n s t i t u e r un a p p o r t du T i e r s Monde aux soc iG t6s des pays i n d u s t r i a l i s e s .

VALORES R E L I G I O S O S Y T R A D I C I O N A L E S APL ICADOS A L DESARROLLO: E L M O V I M I E N T O SARVODAYA DE S R I LANKA

Resumen

E l Movimiento Sarvodaya fundado en 1958, t i e n e hoy d i a a c t i v i d a d e s en 2,300 a ldeas de S r i Lanka. E l Movimiento t i e n e sus r a i c e s profundas en l a f i l o s o f i a B u d i s t a e en l a p r a c t i c a d e l Budismo que p r e v a l e c e e n t r e l a mayorfa de l a s pob lac iones r u r a l e s . E l o b j e c t i v e p r i m o r d i a l de Sarvodaya es e l d e s p e r t a r de l a p e r s o n a l i d a d humana y su adhesion a l a s c u a t r o v i r t u d e s d e l Budismo: Met ta (amis tad ) , Karuna (compasi6n), Mudi tha ( a l e g r i a a l t r u i s t a ) y Upekkha ( e q u i l i b r i o m e n t a l ) . Se i d e n t i f i c a r o n 10 necesidades humanas bas icas cuya satisfaction se debe p r e t e n - d e r a l c a n z a r pa ra toda l a humanidad, o b j e t i v o a l t r u i s t a que se p rocura a l c a n z a r p o r medio de Shramadana, l a dedication de su t iempo, energ ia y i n t e l i g e n c i a a l a causa. Por medio de Shramadana e l Hovimiento p rocura c r e a r une i n f r a e s t r u c t u r a s o c i a l e economics basada en un f u e r t e e s p i r i t u comun i ta r io .

E l term de l a c o n f e r e n c i a d e l Movimiento que r e u n i 6 a p a r t i c i p a n t e s de 12 p a i s e s en S r i Lanka en a b r i l de 1978 f u 6 "Sarvodaya e e l D e s a r r o l l o Mund ia l " . Los p a r t i - c i p a n t e s concordaron en que a h sacando s u f u e r z a de l a tradition r e l i g i o s a e l Movimiento no depends de n inguna r e l t g i h , an tes sus conceptos y a s p i r a c i o n e s pueden a p l i c a r s e a1 d e s a r r o l l o mundia l . En e l campo de l a s r e l a c i o n e s humanas, de 10s e s t i l o s de v ida , de l a manera de encara r 10s problemas de l a i n d u s t r i a l i - zac i f ln , Sarvodaya puede r e p r e s e n t a r una contribution v a l i o s a de l T e r c e r Mundo a l a s sociedades de 10s p a i s e s i n d u s t r i a l i z a d o s .

RELIGIOUS AND TRADITIONAL VALUES IN DEVELOPMENT IN THE 1980s WITH S P E C I F I C REFERENCE TO THE SARVODAYA SHRAMADANA MOVEMENT I N S R I LANKA

The Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement was founded i n S r i Lanka i n 1958. Since t h a t t i m e t h e Movement has expanded i t s a c t i v i t i e s t o over 2300 v i l l a g e s . I t has a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d f r a t e r n a l l i n k s and sometimes i t s own branches i n s e v e r a l o t h e r c o u n t r i e s o f the wor ld . A s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the Movement i s i t s s t r o n g u t i l i z a t i o n o f s p i r i t u a l and t r a d i t i o n a l va lues found i n t h e S r i Lankan c u l t u r e f o r t h e achievement o f s o c i a l and economic o b j e c t i v e s .

Awakening th rough Shar ing

The word Sarvodaya owes i t s o r i g i n t o t h e Gandhian Movement i n I n d i a which i n s - p i r e d t h e l o c a l Movement t o adopt i t i n a way t h a t was mean ing fu l t o t h e peop le o f S r i Lanka. Sarvodaya was d e f i n e d as ' t h e t o t a l awakening o f a l l ' . One of t h e p r i n c i p a l ways i n which t h e Sarvodaya concept was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o conc re te a c t i o n was Shramadana o r ' t h e s h a r i n g o f l a b o u r ' . There fo re , a peop le ' s e f f o r t t o b r i n g about t h e t o t a l awakening o f a l l i n s o c i e t y (Sarvodaya) by g i f t i n g o r s h a r i n g o n e ' s t ime, though t and energy (Shramadana), came t o be p o p u l a r l y known as the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement.

The concept o f Sarvodaya o r T o t a l Awakening o f A l l has t o be desc r ibed i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t h i n k i n g o f t h e people o f S r i Lanka. S ince t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f Buddhism t o S r i Lanka i n t h e T h i r d Century B.C. and t h e genera l acceptance o f t h i s ph i l osophy by t h e k i n g and t h e peop le o f the coun t ry , t h e u l t i m a t e goa l o f a11 human endeavour was ' t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f N i rvana o r supreme e n l i g h t e n m e n t ' (Yava Nibbana P a t t i y a ) . The l i t e r a l meaning o f t h e word Buddha i s ' t h e En l igh tened One1. I t i s t r u e t h a t , f o r t h e o r d i n a r y human be ing , t h e goa l o f N i rvana was a v e r y d i s t a n t one, y e t t h a t was the g e n e r a l l y accepted supreme goal f o r the achievement o f which every w i s e person shou ld have s t r i v e n by a b s t a i n i n g f rom commi t t i ng s i n s a r i s i n g o u t o f menta l d e f i l e m e n t s such as lobha ( g r e e d ) , dwesha ( h a t r e d ) and moha ( ignorance) ,and c u l t i v a t i n g m e r i t o r i o u s a c t i o n s such as dana ( g e n e r o s i t y o r s h a r i n g ) , s i l a ( m o r a l i t y ) and bhavana ( m e d i t a t i o n ) .

Thus, t h e concept of awakening o r en l i gh tenment , and t h e s p i r i t o f g e n e r o s i t y , s h a r i n g o r t h i n k i n g i n terms o f t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f a l l , a r e e s s e n t i a l e lements o f t h e Buddh is t c u l t u r e . By d e f i n i t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , t h e Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement r e f l e c t e d a p h i l o s o p h i c a l though t t h a t was i n g r a i n e d i n t h e peop le f o r c e n t u r i e s and i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e y responded r e a d i l y when a p r a c t i c a l programme of development work based on t h i s ph i l osophy was p laced b e f o r e them. F o r two decades a coheren t s e r i e s o f development concepts and p e o p l e ' s p a r t i c i p a t o r y a c t i v i t i e s grew, one a f t e r t h e o t h e r , i n t o what i s now known as t h e Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement. Th is two f o l d g rowth o f t h e Movement i n though t and a c t i o n , i s c o n t i n u i n g even today .

Three Phases o f Growth

I n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement t h r e e c l e a r phases c o u l d be i d e n t i f i e d . Dur ing t h e f i r s t t e n years t h e Movement concen t ra ted i t s e l f i n g i v i n g an e d u c a t i o n a l exper ience t o s tuden ts and teachers by o r g a n i s i n g them t o work p h y s i c a l l y i n programmes designed t o improve t h e l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f communit ies i n t h e most backward w i l l a g e s i n S r i Lanka. The p e r s o n a l i t y awakening aspect o f the Movement was emphasised more than o t h e r aspec ts d u r i n g t h i s f i r s t phase o f t h e Movement.

Dur ing t h e n e x t f i v e years o f t h e Movement t h e t o t a l community awakening became an e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t o b j e c t i v e . An i n t e g r a t e d development programme i n v o l v i n g hundred v i l l a g e s s e l e c t e d f rom a11 p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y , r e c e i v e d t h e main a t t e n t i o n o f t h e Movement. Thus t o t a l awakening o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s as w e l l as t h e t o t a l awakening o f v i l l a g e communit ies r e c e i v e d equal impor tance d u r i n g t h i s phase.

Dur ing t h e l a s t f i v e y e a r s o f the growth o f t h e Movement, t h e 100 v i l l a g e s development programme q u i c k l y g o t broadened i n t o a thousand v i l l a g e s development programme and then t o a 2000 v i l l a g e s development programme. N a t u r a l l y t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f n a t i o n a l reawakening and w o r l d awakening o b j e c t i v e s a l s o came i n t o t h e f o r e - f r o n t . Th is expansion unders tandab ly focused t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e Movement n o t o n l y t o p e r s o n a l i t y awakening and community awakening b u t a l s o t o s t r u c t u r a l changes t h a t a r e r e q u i r e d a t a l l l e v e l s o f human s o c i e t y beg inn ing f rom t h e v i l l a g e , th rough n a t i o n - s t a t e s , t o t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o c i a l o r d e r . I n o t h e r words educa t ion , development and s t r u c t u r a l change became t h r e e i n t e g r a l components o f t h e Movement i n t h e develop- ment o f i t s concepts, o b j e c t i v e s , s t r a t e g i e s and programmes t o b r i n g abou t s o c i a l change.

P e r s o n a l i t y Awake*

Accord ing t o t r a d i t i o n , f o r t h e t o t a l awakening o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r s o n a l i t y f o u r q u a l i t i e s had t o be c u l t i v a t e d . They were:

1. M e t t a - f r i e n d l i n e s s towards a l l o r r e s p e c t f o r a l l l i f e

2 . Karuna - compassionate a c t i o n t o remove causes t h a t b r i n g about s u f f e r i n g

3 . Mud i tha - a l t r u i s t i c o r d i s p a s s i o n a t e j o y one g e t s when making o t h e r s happy

4. Upekkha - e q u a n i m i t y o r c u l t i v a t i n g a balanced s t a t e o f mind

Met ta i s a though t . Karuna i s an a c t i o n . Mud i tha i s an immediate r e a c t i o n . Upekkha i s a l o n g te rm a t t r i b u t e t h a t i s imbibed i n t o one 's p e r s o n a l i t y . If a person c u l t i v a t e s these f o u r q u a l i t i e s such a person was s a i d t o be equal t o a heaven ly be ing .

The Sarvodaya Movement gave a p r a c t i c a l meaning f o r these f o u r f a c t o r s o f p e r s o n a l i t y awakening. I f one r e s p e c t s 1 i f e then T r u t h , Non-v io lence and S e l f d e n i a l shou ld become g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f such a pe rson 's l i f e . One

shou ld n o t d i s c r i m i n a t e a g a i n s t o t h e r human beings on grounds o f cas te , race , r e l i g i o n , c o l o u r , n a t i o n a l i t y o r p o l i t i c a l b e l i e f s . One s h o u l d l o o k a t o t h e r s as one 's own b r o t h e r o r s i s t e r .

This though t o f oneness o f a l l i s f u r t h e r i n g r a i n e d i n t o o n e ' s consciousness by making m e d i t a t i o n on l o v i n g k indness a r o u t i n e f e a t u r e i n a11 Sarvodaya a c t i v i t i e s and i n t h e d a i l y t i m e - t a b l e a t Sarvodaya v i l l a g e s and c e n t r e s . I n t in 's form o f m e d i t a t i o n , a11 can j o i n t o g e t h e r i r r e s p e c t i v e o f o n e ' s r e l i g i o u s be1 i e f s .

Compassionate A c t i o n

I f humani ty i s one f a m i l y , s u f f e r i n g o f human be ings , wherever they may be, becomes t h e common concern o f a l l those who embrace the though t o f Sarvodaya. There a r e a v a r i e t y o f causes due t o which human be ings s u f f e r . Some o f these a r e the r e s u l t o f l a c k o f b a s i c human needs. The causes t h a t b r i n g abou t a s i t u a t i o n where human be ings l a c k these b a s i c human needs a r e many and v a r i e d . Removal o f these causes t h a t b r i n g about s u f f e r i n g whether they a re p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , economic o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l i s an a c t o f compassion. T r a d i t i o n c a l l e d i t Karuna o r compassionate a c t i o n . Every human b e i n g has t h e c a p a c i t y t o p r a c t i c e Karuna towards o t h e r human be ings . The Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement focuses t h e a t t e n t i o n o f i t s workers and t h e communit ies who work w i t h them on Ten Bas ic Human Needs which a r e l i s t e d below:

1 . A c l e a n and b e a u t i f u l env i ronment - To i m p a r t t h e knowledge and t o p l a n measures f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e s o i l and t h e atmosphere f rom env i ronmenta l p o l l u t i o n on t h e one hand and t a k e a p p r o p r i a t e measures t o p r e v e n t psycholo- g i c a l p o l l u t i o n on t h e o t h e r hand and t o ensure h e a l t h f u l l i v i n g .

2 . Clean and adequate supp ly o f w a t e r - To p r o v i d e an adequate s u p p l y o f s a f e wa te r t o meet the pe rsona l needs o f eve ry f a m i l y and t h e wa te r necessary f o r c u l t i v a t i o n work.

3. Minimum c l o t h i n g - To p r o v i d e b a s i c requ i rements o f c l o t h i n g t o everyone so as t o sa feguard t h e i r s e l f - r e s p e c t s o c i e t a l demands and day t o day o c c u p a t i o n a l needs.

4. A balanced d i e t - To ensure t h a t eve ry i n d i v i d u a l s h a l l have t h e means t o o b t a i n a balanced d iet p r o v i d i n g p r o t e c t i o n f rom m a l n u t r i t i o n and t h e energy needed f o r p h y s i c a l and menta l a c t i v i t y i n t h e day t o day l i v i n g , t h e r e b y c o n t r i b u t i n g t o optimum h e a l t h .

5 . Simple housing - To p r o v i d e w i t h economic housing u n i t s e n s u r i n g p h y s i c a l and h e a l t h p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e f a m i l y as we1 1 as m a i n t a i n i n g e s t a b l i s h e d e t h i c a l s tandards.

6 . Bas ic h e a l t h ca re - To p r o v i d e p r imary and secondary h e a l t h s e r v i c e s f o r p r o t e c t i o n and p romot ion o f h e a l t h i n p h y s i c a l , menta l and s o c i a l d imensions.

7. Bas ic communication f a c i l i t i e s - To p r o v i d e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and o t h e r com- mun ica t ion f a c i l i t i e s e s s e n t i a l t o meet t h e v a r i o u s needs o f a s imp le way of 1 i f e .

8. Fuel - To p r o v i d e adequate f u e l f o r t h e cooking o f food, l i g h t i n g and o t h e r energy requi rements o f day t o day l i v i n g .

9 . T o t a l educa t ion - To p r o v i d e adequate f a c i l i t i e s f o r c o n t i n u i n g educa t ion o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l as i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e people w h i l e p e r m i t t i n g h i s o r h e r p e r s o n a l i t y t o develop t o t h e f u l l e s t .

10. S p i r i t u a l and c u l t u r a l needs - To p r o v i d e f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e s p i r i t u a l dev- elopment o f every i n d i v i d u a l .

The t e n b a s i c human needs were d i v i d e d i n t o n e a r l y 170 sub-needs under these t e n b road heads and t h e a t t e n t i o n o f every Sarvodaya member was drawn t o work towards t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f these needs beg inn ing w i t h t h e poores t i n t h e i r communities. Shramadana o r s h a r i n g o f one's t ime, though t and energy was w e l l o rgan ized as t h e main a c t i v i t y t o s a t i s f y these needs.

Shramadana

Shramadana i s e s s e n t i a l l y a group a c t i v i t y . From a smal l number o f 25 people up t o a number as b i g as severa l thousands can p a r t i c i p a t e i n a Shramadana p r o j e c t . The p h y s i c a l tasks t o be accomplished can be an access road t o a v i l l a g e , a tank-bund t o s t o r e wa te r f o r i r r i g a t i o n o f r i c e f i e l d s , c o n s t r u c t i o n o f school b u i l d i n g s , community h a l l s , e t c . , o r any o t h e r a c t i v i t y which he lps t o s a t i s f y a f e l t need o f t h e community. When such l a r g e numbers o f people g e t t o g e t h e r t o work t h e r e should be c e r t a i n g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s t h a t keep them bound t o g e t h e r i n a community s p i r i t . Accord ing t o t r a d i t i o n t h e r e were f o u r f a c t o r s o f p ro - g r e s s i v e s o c i a l conduct which Sarvodaya r e v i v e d . They a r e :

1. Dana o r s h a r i n g 2. P r i y a vachana o r p leasan t language 3. Ar thacharya o r c o n s t r u c t i v e a c t i v i t y and 4. Samanathmatha o r e q u a l i t y

Dur ing t h e 43 c e n t u r i e s o f c o l o n i a l r u l e , l i k e any o t h e r subjugated people, S r i Lankans a l s o had g o t s t r a t i f i e d i n t o a m i n o r i t y e l i t e c l a s s and a m a j o r i t y o f under p r i v i l e g e d people. When under t h e above f o u r p r i n c i p l e s hundreds and thousands o f people were g e t t i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h p ick-axes and shovels, t o sweat t o g e t h e r t o g i v e a b e t t e r l i f e t o t h e v i l l a g e communit ies, t h a t was an opportun- i t y f o r n o n - v i o l e n t l y b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r o f bo th these sec to rs o f people.

O f course, i f t h i s s h a r i n g o f l a b o u r f o r a common t a s k i s t o be meaningfu l t h e concept o f s h a r i n g would have t o be taken t o o t h e r f i e l d s o f s h a r i n g such as one's land , wea l th , knowledge and power. L i k e i n t h e p r e - c o l o n i a l v i l l a g e s o c i e t y , p a r t i c i p a n t s i n Shramadana camps addressed one ano ther i n t h e language t h a t members o f f a m i l i e s addressed one another . T h i s was another way t h a t a non- v i o l e n t i n t e g r a t i o n was made p o s s i b l e . Wastefu l d e s t r u c t i v e a c t i o n s and i n e q u a l - i t i e s were looked down upon as immoral and u n j u s t as m a j o r i t i e s i n these v i l l a g e s s t a r t e d u n i t i n g toge ther based on these f o u r p r i n c i p l e s o f good community l i v i n g .

Community Awakening

On t h e one hand a Shramadana camp l a i d a p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e i n t h e v i l l a g e f o r a l l t o g e t t o g e t h e r i n a s p i r i t o f comnunity awakening. On t h e o t h e r hand much needed p h y s i c a l i n f r a - s t r u c t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s were c a r r i e d o u t . A new l e a d e r s h i p sprang up f rom t h e community i t s e l f n o t based on p r o p e r t i e s t h a t one possessed o r t h e academic educa t ion one was f o r t u n a t e enough t o g e t , b u t p u r e l y because o f t h e t a l e n t s d i s p l a y e d i n work b r igades , c a p a c i t y t o o rgan ise people and t h e d e d i c a t i o n t o s e r v i c e t h a t were shown.

I n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n and community i nvo lvement on a mass s c a l e go hand i n hand a11 t h e t i m e i n t h i s Movement. The average p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f Shramadana workers d u r i n g 1976 was 142,000 i n l i t t l e over 400 camps, w h i l e i n 1977 i t was o v e r 220,000 i n over 550 camps. I n 1978 o v e r 700 Shramadana camps a r e b e i n g imp1 emented.

Shramadana has a h i s t o r i c a l background. A11 t h e g r e a t i r r i g a t i o n works and huge stupas ( r e l i g i o u s s h r i n e s ) i n t h e p a s t were c o n s t r u c t e d by Shramadana. A t t h a t t i m e t h e p e o p l e ' s e f f o r t was known as 'Samudan' meaning ' s h a r i n g ( o f l a b o u r ) by the community. Song and dance, dramas and a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r c u l t u r a l and r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s were i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o shramadana a c t i v i t i e s l i n k i n g those h i s t o r i c a l even ts w i t h the p r e s e n t t a s k s . Fo r example, eve ry day i n a Shramadana camp, t h r e e meet ings were h e l d known as 'Fami l y G a t h e r i n g s ' , a t f i v e i n t h e morning, a t one i n t h e a f t e r n o o n and a t seven i n t h e even ing . A l l t h e men, women and c h i l d r e n work ing i n a Shramadana camp s i t i n a c i r c l e i n t h e open-a i r on t h e ground o r i n a school b u i l d i n g o r t e m p l e - h a l l and conduct what they c a l l ' f a m i l y g a t h e r i n g s ' . Fami ly ga the r ings a re t h e most e f f e c t i v e media f o r community educa- t i o n . On any s u b j e c t t h a t i s o f i n t e r e s t t o t h e community, t a l k s and d i s c u s s i o n s , song and drama, e d u c a t i o n a l c lasses o r demons t ra t ions , c o u l d be c a r r i e d o u t . I n o t h e r words, t h e mos t i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e Sarvodaya development ph i losophy , namely, awareness c r e a t i o n o r community consciousness b u i l d i n g i s done a t these f a m i l y g a t h e r i n g s .

S o c i a l I n f r a - S t r u c t u r e s

A Shramadana camp may l a s t f rom a weekend t o a month depending on t h e t y p e o f p h y s i c a l t a s k t h a t has t o be completed. B u t t h i s i s o n l y t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f a l o n g term community awakening process. G e n e r a l l y d u r i n g t h e l a s t f a m i l y g a t h e r - i n g o f the f i r s t Shramadana camp i n t h e v i l l a g e a Mothers ' Group i s formed t o f i l l o w up a programme o f a c t i o n s p e c i a l l y f o r the b e n e f i t o f c h i l d r e n o f compul- s o r y school go ing age (5-14) , p re -schoo l k i d s , expec tan t and l a c t a t i n g mothers ~ I I U > i c k and o l d people. Mo thers ' Group s e l e c t s two o r more g i r l s between t h e age o f 18-24 t o come t o a Sarvodaya Development Educa t ion I n s t i t u t e t o undergo a t r a i n i n g programme i n n u t r i t i o n , h e a l t h - c a r e , and pre-school educa t ion . These g i r l s a f t e r t h e i r t r a i n i n g r e t u r n t o t h e v i l l a g e . The M o t h e r s ' Group p repares a p l a c e f o r them t o conduct t h e C h i l d r e n ' s S e r v i c e a c t i v i t i e s . A t t h e moment t h e r e a r e over 1,300 p laces i n S r i Lanka where these t r a i n e d g i r l s under t h e guidance o f Mo thers ' Group a r e b r i n g i n g up a new g e n e r a t i o n o f h e a l t h y and happy c h i l d r e n .

The f o r m a t i o n o f a Mothers ' Group and C h i l d r e n ' s Group i s f o l l o w e d by t h e form-

a t i o n o f Youth Groups, Farmers ' Groups and genera l E l d e r s ' Groups i n t h e v i l l a g e . A l l these groups have t h e i r s p e c i a l areas o f work and g e n e r a l l y meet once a week. Represen ta t i ves o f a l l groups meet mon th ly and i n t e g r a t e t h e i r programmes i n t o one coheren t p e o p l e ' s p a r t i c i p a t o r y v i l l a g e development p ro - gramme. Through t h e s o c i a l l eaders i n t h e v i l l a g e t h e ex tens ion arms o f the governmental s e r v i c e s a r e l i n k e d t o these v i l l a g e programmes so t h a t more e f f e c t i v e use o f governmental f a c i l i t i e s a r e made f o r t h e development o f t h e v i l l a g e .

Very s t r o n g c u l t u r a l and r e l i g i o u s p r i n c i p l e s come i n t o o p e r a t i o n when t h i s t ype o f s o c i a l i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e l a y i n g takes p l a c e i n the v i l l a g e communit ies. Fo r example, accord ing t o Buddha's teach ings t h e r e a r e seven f a c t o r s o f non-degener- a t i o n t h a t a community o f people shou ld f o l l o w . These as adopted by Sarvodaya a re :

1. meet as o f t e n as p o s s i b l e 2. meet i n peace and d iscuss i n peace and d isperse i n peace 3. d o n ' t impose laws t h a t cannot be f o l l o w e d 4. f o l l o w d i l i g e n t l y t h e laws t h a t have been accepted 5. a n c i e n t r i t u a l s and ceremonies shou ld be f o l l o w e d u n i n t e r r u p t e d l y 6 . e l d e r s , women and c h i l d r e n shou ld be respec ted and p r o t e c t e d . 7. s p i r i t u a l l eaders and wise peop le shou ld be i n v i t e d t o t h e community

and s h o u l d l e a r n f rom them.

S i m i l a r l y when these groups ga ther t h e r e a r e numerous o t h e r c u l t u r a l va lues t h a t a r e r e v i v e d i n a c t i o n . A l l t hese have a re levance t o a b e t t e r way o f l i f e b r i n g i n g about closeness o f t h e members o f a community, p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n b a s i c d e c i s i o n making, keeping community s p i r i t a l i v e , h e l p i n g people t o adopt a p a t h o f development based n o t on greed b u t more on t h e i r r e a l needs.

T r a i n i n g

The above psycho-soc ia l i n f r a - s t r u c t u r a l development i s f u r t h e r c a r r i e d on t o a pre-economic development s tage by the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement p r o v i d i n g as many v i l l a g e you ths as p o s s i b l e w i t h t r a i n i n g a p p r o p r i a t e l e a d e r s h i p and t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s . A t any t i m e i n over 80 sma l l and b i g educa t iona l cen t res t r a i n i n g programmes a re conducted. These a r e a l l r e s i d e n t i a l . Some o f t h e courses conducted i n these cen t res a r e :

1. Community Serv i ce ( 2 weeks and 3 months) 2. N u t r i t i o n , Hea l th Care and Pre-school Educa t ion ( 3 months and 2 weeks

r e f r e s h e r courses) 3. Wood work, Me ta l work and A p p r o p r i a t e Technology ( o v e r one y e a r ) 4. Rura l Techn ica l Serv i ces ( o v e r one y e a r ) 5 . T r a i n i n g i n co -opera t i ve , a g r i c u l t u r a l , sma l l i n d u s t r i a l and c r e d i t

management 6. Community Leadersh ip Course f o r Buddh is t Monks ( 4 months)

The much needed t r a i n e d i n p u t s i n a l l aspects o f v i l l a g e l i f e as a p p r o p r i a t e i s p r o v i d e d th rough these r e s i d e n t i a l t r a i n i n g programmes. The t r a i n i n g i t s e l f i s n o t on a fo rma l r e l a t i o n s h i p between teachers and p u p i l s o r books, s y l l a b i and t ime t a b l e s . They a r e more o r l e s s an improved fo rm o f f a m i l y g a t h e r i n g s where

each p a r t i c i p a n t becomes a teacher as w e l l as a l e a r n e r . Non-dependency, self-management and se l f -employment a r e t h e r e s u l t s o f such non- formal l e a r n - i n g exper iences.

Help f o r Sel f -Development

V i l l a g e groups g e t t o g e t h e r a t t h e i r v i l l a g e c e n t r e s . Severa l v i l l a g e s g e t t o g e t h e r a t a c e n t r a l v i l l a g e where f o u r f u l l - t i m e Sarvodaya workers a r e r e s i d e n t . T h i s i s c a l l e d a V i l l a g e Awakening o r Gramodaya Centre. They h e l p t h e v i l l a g e people t o o rgan ise Shramadana camps, g e t i n t o Development Educa t ion Programmes, p r o v i d e t o o l s and equipment and c r e d i t when necessary, b r i n g them i n c o n t a c t w i t h governmental Ex tens ion Serv i ces and g i v e whatever o t h e r a s s i s t - ance t h e v i l l a g e community i s i n need f o r se l f -deve lopment .

Severa l Gramodaya Centres have as t h e i r f o c a l p o i n t a Sarvodaya Development Educa t iona l I n s t i t u t e . There a r e a l r e a d y seven l a r g e e s t a b l i s h e d c e n t r e s w i t h a f u l l - t i m e s t a f f capable o f h a n d l i n g even r a t h e r b i g community development programmes. They p r o v i d e t h e Gramodaya Centres w i t h a know-how, guidance and resources and when necessary, the l i a i s o n s e r v i c e s w i t h t h e d i s t r i c t admin is - t r a t i o n o f t h e government. A t a l l these l e v e l s t h e Movement t r i e s t o g e t t h e community i n t o c l o s e work ing p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h governmental development i n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h o u t l o o s i n g i t s independence.

Dur ing t h e l a s t two years a f t e r t h e p r e s e n t government came i n t o power members o f Par l i ament , d i s t r i c t m i n i s t e r s and even t h e m i n i s t r i e s o f t h e c e n t r a l government have approached t h e Movement f o r h e l p i n areas p e r t a i n i n g t o p e o p l e ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n . A t t h e moment severa l exper iments w i t h a v a r i e t y o f development a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and governmental programmes a r e b e i n g implemented i n d i f f e r e n t areas o f t h e coun t ry . As t h e government i t s e l f has as i t s d e c l a r e d o b j e c t i v e g i v i n g people maximum o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n development, t h e Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement b e i n g the l a r g e s t and may be t h e o l d e s t o rgan ized group t h a t i s s p e c i a l i s i n g i n t h i s r e s p e c t has a v i t a l r o l e t o p l a y .

A P i o n e e r i n g Ro le

The f i r s t t a s k o f t h e Movement i n t h e 1980s i s t o c o n t i n u e i t s development e d u c a t i o n a l r o l e t o r a i s e the consciousness o f t h e people as t o unders tand t h e t r u e meaning o f development based on t h e r e l i g i o u s and c u l t u r a l va lues o f t h e people on one hand and t o f u r t h e r i n n o v a t e t h e development s t r a t e g i e s so t h a t i t can p l a y a p i o n e e r i n g r o l e t o shape t h e new s o c i a l o r d e r t h a t i s t o come.

The Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement r e j e c t s t h e Western d e f i n i t i o n and model o f development where t h e s p i r i t u a l va lues a r e r e j e c t e d and t h e human b e i n g i s pushed i n t o an i n s i g n i f i c a n t p l a c e i n a m a t e r i a l i s t i c c u l t u r e .

The t r a d i t i o n a l S r i Lankan s o c i e t y was a s y n t h e s i s o f soc io-economic and s p i r i t u o - c u l t u r a l 1 i f e . S r i Lanka was known as 'Dhanyagara-Dharmadweepa' meaning an i s l a n d o f economic p r o s p e r i t y and s o c i a l r i gh teousness . The Movement subsc r ibes t o t h e same v iew. Our development goa l shou ld be a ba lanced growth i n b o t h m a t e r i a l and s p i r i t u a l aspects . The human be ing , t h e f a m i l y and t h e v i l l a g e community s h o u l d be t h e f i r s t u n i t s o f development. Technology shou ld be i n t r o d u c e d i n such a way t h a t t h e i d e n t i t y o f these t h r e e b a s i c u n i t s i s

n o t l o s t . The ethos i n t h e p o l i t i c a l l i f e shou ld be d i r e c t democracy and c o r n u n i t y p o l i t i c s as d i f f e r e n t f rom d i s t a n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p o l i t i c s and governments depending on bureaucrac ies . Personal human r e l a t i o n s h i p s , house- h o l d and sma l l s c a l e economic p u r s u i t s shou ld fo rm t h e b a s i s o f t h e n a t i o n a l economy w i t h o u t a l l o w i n g g i g a n t i c i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d economies t o dominate peop le ' s l i v e s .

Development P r i n c i p l e s

The Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement o v e r a p e r i o d o f two decades has g radua ted from t h e s t a t u s o f be ing a p e r s o n a l i t y awakening and v i l l a g e re-awakening Movement t o be a n a t i o n a l p e o p l e ' s development e f f o r t w i t h c e r t a i n d e f i n i t e p r i n c i p l e s . Some o f these a r e :

1. A11 development e f f o r t s shou ld be aimed a t t h e achievement o f t h e f u l l e s t awakening o f the human p e r s o n a l i t y . Development shou ld be measured b y a y a r d - s t i c k which i n c l u d e s t h e g rowth o f s p i r i t u a l , c u l t u r a l and i d e o l o g i c a l q u a l i t i e s . Development shou ld never be measured o n l y by t h e w e a l t h o f consumer goods i n the marke t and s e r v i c e s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e people.

2. Wh i le t h e fundamental human r i g h t s o f eve ry i n d i v i d u a l s h o u l d be ensured w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n i n t h e eyes o f t h e law, t h e p r i n c i p a l aim o f any development e f f o r t shou ld be t o f u l f i l w i t h o u t de lay t h e s o c i a l , economic, c u l t u r a l and s p i r i t u a l a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h a t segment o f t h e s o c i e t y which s tands l o w e s t i n i t . We c a l l t h i s 'Anthyodaya' t h e awakening o f t h e l o w l i e s t and t h e l o s t i n s o c i e t y .

3. N a t i o n a l development shou ld have i t s beg inn ing f rom w i t h i n t h e v i l l a g e i t s e l f . A l l development p lans shou ld be made w i t h t h e v i l l a g e taken as t h e fundamenta l u n i t . Development i n r e s p e c t o f c o n s t i t u e n c i e s and d i s t r i c t s shou ld be under taken by t h e c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f those v i l l a g e u n i t s . We c a l l t h i s development f rom t h e v i l l a g e upwards.

4. Development p lans i n t h e v i l l a g e shou ld be drawn up, implemented and eva lu - a t e d w i t h t h e f u l l e s t p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f the peop le o f t h e v i l l a g e .

5 . The p r i m a r y goal o f l o c a l p r o d u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s , shou ld be t o u t i l i z e t h e human and m a t e r i a l resources a v a i l a b l e i n t h e v i l l a g e , t o meet t h e needs o f the v i l l a g e peop le themselves. I t i s a l s o an u r g e n t need, t o p r o v i d e a method- i c a l t r a i n i n g , s p e c i a l l y t o t h e y o u t h , t o enab le them t o assume v i l l a g e l e a d e r - s h i p .

6 . Use s h o u l d be made o f a p p r o p r i a t e v i l l a g e t e c h n o l o g i e s and o r g a n i s a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s which the v i l l a g e r s themselves can c o n t r o l .

7 . When development p lans a r e assessed i n t h e i r e n t i r e t y , they s h o u l d merge i n t o one ano ther , n o t caus ing c o n t r a d i c t i o n o r d i s r u p t i o n s , when viewed f rom the p h i l osoph i c a l , methodo log ica l and o r g a n i s a t i o n a l ang les .

8. Development shou ld e s s e n t i a l l y be an e f f o r t o f t h e people. I n t h i s c o n t e x t the p u b l i c shou ld be made c l e a r l y aware, t h a t p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and s t a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a re i m p o r t a n t o n l y as i n s t i t u t i o n s p r o v i d i n g :

a ) r e l e v a n t s p e c i a l i s e d adv ice and c o n s u l t a t i o n se rv ices ; b ) c a p i t a l i n p u t s ; c ) l e g i s l a t i v e a c t i o n f o r a c h i e v i n g economic j u s t i c e ; d) e q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n a t i o n a l wea l th and resources.

I n o t h e r words, p o l i t i c a l o r governmental i n s t i t u t i o n s should i n no way be b a r r i e r s f o r the promot ion o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e , s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y and self-manage- ment o f t h e communit ies.

Role o f Technology

I n t h e achievement o f n a t i o n a l development t a r g e t s technology has n e c e s s a r i l y t o p l a y a v i t a l r o l e . The Movement, t h e r e f o r e , has accepted t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a i n a d o p t i n g techno log ies :

1. The technology shou ld be economica l l y n o n - v i o l e n t i n such a way t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l s and energ ies used i n i t s process should n o t p reven t o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e wor ld , now and i n t h e f u t u r e , t o use them on a b a s i s o f e q u a l i t y . I t t h e r e f o r e uses a minimum o f non-renewable resources and a maximum o f renewable resources.

2. The technology shou ld be s o c i a l l y , c u l t u r a l l y and s p i r i t u a l l y n o n - v i o l e n t i n such a way t h a t i t doesn ' t break l o c a l c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s o r democrat ic s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . I f t r a n s f e r r e d t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l o r g a n i s a t i o n shou ld be adapted t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g c o n d i t i o n s .

3 . The technology shou ld be p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y n o n - v i o l e n t i n such a way t h a t i t does n o t p r o v i d e jobs f o r human beings j u s t t o r e p l a c e machines. A j o b shou ld p r o v i d e a maximum o f c r e a t i v e and i n n o v a t i v e tasks .

4. I f technology i s t r a n s f e r r e d i t shou ld come under t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e people who a r e se rved by t h e technology as soon as p o s s i b l e . Th is shou ld be so w i t h regard t o t h e maintenance and o p e r a t i o n a l c o n t r o l as w e l l as w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e means o f p r o d u c t i o n i t s e l f . Th is i m p l i e s t h a t t r a n s f e r o f technology shou ld always have a t r a i n i n g o r educa t iona l component. Only then people can p a r t - i c i p a t e i n t h e d e c i s i o n making process.

5 . The technology shou ld be a b l e t o compete, o r i f t h a t i s n o t p o s s i b l e , a v o i d compet i t i on e i t h e r th rough o u t p u t r e s t r i c t i o n o r through d i r e c t producer- consumer r e l a t i o n s .

6. The techno logy .shou ld produce i tems which a r e i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e major- i t y o f t h e people, so t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e people shou ld be a b l e t o a f f o r d t h e i tems produced.

7. Any technology process t h a t dea ls w i t h p r imary p roduc ts and raw m a t e r i a l e x t r a c t i o n must a l s o t r y t o e s t a b l i s h manufac tu r ing u n i t s f o r t h i s p r o d u c t .

8. The technology shou ld enhance l i f e i n genera l , t h e r e f o r e , i t shou ld be e c o l o g i c a l l y sound, dynamic, i n n o v a t i v e and c r e a t i v e .

9 . The employment c r e a t e d by techno log ies shou ld n o t be r e s t r i c t e d t o persons who have f o l l o w e d a fo rma l t e c h n i c a l educa t ion . The absence o f such an educa t ion shou ld n o t h i n d e r a person i n g e t t i n g a job . The techno logy process shou ld be e d u c a t i v e i n i t s e l f .

World Development

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development Agencies, b o t h in te rgovernmenta l and non-governmental, have worked c l o s e l y w i t h Sarvodaya d u r i n g t h e l a s t f i v e years i n i n c r e a s i n g measure. T h i s n a t u r a l l y b r i n g s t h e Movement c l o s e r t o the w o r l d development scene. I n f a c t , i n A p r i l , 1978, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f Sarvodaya Shramadana Organ- i z a t i o n s f rom 12 c o u n t r i e s had a week-long conference i n S r i Lanka on Sarvodaya and World Development.

A t t h i s conference t h e delegates agreed on t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s :

1 . Sarvodaya can draw s t r e n g t h f rom r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n w i t h o u t dependence on any p a r t i c u l a r r e l i g i o n .

2 . Sarvodaya embraces a l l age groups, s e c t o r s o f s o c i e t y and communit ies.

3 . S o c i a l j u s t i c e i s t h e pr ime o b j e c t i v e o f Sarvodaya, t o be achieved i n a s p i r i t o f harmony, b u t n o t r u l i n g o u t n o n - v i o l e n t c o n f r o n t a t i o n wherever i n j u s t i c e i s ent renched.

4. Peop le ' s power i s t h e s o l e s t r e n g t h o f Sarvodaya, f ree f rom any a l l i a n c e w i t h f o r c e s which compromise t h i s .

A l though Sarvodaya u s u a l l y opera tes w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l communit ies and c o u n t r i e s , they found t h a t t h e t ime was r i p e f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g forms o f co -opera t ion a t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l on t h e p r i n c i p l e o f e q u a l i t y :

1. The exchange o f personnel , e s p e c i a l l y f i e l d workers and those w i t h p a r t i c - u l a r s k i l l s t o teach o r t o l e a r n .

2 . The exchange o f technology

3 . The d i r e c t exchange o f p roduc ts , and e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f d i r e c t t r a d i n g r e l a t i o n s .

4. The e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a c lea r ing -house f o r t h e accumu la t ion and d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f i deas , p h i l o s o p h i e s , and i n f o r m a t i o n on e x i s t i n g Sarvodaya programmes.

5 . The c r e a t i o n o f more e f f e c t i v e means f o r t h e r e g u l a r communication of i deas and i n f o r m a t i o n among Sarvodaya worke rs wor ld -w ide .

6. The s h a r i n g o f resources , f o r example, r e c e i v e d - a i d , where t h i s w i l l maximise and m u l t i p l y t h e i r impac t .

7. The development o f a methodology f o r m u l t i p l y i n g t h e e f f e c t o f l o c a l e x p e r i - ence, and t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f success fu l techniques.

8. C u l t u r a l exchanges, i n c l u d i n g t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e forms o f t o u r i s m t o promote d i r e c t i n t e r p e r s o n a l and i n t e r c u l t u r a l unders tand ing .

9 . The es tab l i shment o f a c o - o r d i n a t i n g body.

10. Promote r e c o g n i t i o n as a non-governmental agency by t h e U n i t e d Na t ions , a b l e t o g i v e v o i c e t o Sarvodaya concepts and a s p i r a t i o n s .

The nucleus o f a Sarvodaya Vishvodaya ( "Wor ld Awakening") Counc i l was formed a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference.

There i s an i n c r e a s i n g demand f rom UN agencies as w e l l as o t h e r governmental and non-governmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s and i n d i v i d u a l s f o r a l l forms o f "Sarvodaya ass is tance f rom a s t a n d - p o i n t o f twen ty years o f exper ience . I t i s w i t h much s t r a i n on t h e t i m e and resources o f t h e Movement t h a t i t i s respons ive even i n a sma l l way t o these reques ts . A l ready about 30 you ths and s e v e r a l s c h o l a r s f rom a number o f c o u n t r i e s sponsored by t h e U n i t e d Na t ions Vo lun teers , Dutch Vo lun teers Organ iza t ion , Japanese UNESCO F e d e r a t i o n and He lve tas i n S w i t z e r l a n d a r e l e a r n i n g and c o n t r i b u t i n g t h e i r knowledge w i t h i n t h e Movement. I n t h e months t o come t h e Movement proposes t o o r g a n i s e these programmes more s y s t e m a t i c a l l y .

Sarvodaya i s a l r e a d y an i n t e r n a t i o n a l Movement w i t h branches and work ing groups. I n s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s t h e r e a r e a number o f f r a t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s which have he lped t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n m a t e r i a l l y and f i n a n c i a l l y d u r i n g t h e p a s t t e n years . These o r g a n i z a t i o n s , g e n e r a l l y speaking, have co-operated w i t h t h e Movement i n a manner t h a t can be termed as ' c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h s e l f - r e s p e c t ' . The donor- r e c i p i e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was h a r d l y e v i d e n t i n t h e i r d e a l i n g s . On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e y have developed a development co -opera t ion r e l a t i o n s h i p based on mutual r e s p e c t and unders tand ing . Very o f t e n i t i s a process o f s h a r i n g i n an exper i -

ence which b e n e f i t s b o t h c o u n t r i e s , where t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e based, and a l s o t h e human f a m i l y i n g e n e r a l .

N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e above h e a l t h y r e l a t i o n s h i p s we have e s t a b l i s h e d , speaking o f development ass is tance i n g e n e r a l , we b e l i e v e t h a t much o f new t h i n k i n g has t o come i n t o t h e t h e o r y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l development c o - o p e r a t i o n . We a r e n o t e n t e r i n g i n t o a l o n g d i s c u s s i o n on t h i s s u b j e c t , b u t a few s a l i e n t p o i n t s may be ment ioned here .

S e l f - r e l i a n c e

F i r s t l y , t h e c r i t e r i a by which poor w o r l d o r g a n i s a t i o n s a r e a s s i s t e d by r i c h w o r l d o r g a n i z a t i o n s have t o be d r a s t i c a l l y r e v i s e d . Fo r example, t h e concept o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e as understood i n the narrow sense o f s e l f - f i n a n c i n g as i n a commercial e n t e r p r i s e , cannot be a p p l i e d t o p e o p l e ' s movements f o r s e l f - development. Beyond t h e f i n a n c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h e r e a r e a whole range o f v a l u e f a c t o r s and p o l i t i c a l and economic r e a l i t i e s t h a t have t o be cons ide red . When even n a t i o n a l governments cannot b u i l d up t h e i r economies w i t h o u t b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o t h e changes i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l and economic r e a l i t i e s , how can a non-governmental p e o p l e ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n be imposed upon t o conduct i t s e l f t o achieve a f i n a n c i a l t a r g e t , assuming a l l o t h e r f a c t o r s t o be c o n s t a n t ?

S e l f - r e l i a n c e shou ld be r e d e f i n e d , t o i n c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r dynamic ad jus tmen t w i t h i n a changing system and on a va lue -bas is p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f b roader goa ls t h a t an o r g a n i z a t i o n had s e t b e f o r e i t s e l f . When speaking o f Sarvodaya, ou r concept o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e has many more i n g r e d i e n t s i n i t than mere f i n a n c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . Even f o r a non-governmental organ- i z a t i o n i n a r i c h c o u n t r y c a r r y i n g o u t a development t a s k o f t h e magni tude o f t h a t o f t h e Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement - i s i t p o s s i b l e f o r i t t o be s e l f - r e l i a n t , i f s e l f - r e l i a n c e i s o n l y unders tood as s e l f - f i n a n c i n g ?

Th is does n o t mean t h a t c e r t a i n programmes w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n , f o r example, a we l l - though-ou t co -opera t i ve fa rm w i t h p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f b r i n g i n g i n an income w i t h t h e money i n v e s t e d , shou ld n o t f a l l w i t h i n t h e above genera l s ta tement : g i v e n p r o p e r n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s and management exper ience t h e r e shou ld be no reason why a ven tu re o f t h i s s o r t cannot be s e l f - r e l i a n t f i n a n c i a l l y , d u r i n g a g i v e n p e r i o d o f t i m e . On t h e o t h e r hand, most o f t h e development e d u c a t i o n a l programmes conducted f o r the b e n e f i t o f r u r a l and urban poor i n a t o t a l develop- ment s e t t i n g w i l l always remain an inves tmen t i n b roader s o c i a l development. We a r e s u r e t h a t t h i s i s the same s i t u a t i o n t h a t p r e v a i l s i n a u n i v e r s i t y g i v i n g f r e e educa t ion i n any c o u n t r y .

R i g h t t o S e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n

A second area f o r rev iew shou ld be t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e r i g h t t o s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n , t h a t shou ld be l e f t i n t h e hands o f l o c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Th is shou ld app ly t o n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s as w e l l as g r a s s r o o t s l e v e l organ- i z a t i o n s . Dur ing t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s , o u t o f t h e development a s s i s t a n c e r e c e i v e d by the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement, o n l y about 5% o f t h e funds c o u l d be u t i l i z e d f o r a c t i v i t i e s chosen by o u r own f r e e w i l l on a n o - p r o j e c t b a s i s . 95% o f funds were t i e d t o p r o j e c t s . I n a r a p i d l y changing s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and economic s i t u a t i o n i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e l o c a l group shou ld be g i v e n t h e a u t h o r i t y t o determine changes and m o d i f i c a t i o n s t h a t have t o be e f f e c t e d f rom t i m e t o t i m e .

We a re happy t h a t f rom January 1977, NOVIB o f t h e Ne ther lands , o u r ma jo r p a r t n e r i n development co -opera t ion , has agreed t o render programme ass is tance g i v i n g t h e Movement an a lmos t a b s o l u t e r i g h t t o s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n . O f course, i t i s the d u t y o f the p a r t n e r o r g a n i z a t i o n r e c e i v i n g such programme a s s i s t a n c e , i n t h i s case t h e Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement - t o p repare w e l l ahead o f t i m e t h e i r i n t e n d e d programmes and p r o j e c t e d budgets, and t o s a t i s f y the p a r t n e r s on t h e o t h e r s i d e t h a t i t i s a two-way r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t h a t e x i s t s . A t t h e same t ime . s t r i c t accoun t ing and budge t c o n t r o l and r e g u l a r r e p o r t i n g and e v a l u a t i o n shou ld be b u i l t i n t o t h e o p e r a t i o n a l machinery o f the programme. We a r e happy t h a t t h e Movement has s a t i s f a c t o r a l y b u i l t up such a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h NOVIB i n t h e p a s t two years .

From t h e Poor t o t h e R ich

The t h i r d p o i n t t h a t may be ment ioned here i s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y on t h e p a r t o f n o n - i n d u s t r i a l i z e d b u t c u l t u r a l l y r i c h c o u n t r i e s l i k e S r i Lanka t o share c e r t a i n development exper iences which have a p i r i t u a l - c u l t u r a l va lue t o b e n e f i t t h e people o f the i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . I n t h e f i e l d s o f personal r e l a t i o n - s h i p s , community o r g a n i z a t i o n , t o t a l educa t ion , s i m p l i c i t y i n p a t t e r n s o f 1 i v i n g ,

over-coming the s t r e s s e s o f a r a p i d l y moving i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c u l t u r e , a g r e a t deal o f exper ience can f l o w f rom t h e poor t o t h e r i c h w o r l d . The Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement, i n a v a r i e t y o f programmes i n engaged i n t h i s t y p e o f m u t u a l l y b e n e f i c i a l a c t i v i t y . Dur ing t h e p e r i o d t h a t l i e s ahead o f us we propose t o ven tu re i n t o new areas, such as ' c u l t u r a l t o u r i s m ' . We ment ion t h e word t o u r i s m because, t o u r i s m i s promoted by c o u n t r i e s such as S r i Lanka, w i t h t h e p r i m a r y goa l o f e a r n i n g f o r e i g n exchange. B u t v e r y few o f t h e t o u r i s t s have been exposed t o t h e r e a l c u l t u r e and l i f e o f the people, from which they can g e t a deeper b e n e f i t t han a s u p e r f i c i a l s a t i s f a c t i o n i n t h e f i v e - s t a r h o t e l s , on t h e sunny beaches, a t h i s t o r i c a l s i g h t s and w i l d - l i f e s a n c t u a r i e s . There i s something more i n the l i f e o f t h e people t h a t t h e y can exper ience t h a n those . Even i f Sarvodaya can expose v i s i t o r s f rom i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s t o r u r a l areas, where they can exper ience a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f s o c i a l s e c u r i t y , which i s personal and coming f rom t h e people, r a t h e r than impersonal and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l , coming f rom t h e s t a t e , t h a t i n i t s e l f would be a w o r t h w h i l e c o n t r i b u t i o n we c o u l d make.

R e p l i c a t i o n

A q u e s t i o n t h a t i s ve ry o f t e n asked by v i s i t o r s t o Sarvodaya i s whether i t i s p o s s i b l e t o r e p l i c a t e t h e Sarvodaya exper ience o f S r i Lanka i n o t h e r communit ies i n t h e p o o r e r w o r l d . There a r e a l s o reques ts coming f rom groups i n o t h e r poor c o u n t r i e s f o r a s s i s t a n c e i n development e f f o r t s . Sarvodaya does n o t c l a i m t h a t i t has a ready-made s t r a t e g y which c o u l d be t r a n s p l a n t e d i n o t h e r s i m i l a r c o u n t r i e s . Bu t , on t h e o t h e r hand, exper ience has shown t h a t t h e fundamental p r i n c i p l e s , i f i n t e l l i g e n t l y a p p l i e d , t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e r e a l i s t i c s i t u a t i o n s i n such envi ronments, can achieve many w o r t h w h i l e r e s u l t s .

As a f i r s t s t e p t h e Movement i s l o o k i n g f o r resources t o i n v i t e young g rass - r o o t s groups f rom these c o u n t r i e s i n As ia , A f r i c a and L a t i n America t o S r i Lanka and t o expose them t o o u r exper ience i n r e a l l i f e s i t u a t i o n s , w i t h l e a s t i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s a t i o n . A l ready i n a sma l l way t h i s i s be ing done. B u t i t has t o be sys temat i sed and r e g u l a r i s e d .

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS

HOW DO WE GET THERE? T R A N S I T I O N STRATEGIES TOWARDS ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT I N THE NORTH

by Ignacy Sachs CIRED, Maison des sc iences de l'homme 54 b l v d Raspa i l , 75270 P a r i s , France

O r i g i n a l language: E n g l i s h .

*/ A b s t r a c t : T h i s i s a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f a paper p u b l i s h e d i n IFDA Doss ie r 2- which p o i n t e d t o a way o u t o f c u r r e n t c r i s e s o f maldevelopment i n t h e Western i n d u s t r i - a l i z e d s o c i e t i e s through b e t t e r use o f s o c i e t a l t ime and r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f power away f rom t h e S t a t e and t h e market , towards t h e " c i v i l s o c i e t y " . Tak ing o f f f rom t h i s l a s t p o i n t , t h e t r a n s i t i o n s t r a t e g y o u t l i n e d h e r e has as i t s base p a r t i c i p a - t o r y , t r a n s a c t i ve and c o n t r a c t u a l p l a n n i n g f o r t h e need-or i en ted development o f sub-na t iona l geograph ica l u n i t s , w i t h i n a s u p p o r t i v e c o n t e x t o f n a t i o n a l macro- p l a n n i n g . The p o l i c i e s and measures p r e s c r i b e d a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l i n c l u d e : e l i m i n a t i n g w a s t e f u l p r o d u c t i o n processes, c o n v e r t i n g i n d u s t r i e s t o a s o c i a l l y u s e f u l p r o d u c t i o n , encouraging t h e use o f renewable energy and resources , decent- r a l i z i n g economic and human a c t i v i t i e s , and implement ing t h e ecodevelopment app- roach . I n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , t h e e n l i g h t e n e d s e l f - i n t e r e s t o f t h e N o r t h i s seen t o be i n abandoning i t s s e l f - c o n g r a t u l a t o r y assumpt ion o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y and i n seek ing a new, symmetr ica l i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r d e r i n v o l v i n g - among o t h e r t h i n g s - g r e a t e r i m p o r t s o f "qua1 i f i e d l a b o u r - i n t e n s i v e " manufactures f rom t h e T h i r d World. B i l a t e r a l arrangements between p a i r s o f Nor th and South c o u n t r i e s can l e a d t h e way t o new i n d u s t r i a l l i n k a g e s , e i t h e r v e r t i c a l l y ( w i t h i n t h e same i n d u s t r i a l branch) o r between sub-na t iona l u n i t s r e f e r r e d t o above.

L E CHEMIN: STRATEGIES DE TRANSIT ION VERS UN AUTRE DEVELOPPEMENT DANS L E NORD

Resume: Ce document f a i t s u i t e a c e l u i p u b l i c dans 1e Doss ie r FIPAD 2 q u i v o y a i t une i s s u e aux c r i s e s du mal-developpement dans l e s soci iStes i n d u s t r i a l i s e e s de 1 'Oues t dans un m e i l l e u r usage du temps s o c i a l e t l a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n du p o u v o i r 2 p a r t i r de 1 ' E t a t e t du marche ve rs l a " s o c i e t e c i v i l e " . Sur c e t t e base, l a s t r a t e g i c de t r a n s i t i o n esquissee i c i repose s u r une p l a n i f i c a t i o n p a r t i c i p a t i v e e t c o n t r a c t u e l l e pour un developpement o r i e n t s vers l a s a t i s f a c t i o n des beso ins a 1 ' e c h e l l e d ' u n i t e s geographiques i n f r a - n a t i o n a l e s e t dans un c o n t e x t e p o s i t i f de p l a n i f i c a t i o n n a t i o n a l e . Les mesures envisagees au n iveau n a t i o n a l compren- n e n t 1 ' e l i m i n a t i o n du g a s p i l l a g e , l a r e c o n v e r s i o n des i n d u s t r i e s ve rs une p r o d u c t i o n soc ia lement u t i l e , l 'encouragement a l ' u t i l i s a t i o n de ressources e t d ' e n e r g i e s renouvables, l a d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n des a c t i v i t @ s 6conomiques e t s o c i a l e s e t 1 ' a p p l i c a t i o n des p r i n c i p e s de 1 '6codeveloppement. Au p l a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1 ' i n t e r e t b i e n compr is du Nord s e r a i t d 'abandonner 1 'hypothSse de sa s u p e r i o r i t @ techno log ique e t de rechercher un nouvel o r d r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l symet r ique i m p l i q u a n t , e n t r e a u t r e s , de p l u s grandes i m p o r t a t i o n s de c e r t a i n s p r o d u i t s manufactures en provenance du T i e r s Monde e t i n c o r p o r a n t une f o r t e p r o p o r t i o n de t r a v a i l . Des accords b i l a t e r a u x e n t r e p a i r e s de pays du Nord e t du Sud p o u r r a i e n t o u v r i r l e chemin a de n o u v e l l e s r e l a t i o n s i n d u s t r i e l l e s .

*/ "Cr i ses o f maldevelopment i n t h e N o r t h : A way o u t " -

Resumen en espafiol en l a p i g i n a 12

Ignacy Sachs

HOW DO WE GET THERE? : TRANSITION STRATEGIES TOWARDS ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT IN THE NORTH

To some e x t e n t " t r a n s i t i o n s t r a t e g y " i s a misnomer, as we a re always t r a n s i t i n g from somewhere t o somewhere, we a re always i n the process o f d e v e l o p i n g o r rnal- deve lop ing . On the o t h e r hand, a s t i l l g r e a t e r danger c o n s i s t s i n p r o j e c t i n g u t o p i a n go lden paths w i t h o u t c a r i n g how we g e t t o the en t rance gate o f "Development Heaven". Not t h a t we shou ld g i v e up normat i ve t h i n k i n g - however, i t s aim shou ld be n o t t o desc r ibe i d e a l s t a t e s o f b l i s s t o be a t t a i n e d and per - petuated, b u t t o o f f e r c r i t e r i a f o r t h e i n f l e x i o n o f the development/maldevelop- ment process, h o p e f u l l y moving f rom maldevelopment, i f t h i s i s t h e case, i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f development. An i d e a l des ign - a u t o p i a - may be i n s t r u m e n t a l i n d r a m a t i z i n g the va lue cho ices and i d e n t i f y i n g c r i t e r i a f o r a c t i o n t o be taken here and now. " T r a n s i t i o n s t r a t e g y towards ano ther development" appears thus - as a shor thand f o r t h e s e t o f p o l i c i e s and measures necessary t o a v o i d t h e f u t u r e we a re i n , w i t h i t s open and h idden c r i s e s , ana lysed i n t h e p r e v i o u s p a p e r i l .

A. Need-or iented p l a n n i n g

L e t i t a l s o be r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e genera l framework f o r development p l a n n i n g p r o - posed i n t h a t paper i s one o f con t inuous n e g o t i a t i o n between the c i v i l s o c i e t y , the s t a t e and t h e marke t forces-^/. H o p e f u l l y , t h i s shou ld r e s u l t i n i n c r e a s i n g the power o f the c i v i l s o c i e t y i n c h a r t i n g the development process i n accordance w i t h i t s own p e r c e p t i o n o f purposes and goals.31. The forms and con ten ts o f S t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n would be r e d e f i n e d and marke t f o r c e s k e p t w i t h i n l i m i t s .

L o g i c a l l y , p l a n n i n g shou ld f i r s t u n f o l d t h e s o c i a l p r o j e c t and then move down t o the economic sphere. I n p r a c t i c a l terms, t h i s i s h a r d l y p o s s i b l e because o f the d i f f i c u l t y i n v o l v e d i n s p e l l i n g o u t i n conc re te terms a s o c i a l p r o j e c t . A pos- s i b l e way o u t i s t o s t a r t t h e i n t e r a c t i v e p l a n n i n g process f rom the demand and n o t f rom the supp ly s i d e .

N e e d - s a t i s f a c t i o n can be achieved i n two ways: by a b e t t e r use o f e x i s t i n g p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t i e s and by s e t t i n g up new ones. The l a t t e r problem i s a f a i r - l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d one and w i l l n o t be d e a l t w i t h he re , excep t f o r i n s i s t i n g on the obvious, y e t neg lec ted , h i g h s o c i a l and o f t e n env i ronmenta l c o s t s o f sc rap - p i n g p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t i e s s t i l l a b l e t o f u n c t i o n i n reasonable c o n d i t i o n s and b u i l d i n g new ones i n s t e a d . A w i s e r use o f t h e e x i s t i n g s t o c k o f equipment may p rov ide , w i t h i n l i m i t s , an a1 t e r n a t i v e t o a c c e l e r a t e d c a p i t a l f o r m a t i o n . Thus,

l/ " C r i s e s o f maldevelopment i n t h e Nor th : a way o u t " (See IFDA Doss ie r 2 ) . -

2/ Our v iew o f p l a n n i n g has many p o i n t s i n common w i t h ";ransactive p l a n n i n g " - as proposed by John Friedmann.

31 J.K. G a l b r a i t h i s p robab ly r i g h t i n d e f i n i n g power as " the a b i l i t y o f an - i n d i v i d u a l o r a group t o impose i t s purposes on o t h e r s " (Economics and t h e P u b l i c Purpose, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1975, p.108) .

i t i s mischievous t o use the r e l a t i v e share o f p r o d u c t i v e inves tmen t i n the GNP as an i n d i c a t o r o f economic performance, a t l e a s t w i t h o u t b r i n g i n g i n t o the p r i c t u r e some q u a l i t a t i v e aspects o f t h e growth and process thus f i n a n c e d .

As f o r t h e improved per formance o f t h e e x i s t i n g p r o d u c t i o n apparatus, we s h a l l deal s u c c e s s i v e l y w i t h two aspects o f t h e problem: e l i m i n a t i o n o f was te fu lness and p a r t i a l reconvers ion l e a d i n g t o a d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f o u t p u t .

E l i m i n a t i n g was te fu lness

Whenever t h e same f i n a l r e s u l t can be o b t a i n e d th rough a l e s s e r e f f o r t and/or by u s i n g l e s s resources , we a re i n t h e presence o f was te fu lness . I t s e l i m i n a - t i o n may r e q u i r e t e c h n i c a l measures s u s t a i n e d by some inves tmen t (e .g . , i n t h e rea lm o f energy c o n s e r v a t i o n ) o r e l s e a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n . E l i m i n a t i o n o f was te fu lness th rough b e t t e r s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f f e r s a tremendous cha l lenge t o o u r s o c i e t i e s and t o p lanners who shou ld always b e a r i n mind t h a t t h e s o f t e s t o f a11 techno log ies i s s o f t w a r e . Reschedul ing o f a c t i - v i t i e s o v e r a day o r a y e a r - t i m e and r e d e s i g n i n g o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n systems a r e q u i t e f a s h i o n a b l e nowadays. S t i l l g r e a t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s l i e i n the r a t i o n a l i - z a t i o n o f commercial f l o w s and i n the g radua l s u b s t i t u t i o n o f communication f o r t r a v e l . A t a more fundamental l e v e l , i t would seem t h a t p rog ress i n telecommu- n i c a t i o n can pave the way t o the redeployment i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e and i n s m a l l towns o f many a c t i v i t i e s a t p r e s e n t concen t ra ted i n l a r g e c i t i e s (modern, sma l l - s c a l e i n d u s t r i e s , s e r v i c e s and r e s e a r c h ) . Were t h i s t o happen, we wou ld g a i n a t b o t h ends, by e l i m i n a t i n g some o f t h e n e g a t i v e e x t e r n a l i t i e s a t p r e s e n t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h excess ive urban c o n c e n t r a t i o n and by p u t t i n g t o a f u l l e r use t h e s o c i a l c a p i t a l and t h e s t o c k o f houses e x i s t i n g i n the c o u n t r y s i d e .

Adap t ing e x i s t i n g i n d u s t r i e s t o new uses

P a r t i a l and gradual r e c o n v e r s i o n o f some i n d u s t r i e s i s r e q u i r e d , e i t h e r because they do n o t f i n d o u t l e t s f o r t h e i r p r e s e n t o u t p u t and/or because they produce pseudo-use va lues t h a t shou ld be s u b s t i t u t e d by genuine use-values. Reconver- s i o n i s l i k e l y t o p rove p o l i t i c a l l y d i f f i c u l t on account o f t h e f o r m i d a b l e p ressure o f vested i n t e r e s t s , the armament i n d u s t r y b e i n g p robab ly t h e b e s t example. Not o n l y the i n d u s t r i a l i s t s b u t a l s o , more o f t e n than n o t , t h e t r a d e - un ions d i s p l a y c o n s e r v a t i v e dynamism. They f i g h t f o r the p r e s e r v a t i o n o f actucf l j obs , i n s t e a d o f p r e s s i n g f o r a g l o b a l deal t h a t would encompass a more e q u i t a b l e s h a r i n g o f t h e t o t a l work l o a d w i t h i n s o c i e t y , a f a i r e r access t o w e a l t h and resources and, as consequences o f b o t h , an e f f e c t i v e change i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f income and an improvement i n the q u a l i t y and t h e meaning o f l i f e f o r t h e work ing people.

The argument i n f a v o u r o f p a r t i a l reconvers ion a p p l i e s c l e a r l y t o t h e moto r -ca r i n d u s t r y , so c r i t i c a l l y c e n t r a l t o t h e economy o f s e v e r a l h i g h l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . O f course, a moto r -ca r f a c t o r y c o u l d be conver ted t o produce tanks and o t h e r k i n d s o f weaponry. Obv ious ly , such a reconvers ion would n o t b r i n g us anywhere c l o s e r t o a need-or iented, s e l f - r e l i a n t and env i ronmenta l l y -sound development. B u t most l i k e l y i t c o u l d a l s o t u r n o u t c o l l e c t o r s o f s o l a r energy and o t h e r r e l a t e d equipment.

The s o c i a l use fu lness o f reconvers ion w i l l depend, on t h e one hand, on t h e cho ice o f new p roduc ts and, on the o t h e r , on t h e a b i l i t y t o use reconvers ion t o

f o s t e r new forms of par t ic ipa tory planning and t o improve the qual i ty of working l i f e i n the fac tory .

Par t ic ipa tory planning

We need t o be able to suggest f o r each fac tory a range of s p e c i f i c products meeting the double c r i t e r ion of f e a s i b i l i t y and socia l u t i l i t y , eventually t rans la ted i n t o e f f ec t ive demand. Assessing the f e a s i b i l i t y requires a deep ins ide knowledge of the fac tory; proposing new products c a l l s f o r socia l imagi- nation and, qui te of ten , f o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l design and policy packages necessary t o transform des i res and aspi ra t ions i n t o e f f ec t ive demand.

To achieve t h i s , i t i s submitted t h a t fac tory trade-unions, consumer associa- t ions and other c iv i l socie ty bodies j o in t ly engage in the search f o r reconver- s ion a l t e r n a t i v e s . Such a horizontal dialogue a t the grass roots would become the cornerstone of par t ic ipa tory planning f o r local development. The dialogue could e a s i l y be extended t o o ther sub jec t s , and could a l so involve the l oca l , provincial and - why not - centra l au tho r i t i e s , the public and pr ivate indust- r i e s , indeed a l l the social ac tors who might eventually engage in a pluriannual shared contract-programme f o r the geographic! un i t under consideration. The aim of the contract-programme would be to define a package of projec ts financed by a mix of public and p r iva t e , local and external funds, t o e s t ab l i sh the r e spons ib i l i t i e s incumbent on each socia l ac to r o r group, and t o c r ea t e ad hoc coa l i t i ons around s p e c i f i c matters of common concern.

As suggested in the previous paper, the choice of the geographical uni t should be such as t o reconcile two contradictory c r i t e r i a : i t should be s u f f i c i e n t l y big t o display the web of real l i f e complexity and t o allow f o r a package of projec ts and thereby f o r a shared d i s t r i bu t ion of gains and cos t s , y e t small enough t o enable a meaningful grass-root pa r t i c ipa t ion . In any case , t h i s par- t i c ipa to ry , t ransact ive and ul t imate ly contractual planning a t the grass roots could not function without the simultaneous existence of contextual macro- planning.

Contextual macro-planni ng

The cen t r e , as we have seen, may en te r as one of the par tners in the local contract-programmes, by supplying resources t h a t a r e not l oca l ly avai lable : exper t i se , physical inputs o r f inance. I t must assume the ro l e of co-ordinating the mu1 t i p l e local i n i t i a t i v e s and of fo s t e r ing the contrac ts between d i f f e r e n t local planning groupings leading eventually t o "second level " negotiation. I t can help the local planning groups by supplying them with s tud ie s and informa- t ion of a s ec to r i a l o r national l eve l . Above a l l , i t can influence contextually a1 1 the local planning e f f o r t s through pol ic ies f o r resources, energy, 1 and-use, science and technology, and environment.

Given the d ive r s i t y of s i t u a t i o n s , and the range of avai lable instruments, such po l i c i e s cannot be meaningfully discussed a t the level of genera l i ty imposed by the very nature of t h i s paper. But something can be sa id about the questions t o which tye should address themselves.

Energy po l i c i e s must aim, f i r s t of a l l , a t keeping the demand p ro f i l e low and learning to use energy as a scarce resource, even i f i t proves not t o be so.

E c o l o g i c a l l y , t h e s a f e s t energy i s t h a t whose use has been foregone. Economi- c a l l y , sav ing energy o f t e n proves much cheaper than p roduc ing more. O v e r a l l , e f f i c i e n c y of energy use m i g h t g r e a t l y i nc rease by match ing s p e c i f i c energy demands w i t h the most a p p r o p r i a t e forms o f energy supp ly , so as t o a v o i d u s i n g h igh-grade energy f o r needs t h a t can be met by low-grade energy (e .g . , u s i n g e l e c t r i c a l power f o r w a t e r - h e a t i n g ) . A t the supply l e v e l , t h e o n l y l a s t i n g and e c o l o g i c a l l y p ruden t s o l u t i o n w i l l u l t i m a t e l y be p r o v i d e d by t h e f l o w o f s o l a r energy i n a l l i t s forms: d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t , such as biomass, h y d r o - e l e c t r i c and wind e n e r g i e s . Renewable energ ies deserve a p r i d e o f p l a c e i n a l o n g te rm s t r a t e g y , on c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e i r h i g h abso lu te c o s t s a re r e a l i s t i c a l l y asses- sed and t h a t the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f conven t iona l and n u c l e a r f i s s i o n energ ies i s c a r e f u l l y phased o u t i n the s h o r t and medium run .

Space-use p o l i c i e s a re p robab ly even more s e n s i t i v e than those f o r energy. Space i s r e q u i r e d , l i k e energy, f o r a11 human a c t i v i t i e s , b u t t h e t o t a l area o f o u r p l a n e t i s g i v e n once and f o r a l l . The amount o f usable l a n d i s p r o b a b l y s h r i n k i n g because o f i r r e v e r s i b l e man-provoked e r o s i o n processes, and o u r endo- wment cannot be en la rged , excep t through the h i g h l y p r o b l e m a t i c c o l o n i z a t i o n o f o u t e r space o r e l s e the f l o a t i n g o f a r t i f i c i a l i s l a n d s on the ocean. Moreover, many d e c i s i o n s r e l a t e d t o land-use a re i r r e v e r s i b l e . Under these c i rcumstances, land-use p o l i c i e s shou ld s t r i v e t o p reserve o p t i o n s f o r t h e f u t u r e by maximiz- i n g the areas reserved f o r f o r e s t s , a g r i c u l t u r e and g r a z i n g . As a l r e a d y mentioned, d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f some i n d u s t r i a l and t e r t i a r y a c t i v i t i e s would s low down the excess ive growth o f m e t r o p o l i t a n areas and, a t t h e same t ime , g i v e new v i t a l i t y t o the network o f r u r a l s e t t l e m e n t s and sma l l towns. More g e n e r a l l y , s i t i n g o f economic and human a c t i v i t i e s i s a ve ry power fu l p l a n n i n g i n s t r u m e n t , as b o t h t h e envi ronmenta l and t h e s o c i a l impacts o f such a c t i v i t i e s d i f f e r w i d e l y accord ing t o t h e i r l o c a t i o n . Human s e t t l e m e n t networks and p r o d u c t i o n systems shou ld be conceived as t r u e systems, t a k i n g t h e f u l l e s t advantage o f p o t e n t i a l comp lementa r i t i es and u s i n g t o t h i s e f f e c t e c o l o g i c a l c y c l e s as a paradigm, w i t h a view t o m i n i m i z i n g env i ronmenta l d i s r u p t i o n and enhancing t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e . Phys ica l p l a n n i n g i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f soc io - economic p l a n n i n g and n o t a separa te concern, p a r t i c u l a r l y so i n the model o f 1 ocal , p a r t i c i p a t o r y , t r a n s a c t i v e and c o n t r a c t u a l p l a n n i n g ou t1 i n e d above.

Resource p o l i c i e s shou ld aim, f i r s t o f a1 1, a t s u p p o r t i n g peop les ' r e s o u r c e f u l - ness - t h e i r i n g e n u i t y t o use, on a s u s t a i n a b l e b a s i s , s p e c i f i c elements o f t h e l o c a l env i ronments f o r the s a t i s f a c t i o n o f genuine needs. A d e s i r a b l e d i v e r s i - f i c a t i o n o f the resource base c o u l d be achieved i n t h i s way, c o n t r a s t i n g w i t h t h e u n i f o r m i z i n g t r e n d s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l c i v i l i z a t i o n o f t h e l a s t c e n t u r y o r so. Fo r t h e same reasons as i n t h e case o f renewable energ ies , r e c y c l i n g and s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e f l o w o f renewable resources f o r t h e s t o c k o f d e p l e t a b l e mate- r i a l s s h o u l d b e encouraged.

P o l i c i e s for sc ience and techno logy a re s i t u a t e d a t a somewhat d i f f e r e n t l e v e l f rom t h e p rev ious th ree , t o the e x t e n t t h a t they must feed them w i t h knowledge and know-how. And converse ly , t e c h n i c a l cho ices shou ld be made i n such a way as t o a c t i v e l y promote t h e energy, resource and land-use p o l i c i e s adopted. I t m i g h t be u s e f u l t o cons ide r techno logy as a l i n k between needs ( s o c i a l demand) and the resource base used t o s a t i s f y them. The cho ice o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p r o d u c t and o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p r o d u c t i o n process w i l l depend on t h e s p e c i f i c socio-economic and e c o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t s . The concept o f appropr ia teness i s a

r e l a t i v e one. No p roduc t o r technology can be deemed a p p r o p r i a t e as such, w i t h - o u t e x p l i c i t a t i n g f o r what, f o r whom and where. Two genera l g u i d e l i n e s seem t o be w i d e l y ap l i c a b l e , however. We need t o search f o r more du rab le p r o d u c t 4 technologies- / and f o r low-waste process techno log ies i n p l a c e o f t h e p r e s e n t e s c a l a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n - p o l l u t i o n - a n t i - p o l l u t i o n , r b s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e con- t i nuous inc rease o f t h e managing cos ts o f o u r economic systems.

F i n a l l y , a word s h o u l d be s a i d about env i ronmenta l p o l i c i e s . To the e x t e n t t o which envi ronment has been i n c o r p o r a t e d as an i m p o r t a n t d imension o f t h e p o l i - c i e s d i scussed p r e v i o u s l y , t h i s appears as a lmost redundant . I n f a c t , a c o n s i s t e n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e t o f p o l i c i e s suggested above leads t o an eco- development path, i . e . t o an ex an te ha rmon iza t ion o f socio-economic o b j e c t i v e s w i t h e c o l o g i c a l concerns. However, t h e back - log o f accumulated env i ronmenta l d i s r u p t i o n c a l l s f o r a cons ide rab le remedia l e f f o r t , and t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e n e x t few decades w i l l worsen, i f any th ing , as t h e r e t o o l i n g o f t h e w o r l d econo- my would r e q u i r e a much l o n g e r p e r i o d , even were a11 the p u b l i c and p r i v a t e dec is ion-makers t o be conver ted t o the ecodevelopment approach o v e r n i g h t ! Fur thermore, the success o f energy and resource p o l i c i e s aimed a t t h e s u b s t i t u - t i o n o f non-renewable resources i s condit ioned by the p o t e n t i a l o f resource renew- a b i l i t y . Th is i s by no means au tomat i c . Wi thou t an e c o l o g i c a l l y sound manage- ment o f s o i l s , oceans, wa te r and c l i m a t e , t h e s u s t a i n a b i l i t y o f f o r e s t y i e l d s and o f l a n d and a q u a t i c crops cannot be taken f o r g ran ted , even i f g e n e t i c breakthroughs were t o b r i n g about d ramat i c i nc reases i n p r o d u c t i v i t y p e r ac re . Thus, e c o l o g i c a l management o f resources a t l o c a l , n a t i o n a l and p l a n e t a r y l e v e l s i s t h e co rners tone o f the p o l i c y package o u t l i n e d here . In terdependence i s a meaningfu l concept when a p p l i e d t o t h e common p h y s i c a l b a s i s f rom which mankind d e r i v e s i t s subs is tence . Urgen t a t t e n t i o n shou ld be g i v e n t o t h i s problem, the more so as t h e p r e s e n t h i g h l y skewed p a t t e r n o f p r i v a t e l a n d resource ownership makes such management i n many p laces ve ry d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e .

B . Towards a new w o r l d i n d u s t r y geography

So f a r , we have d e a l t w i t h t r a n s i t i o n s t r a t e g i e s towards ano ther development i n a n a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e . The p i c t u r e must now be broadened, b r i n g i n g t o t h e f o r e t h e requi rements o f a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r d e r . E t h i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and e n l i g h t e n e d s e l f - i n t e r e s t converge i n t h i s r e s p e c t : t h e Nor th s h o u l d engage i n f o r w a r d - l o o k i n g and open-minded c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a new and e v o l v i n g p a t t e r n o f economic r e l a t i o n s w i t h the South, i n s t e a d o f p e r s i s t i n g i n an a t t i t u d e o f con- s e r v a t i v e dynamism i n a rea rguard b a t t l e t o main t a i n t h e p r e s e n t n e o - c o l o n i a l system and r e s t r i c t i v e p r o t e c t i o n i s t p r a c t i c e s , i n t o t a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n w i t h t h e p ro fessed d o c t r i n e s .

4/ More p r e c i s e l y , t h e d u r a b i l i t y o f t h e p r o d u c t s h o u l d become a p o l i c y v a r i - - a b l e aimed a t m i n i m i z i n g t h e m a t e r i a l c o s t o f human needs s a t i s f a c t i o n . B u t t h e argument i n f a v o u r o f d u r a b i l i t y cannot be a p p l i e d ac ross t h e board: paper handkerch ie fs a r e more h y g i e n i c than c o t t o n ones; on a more s e r i o u s ve in , i n t r o d u c t i o n o f low-waste techno log ies r e q u i r e s a c e r t a i n r a t e o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l change and, t h e r e f o r e , a 1 i m i t e d 1 i f e - s p a n f o r t h e equipment p r e s e n t l y a t work.

We i n the Nor th must be ready t o accept t h a t the asymmetry a t p r e s e n t p r e v a i l i n g i n the Nor th-South r e l a t i o n s must g i v e way t o a more e q u i t a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p . B u t e q u i t y cannot be achieved th rough formal e q u a l i t y between p a r t n e r s o f un- equal economic s t r e n g t h . There fo re , t h e burden o f i n i t i a l ad justments s h o u l d be borne by us. Johan Ga l tung i s p robab ly r i g h t t o say t h a t t h e NIEO i s b a s i c a l l y d e r i v e d f rom the "Old I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Model" 51 and c l o s e l y resembles i t . The p o s t u l a t e d improvement o f terms o f t r a d e o f t h e T h i r d World does n o t ensure, p e r se, t h a t the a d d i t i o n a l resources o b t a i n e d th rough f o r e i g n t r a d e and t h e -- i n f l o w o f a i d w i l l f i n a n c e development r a t h e r than maldevelopment.

B u t t h i s i s n o t problem. I t i s up t o T h i r d World po l i cy -makers and p u b l i c o p i n i o n t o measure t h e dangers o f f a l l i n g i n t o the t r a p o f e x c e s s i v e l y outward- l o o k i n g s t r a t e g i e s , t h a t o f t e n c a r r y w i t h them t h e i m i t a t i v e consumption p a t - t e r n s and maldevelopment models; t o expose the f a l l a c y o f c o u n t r y - t o - c o u n t r y f o r e i g n t r a d e s t a t i s t i c s which f a i l t o account f o r t h e share o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f ga ins and t o r e f l e c t on t h e lessons t o be drawn f rom t h e r e c y c l i n g o f p e t r o d o l l a r s by Western c o u n t r i e s . We s h o u l d i n - s tead cons ide r t h e l i k e l y impacts on o u r economies and l i v e s o f t h e t h r e e b a s i c p o s t u l a t e s o f the T h i r d World, s t r i p p e d f rom t h e i r t e c h n i c a l i t i e s :

1. t o see t h e i r terms o f t r a d e improved on a du rab le b a s i s ;

2. t o r e c e i v e a g r e a t e r i n f l o w o f n e t t r a n s f e r s o f c a p i t a l on a g r a n t b a s i s , w i t h no s t r i n g s a t tached ;

3. t o g e t f r e e r access t o Nor the rn markets f o r a b road range o f t h e i r commodi- t i e s and manufactured goods.

The r e a l c o s t f o r t h e Nor th o f a t t e n d i n g t o the f i r s t two demands s h o u l d be es t ima ted t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n the r e v e r s e f l o w s o f t r a d e thus genera ted and t h e m a u l t i p l i e r income and employment e f f e c t s on t h e i n d u s t r i a l economies p lagued by r e c e s s i o n and unemployment. A t any r a t e , i nc reased a i d t o t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s appears as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o s imp ly p a y i n g unemployment a l l owa- nces t o i d l e i n d u s t r i a l workers i n t h e Nor th . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , i t i s l e g i t i m a t e t o speak o f e n l i g h t e n e d s e l f - i n t e r e s t .

The i n d u s t r i a l p r o s p e c t o f t h e T h i r d World

L e t us now examine t h e second p o s t u l a t e . We s h a l l once more argue t h a t , i n a dynamic p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e Nor th has an i n t e r e s t t o e s t a b l i s h w i t h T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s a two-way exchange o f manufactured goods o f s i m i l a r comp lex i t y , t r e a - t i n g these c o u n t r i e s as equal i n d u s t r i a l p a r t n e r s , n e g o t i a t i n g bunches o f l ong- te rm e x p o r t and i m p o r t c o n t r a c t s , and h o p e f u l l y seek ing i n a p lanned way comp- l e m e n t a r i t i e s between t h e i n d u s t r i a l systems. I t s h o u l d be made c l e a r t h a t , i n t h e l o n g run, t h e volume o f o u r e x p o r t s t o t h e T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s , so i m p o r t a n t f o r o u r i n d u s t r i e s , w i l l depend on o u r c a p a c i t y t o i m p o r t f rom them.

Now, t h e p r e s e n t p a t t e r n o f t r a d e - manufactured goods versus commodit ies - cannot l a s t f o r e v e r . The reason i s s i m p l y t h a t some T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s have today a l l t he c o n d i t i o n s f o r an ex t reme ly r a p i d , even i f s o c i a l l y c o s t l y ,

5 / See Johan Gal tung, "Toward Se l f -Re l iance and Global In terdependence" , CIDA, - Ottawa, 1978.

i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n : a favourab le resource endo e n t , abundant rese rves o f cheap M l a b o u r , an e x p o n e n t i a l l y growing i n t e l l i g e n t s i a - ^ and a p o t e n t i a l l y l a r g e i n t e r - n a l marke t s u b j e c t t o a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f a g r a r i a n s t r u c t u r e s , n o t t o speak o f t h e s t i 11 dormant p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n c e , b o t h i n terms o f i n t r a - t r a d e and o f access t o fore ign-exchange su rp luses accumulated by the o i l - p roduc ing T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . We need n o t d i scuss he re t h e a l t e r n a t i v e i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n p a t t e r n s open t o d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , t h e i r l i k e l y s o c i a l c o s t s and impacts depending on t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements, o r even t h e i r s p e c i f i c c o n t e n t s . Whatever t h e ensuing v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e commodity s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i r f o r e i g n t rade , f o u r conc lus ions w i l l h o l d f o r most o f t h e cases:

1. A t some p o i n t , t h e newly i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s w i l l compel impor te rs o f t h e i r commodit ies t o a l s o buy t h e i r manufactured goods. They w i l l l i k e w i s e im- pose e x p o r t quotas on t r a n s n a t i o n a l f i r m s a p p l y i n g t o s e t up manu fac tu r ing u n i t s on t h e i r t e r r i t o r y - ' / .

2 . The t r e n d towards g r e a t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t r o l ove r n a t u r a l resources i s i r r e v e r - s i b l e , even though i t has s u f f e r e d many set -backs, and measures t o cu rb t h e freedom o f a c t i o n o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l f i r m s a re taken i n a d i s a p p o i n t i n g l y s low and e r r a t i c manner.

3. Not o n l y w i l l t he p r e s e n t exchange p a t t e r n o f commodit ies versus manufactured goods be i n c r e a s i n g l y cha l lenged , b u t s e v e r a l l a r g e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s w i l l n o t accep t e i t h e r the r o l e o f s u p p l i e r s o f a few cheap l a b o u r manufactured goods because a w o r l d d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r based on l a b o u r - i n t e n s i t y o f goods i s once more based on a s t a t i c a p p r a i s a l o f comparat ive advantage, p e r p e t u a t i n g the asymmetr ica l r e l a t i o n s h i p between producers o f c a p i t a l - and s k i l l - i n t e n s i v e goods from t h e Nor th and s u p p l i e r s o f commodit ies and cheap l a b o u r manufactures f rom the South.

4. The p r e s e n t ar rogance o f the Nor th i n the Nor th-South d ia logue stems f rom an o v e r e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e degree o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l dependence o f t h e South, hence t h e i n s i s t e n c e on the t r a n s f e r o f techno logy . I t i s t r u e t h a t o f a l l t he forms o f dependence, t h e c u l t u r a l ( o f which technology i s b u t one a s p e c t ) i s the w o r s t as i t leads t o i m i t a t i v e maldevelopment. B u t the span o f one g e n e r a t i o n may be s u f f i c i e n t t o r e v e r s e t h i s s i t u a t i o n , even g r a n t i n g t h a t the p r e s e n t e d u c a t i o n a l e x p l o s i o n i n t h e T h i r d World may prove a mixed b l e s s i n g i n t h i s r e s p e c t owing t o the pre-eminence o f Western e d u c a t i o n a l models. The example o f I n d i a deserves t o be ana lysed i n dep th . Whatever one 's judgement on h e r economic and s o c i a l performance and p o l i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s , s e l f - r e l i a n c e understood as an a b i l i t y f o r autonomous dec is ion -mak ing i s no l o n g e r an empty word t h e r e . I n many impor- t a n t s e c t o r s o f technology I n d i a s u c c e s s f u l l y competes today on T h i r d World markets w i t h Nor the rn c o u n t r i e s . Her r o l e as e x p o r t e r o f know-how, t e c n n i c a l s e r v i c e s , s o f t - w a r e and i n d u s t r i a l equipment m i g h t c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e over t h e n e x t years i f she exp lo res h e r f o r m i d a b l e comparat ive advantage f o r q u a l i f i e d

b / Enrolment i n h i g h e r educa t ion i n t h e T h i r d World has inc readed f rom - l e s s t h a n 1 m i l l i o n i n 1950 t o over 10 m i l l i o n i n 1975. I t i s es t ima ted t o reach 16 m i l l i o n i n 1980 o r n e a r l y 30% o f the w o r l d t o t a l . (S .J . P a t e l , Energy p o l i c i e s and c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n c e o f t h e T h i r d World, Resources p o l i c y , June 1978, p.129.)

71 As i s a l r e a d y happening w i t h c a r manufactures i n B r a z i l . -

labour-intensive a c t i v i t i e s , on account of the conjunction of abundant supply of highly s k i l l e d personnel and research f a c i l i t i e s with a very modest pay- level on in ternat ional standards.

I t i s d i f f i c u l t to foresee how many Third World countries wi l l follow in Ind ia ' s foo t s t eps , but i t would be f o l l y , from our point of view, t o p e r s i s t in the present se l f -congra tu la tory mood about the North's unchallenged lead in s k i l l - in tens ive and technologically-sophisticated a c t i v i t i e s .

In the name of self-enlightened i n t e r e s t , i f not of a sense of r e spons ib i l i t y f o r the present shape of Third World economies, we must therefore be ready t o accept in our countries the competition of manufactured goods imported from the Third World countr ies , as par t of a give-and-take t ransact ion tha t i n the long run means more business f o r both s ides , even i f , in the shor t run, t h i s may crea te some d i f f i c u l t i e s t o our i ndus t r i e s . The more so s ince short-sighted trade-unions and ego i s t i c i n d u s t r i a l i s t s agree t o grossly overra te the challen- ge, feeding the media with misleading and a l a rmis t i c statements. Among the causes of our present c r i s i s , Third World indus t r i a l competition plays a minor ro le in f a c t , although i t i s of ten invoked t o j u s t i f y p ro t ec t ion i s t po l i c i e s . The l a t t e r stem in r e a l i t y from the murderous intra-North r i va l ry among the leading indust r ia l countr ies . The damage thus done t o the image of the Third World i s , however, considerable and important sec t ions of Western public opinion are strengthened in t h i s way in t h e i r prejudices and neocolonia l i s t a t t i t u d e s .

The argument presented here runs so much agains t the current wisdom t h a t i t would be unreal i s t i c t o expect i t t o carry conviction with many pol i cy-makers, a t l e a s t in the next few years . Nevertheless, in our t r ans i t i on s t r a t e g i e s we should seek a mutually agreed pat tern of indust r ia l exchanges between North and South, f a c i l i t a t i n g the access of Third World countries t o our markets, even i f i t c a l l s i n the sho r t run f o r some adjustments. Two heu r i s t i c methods f o r the b i l a t e r a l i den t i f i ca t ion of potent ia l exchanges a r e suggested below.

Bi la tera l searching f o r i ndus t r i a l interdependence

The f i r s t takes a s a s t a r t i n g point the same ve r t i ca l ly in tegra ted branch in both countr ies , say the t e x t i l e industry o r the f i s h e r i e s , encompassing the whole production chain from the raw mater ia ls up t o the f i na l products, including a l l the equipment. A j o i n t planning e f f o r t i s engaged with a view t o ident i fy ing potential exports and imports i n the sho r t , medium and long term, on the under- standing t h a t t h e i r pa t tern wi l l s h i f t over time and t h a t bunches of long term export and import cont rac ts wi l l guarantee to each country markets f o r new products. Each par tner should be ready to forego some potent ia l production, thus giving t o the o ther the bene f i t of longer production s e r i e s . As the negotiation deals with a bunch of con t r ac t s , a f a i r d i s t r i bu t ion of gains should be possible. As f o r the de l i ca t e problem of pr ices and terms of t r ade , i t could be approached by negotiating mutually agreed methods of periodical pr ice revis- ion r a the r than t ry ing t o s e t pr ices many years i n advance. The approach out- l ined here does not requi re enter ing i n t o adminis t ra t ive ly cumbersome j o i n t ventures, nor accepting d i r e c t foreign investment of pr iva te c a p i t a l .

The second method consis ts i n coupling two micro-regions, already involved in par t ic ipa tory t ransact ive planning of the s o r t described in t h i s paper, and

j o i n t l y e x p l o r i n g w i t h a1 1 the concerned s o c i a l a c t o r s p o i n t s o f p o s s i b l e i n t e r - a c t i o n w i t h a view t o i n t e n s i f y i n g commercial, s c i e n t i f i c , t o u r i s t i c and c u l tu - r a l exchanges. The method has two advantages: i t contemplates a broad range o f r e l a t i o n s , n o t o n l y the economic ones, and i t permi ts c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l ad jus tmen t measures t h a t may be r e q u i r e d t o make room f o r the o t h e r p a r t y ' s economic presence. Th is may prove p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t f o r the Nor th i n l i g h t o f the argument i n f a v o u r of opening o u r markets t o T h i r d World manu- f a c t u r e d goods.

C . z i a l ad jus tmen t

Both i n d u s t r i a l reconvers ion and i n t e r l i n k i n g Nor th and South on a more s t a b l e and e q u i t a b l e b a s i s a re l i k e l y t o i n t e n s i f y o u r p r e s e n t c r i s e s i n the s h o r t and medium run . On the o t h e r hand, a l a s t i n g way o u t o f t h e p r e s e n t predicament c a l l s f o r a new look a t the uses o f t h e t ime o f t h e s o c i e t y , f o r a r e d i s t r i b u - t i o n o f r o l e s between m a r k e t - o r i e n t e d p r o d u c t i o n and d i r e c t , non-market produc- t i o n o f use-values, f o r a new balance o f power between the c i v i l s o c i e t y , the S t a t e and t h e marke t f o r c e s , t h a t i s t o say, f o r a f a i r l y r a d i c a l s o c i a l a d j u s t - ment pol icy-". Hence the impor tance we a t t a c h t o t h i s s u b j e c t i n the c o n t e x t o f t r a n s i t i o n s t r a t e g i e s towards ano ther development.

The main i ssues a t s take a r e :

1. A d i f f e r e n t and more e q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the t o t a l work l o a d among the whole a c t i v e p o p u l a t i o n , a long t h e l i f e - s p a n o f each person and w i t h i n the day, t h e week and the y e a r . Sooner o r l a t e r t h i s w i l l e n t a i l a s h o r t e n i n g o f work ing t ime i n one o f the f o l l o w i n g forms: a s h o r t e r d a i l y work-schedule, l o n g e r week- ends, l o n g e r h o l i d a y s , s a b b a t i c a l s , g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f p a r t - t i m e work, r a i s i n g t h e age o f e n t r y i n t o a c t i v e p r o f e s s i o n a l l i f e , l o w e r i n g t h e age o f r e t i r e m e n t . The s o c i a l , economic and even s p a t i a l and e c o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f each cho ice a r e ve ry d i f f e r e n t and m a n i f o l d , i t b e i n g unders tood t h a t i n p r a c t i c a l l i f e com- p o s i t e s o l u t i o n s w i l l p r e v a i l , t hus a f f e c t i n g d i f f e r e n t l y v a r i o u s groups o f peop le . Some room shou ld be made a v a i l a b l e f o r e x e r c i s i n g i n d i v i d u a l p r e f e r e n - ces. The s h o r t e n i n g o f work ing t i m e must be looked a t i n a dynamic p e r s p e c t i v e , i .e., assuming f u r t h e r i nc reases o f l a b o u r p r o d u c t i v i t y . I t shou ld be f e a s i b l e t o phase i t o u t i n such a way as n o t t o decrease r e a l incomes by t r a d i n g o f f , a g a i n s t more a v a i l a b l e t ime f o r non-economic a c t i v i t i e s , p o t e n t i a l i nc reases i n ea rn ings made p o s s i b l e by a r i s e i n p r o d u c t i v i t y ( o r a s h i f t i n the d i s t r i b u - t i o n o f the va lue added between wages and p r o f i t s ) .

The pace o f work ing - t ime r e d u c t i o n c o u l d be acce le ra ted , i f people accepted t o f o r e g o p a r t o f t h e i r p r e s e n t income and t o v o l u n t a r i l y r e s t r a i n t h e i r consump- t i o n o f goods and s e r v i c e s o b t a i n e d th rough t h e market . I n c r e a s i n g the oppor- t u n i t i e s f o r p a r t - t i m e j o b s would be a s t e p i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n , making p o s s i b l e i n d i v i d u a l exper iments i n v o l u n t a r y simp1 i c i t y o f 1 i f e .

2. A g r e a t e r p r o f e s s i o n a l m o b i l i t y . People i n c r e a s i n g l y r e f u s e t o spend t h e i r whole l i f e i n one monotonous a c t i v i t y . Besides, i n a w o r l d o f r a p i d techno lo - g i c a l change t h e demand f o r s p e c i a l i z e d l a b o u r i s i n c o n s t a n t e v o l u t i o n . The p r e s e n t e d u c a t i o n a l and t r a i n i n g systems do n o t s tand up t o the t a s k .

7 1 See the p rev ious paper, "Development c r i s e s o f maldevelopment i n t h e N o r t h : - a way o u t (IFDA DOSSIER 2 )

3. Improvement i n the q u a l i t y o f work ing l i f e , by means o f b e t t e r m a t e r i a l c o n d i t i o n s o f work, b u t , above a l l , by j o b enr ichment , self-management and i n - creased o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r personal i n i t i a t i v e .

4. Broadening o f the non-market, d i r e c t p r o d u c t i o n o f use va lues i n the i n d i - v i d u a l - f a m i l y - neighbourhood - community cont inuum as a response t o the shor tcomings o f t h e Wel fare S t a t e , peop les ' l o n g i n g f o r a p e r s o n a l i z e d l i f e - s t y l e , t h e i r f r e q u e n t d i sappo in tmen t w i t h t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l ca reers and, l a s t b u t n o t l e a s t , t he inc reased a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t i m e .

Housing and human s e t t l e m e n t management, env i ronmenta l management, d e c e n t r a l i z e d w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s f o r ca re o f c h i l d r e n and o l d people, o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s p o r t and c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s : a l l o f f e r a v a s t range o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o i n d i v i d u a l s and groups w i l l i n g t o engage i n p e r s o n a l l y reward ing a c t i v i t i e s and improve t h e i r qua1 i t y o f 1 i f e .

A1 though i t i s up t o the c i v i l s o c i e t y t o i n i t i a t e , sponsor , o rgan ize and manage a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o non-market d i r e c t p r o d u c t i o n of use-values, t h e i r scope c l e a r l y depends on access t o some resources c o n t r o l l e d by t h e S t a t e . S t r o n g p u b l i c sec to r suppor t f o r these a c t i v i t i e s i s c a l l e d f o r .

5. Expansion o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r meaningfu l and c r e a t i v e spending o f f r e e t ime i n c u l t u r a l , e d u c a t i o n a l , l u d i c and s p o r t a c t i v i t i e s , as w e l l as i n t e r - pe rsona l c o n t a c t s o f a l l s o r t s . T h i s p o i n t i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e p r e v i o u s one and i t s impor tance w i l l o b v i o u s l y grow w i t h t h e p r o g r e s s i v e r e d u c t i o n o f work ing t ime. Three competing models a re p r e s e n t l y i n s i g h t . The f i r s t i s marke t -o r ien ted , i t encourages the expansion o f the " c u l t u r e i n d u s t r y " bound t o become a l e a d i n g economic s e c t o r i n the s o - c a l l e d p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y . The second e n t r u s t s the S t a t e w i t h the s o l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r o r g a n i z i n g and mana- g i n g c u l t u r e w i t h a s t r o n g accompanying tendency f o r c u l t u r a l u n i f o r m i t y , n o t t o say t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m . The T h i r d expects t h e l e a d t o be g i v e n by t h e c i v i l s o c i e t y suppor ted by t h e S t a t e . Our p re fe rence c l e a r l y goes t o the l a t t e r .

D. Some t a s k s f o r t h e UN system

I n d u s t r i a l reconvers ion , i n d u s t r i a l in terdependence between N o r t h and South and s o c i a l ad justment appear thus as the t h r e e p i l l a r s o f t r a n s i t i o n s t r a t e g i e s t o - wards ano ther development i n the Nor th . P a r t i c i p a t o r y , t r a n s a c t i v e , c o n t r a c t u a l p l a n n i n g a t t h e grass r o o t s , coupled w i t h c o n t e x t u a l macro-p lanning, c o u l d o f f e r a s u i t a b l e framework f o r the e l a b o r a t i o n o f such s t r a t e g i e s .

I f t h i s view i s accepted, t h e UN system c o u l d be e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g tasks :

1 . t o e x p l i c i t l y c o n s i d e r i n the genera l development debate t h e p r e s e n t mal- development c r i s e s i n t h e Nor th, t h e i r l i k e l y outcome and impacts on w o r l d economy and p o l i c y ;

2 . t o recommend and a s s i s t t h e s tudy o f t r a n s i t i o n s t r a t e g i e s towards a n o t h e r development by the member S t a t e s f rom t h e Nor th , g i v i n g s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o a1 t e r n a t i v e uses o f t h e t i m e o f s o c i e t y , t o t h e p o t e n t i a l r o l e o f non- marke t a c t i v i t i e s , and t o the d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f o u t p u t f rom e x i s t i n g i n d u s t r i e s ;

3. t o s tudy new p l a n n i n g approaches, s t r o n g l y emphasizing t h e r o l e o f t h e c i v i l s o c i e t y , and t o h e l p t o exchange exper iences i n t h i s f i e l d by ne t - work ing groups a l r e a d y engaged i n i n n o v a t i v e l o c a l exper iences; l i k e w i s e t o exchange exper iences on t h e s u i t a b l e p o l i c y packages f o r t h e harmoniza- t i o n o f socia l -economic o b j e c t i v e s w i t h e c o l o g i c a l concerns;

4. t o i n v i t e , sponsor and a s s i s t n e g o t i a t i o n s among p a i r s o f c o u n t r i e s f rom Nor th and South w i t h a v iew t o e v o l v i n g a m u t u a l l y agreed p a t t e r n o f indu- s t r i a l interdependence;

5. t o r e f l e c t a l l these concerns i n the p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e UN development s t r a t e g y f o r the e i g h t i e s and beyond.

EL NORTE

Resumen

Es te t e x t o es l a con t inuac i6n de l que se p u b l i c 6 en 10s Documentos FIPAD 2 que i n d i c a b a como una s a l i d a de l a c r i s i s a c t u a l de m a l d e s a r r o l l o en l a s sociedades i n d u s t r i a l i z a d a s d e l Deste, un me jo r uso d e l t iempo s o c i a l y l a redistribution a l a "sociedad c i v i l " de poderes actualmente en rnanos d e l Estado y d e l mercado. La e s t r a t e g i a de t r a n s i c i b n del ineada t i e n e como base una p l a n i f i c a c i o n p a r t i - c i p a t i v a y c o n t r a c t u a l de l d e s a r r o l l o dest inado a s a t i s f a c e r l a s necesidades a l n i v e l de unidades geogrs f i cas i n f r a - n a c i o n a l e s d e n t r o de un c o n t e x t 0 p o s i t i v o de p l a n i f i c a c i o n n a c i o n a l . Las medidas a tomar a1 n i v e l nac iona l i n c l u y e n : l a e l i m i n a c i 6 n d e l desperd ic io ; l a reconvers ion de l a s i n d u s t r i a s a l a produc- c i 6 n de productos socia lmente G t i l e s fomentando e l uso de recursos e energ las renovables; l a d e s c e n t r a l i z a c i 6 n de a c t i v i d a d e s econ6micas y soc ia les ; t a n t o como l a a p l i c a c i 6 n d e l concept0 de e c o d e s a r r o l l o . A1 n i v e l i n t e r n a c i o n a l e l b i e n fundado i n t e r & p r o p i o d e l Nor te e s t 3 en d e j a r de basar sus r e l a c i o n e s con e l Tercer Mundo en su supuesta s u p e r i o r i d a d tecno log ica , para i n t e n t a r e s t a b l e c e r un nuevo orden i n t e r n a c i o n a l s i m 6 t r i c 0 , e l que i m p l i c a r i a e l aumento de l a s impor tac iones de productos manufacturados d e l Tercer Mundo, productos cuya f a b r i c a c i 6 n n e c e s i t a abundante mano de obra, e n t r e o t r a s medidas. Acuerdos b i l a t e r a l e s e n t r e pares de pa ises d e l N o r t e y d e l Sur r e p r e s e n t a r l a n un p r i m e r paso para e l e s t a b l e c i m i e n t o de nuevas r e l a c i o n e s i n d u s t r i a l e s .

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS

AMENAGEMENT DU TEMPS ET STRATEGIES DE DEVELOPPEMENT

p a r Claude P a t u r l e Centre I n t e r n a t i o n a l de Recherche s u r 1 'Env i ronnement e t 1e Developpement (CIRED) 54 B lvd . Raspa i l , 75270 P a r i s , Cedex 06, France

Lanque o r i q i n a l e : F ranca is

Resume

La d i v e r s i t e des recherches e t des a c t i o n s en cours pour l ' a m e l i o r a t i o n de

l ' u t i l i s a t i o n du temps personnel e t s o c i a l c o n s t i t u e n t l a base des r e f l e x i o n s

de ce document c e n t r e s u r l a d imension t e m p o r e l l e de s t r a t e g i e s de developpe-

rnent p rop res a a m e l i o r e r l a q u a l i t e de l a v i e e t sa d i v e r s i t e dans 1es pays

i n d u s t r i a l i s e s . Des progres o n t e t @ e n r e g i s t r e s dans l a r e d e f i n i t i o n e t

1 ' a p p l i c a t i o n de techn iques pour moduler 1e temps de t r a v a i l . Les e f f o r t s pour

a m e l i o r e r l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n des t i c h e s i n d u s t r i e l l e s , pour l e s r e n d r e p l u s i n t e r e s -

santes o n t a u s s i r e n c o n t r e quelque succes. Cependant, un o b s t a c l e ma jeur ii

une u t i l i s a t i o n harmonieuse du temps e s t l a d i s t i n c t i o n r i g i d e a u s s i b i e n

dans 1 ' e s p r i t des i n t e r e s s e s que dans l a p r a t i q u e e n t r e l e temps de t r a v a i l e t

l t " a u t r e " temps percu comme l i b r e mais souvent consacre a une recherche f o l l e

de compensation. Une p o l i t i q u e g l o b a l e du temps d e v r a i t depasser c e t t e

d i f f e r e n c e e t t e n d r e ii une u t i l i s a t i o n e q u i l i b r 6 e e t humainement s a t i s f a i s a n t e

du temps d i s p o n i b l e . E11e d e v r a i t reconnaTt re l a d i v e r s i t e hurnaine e t l a

c o n t i n u i t e des d i v e r s beso ins e t f o n c t i o n s humains e t en meme temps a s s u r e r

l e c o n t r 6 l e des in t i+resses eux-memes s u r l e u r p r o p r e v i e . Un element e s s e n t i e l

d 'une t e l l e p o l i t i q u e s e r a i t l a p a r t i c i p a t i o n des t r a v a i l l e u r s ti l a determina-

t i o n de l e u r s t i c h e s . 11 f a u d r a i t a u s s i r e o r i e n t e r l ' e d u c a t i o n , l ' i n f o r m a t i o n

e t l a c u l t u r e de maniere ii p r e p a r e r l e s gens a 1 1 e x p 6 r i m e n t a t i o n s o c i a l e e t

a m e t t r e en v a l e u r l e u r c a p a c i t e d 'autonomie.

Annexe techn ique : Une annexe i n t i t u l e e "Analyse d 'une p o l i t i q u e d'amenagement du

temps, S t a t a c t u a l e t p e r s p e c t i v e s " p e u t e t r e obtenue du CIRED.

T I M E P L A N N I N G AND DEVELOPMENT S T R A T E G I E S

A b s t r a c t

The d i v e r s i t y o f c u r r e n t research and a c t i o n f o r the improvement o f the use o f pe rsona l and s o c i e t a l t ime i s t h e b a s i s f o r these r e f l e c t i o n s on t h e temporal d imension o f development s t r a t e g i e s aimed a t enhancing t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e i n i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . Some p rogress i s be ing made i n r e f i n i n g and a p p l y i n g techniques f o r v a r y i n g the d u r a t i o n o f the work p e r i o d and of i t s i n t e r n a l t i m e - t a b l e ; e f f o r t s t o improve t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l t asks , so as t o render them more i n t e r e s t i n g t o those under tak ing them, a r e a l s o making some headway. However, a ma jo r o b s t a c l e t o harmonious t ime use i s t h e r i g i d d i s - t i n c t i o n - i n people's mind and p r a c t i c e s - between work ing t ime and o t h e r t ime (seen as f r e e , b u t o f t e n devoted t o a f r a n t i c search f o r compensat ion) . A g l o b a l p o l i c y f o r t i m e shou ld reach beyond t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n towards a balanced and reward ing use o f a11 a v a i l a b l e t ime; i t shou ld recogn ize human d i v e r s i t y and t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f d i f f e r e n t human needs and f u n c t i o n s , and shou ld seek t o g i v e peop le c o n t r o l ove r t h e i r own l i v e s . An e s s e n t i a l e lement o f such a p o l i c y would be t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f workers i n the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e i r tasks Above a l l , i t would be necessary t o r e o r i e n t educa t ion , i n f o r m a t i o n and c u l t u r e i n o r d e r t o p repare people f o r s o c i a l e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n and t o b r i n g o u t t h e i r c a p a c i t y t o be s e l f - r e 1 i a n t .

Suppor t i ng paper:A d e s c r i p t i v e t e c h n i c a l annex e n t i t l e d "Analyse des p o l i t i q u e s d'amenagement du temps: 6 t a t a c t u e l e t p e r s p e c t i v e s " i s a v a i l a b l e f rom CIRED i n l i m i t e d q u a n t i t i e s .

ORGANIZACI 6~ D E L T I EMPO Y E S T R A T E G I A S D E DESARROLLO

Resumen

La d i v e r s i d a d de l a s i n v e s t i g a c i o n e s y acc iones que actualmente se l l e v a n a cab0 para m e j o r a r e l uso de l t iempo (pe rsona l y s o c i a l ) son l a base de e s t e i n f o r m e que a n a l i z a l a d imension temporal de 1as e s t r a t e g i a s de d e s a r r o l l o que p re tenden m e j o r a r l a c a l i d a d de 10s e s t i l o s de v i d a y su d i v e r s i d a d en 10s pa ises i n d u s t r i a l i z a d o s . Se r e g i s t r a n progresos en l a redefinition y a p l i c a - c i o n de nuevas t 6 c n i c a s de reo rgan izac i f i n de l a s ta reas i n d u s t r i a l e s y se hacen es fue rzos pa ra hacer las mas i n t e r e s a n t e s . No obs tan te , e l mayor obs- t a c u l o a1 uso harmonioso de l t iempo es l a d i s t i n c i o n r i g i d a (menta l y s o c i a l ) que se hace e n t r e e l t iempo para t r a b a j a r e e l " o t r o " que parece l i b r e pe r0 de f a c t o no l o es, ya que se usa f rene t i camente pa ra compensar f r u s c t r a c i o n e s . Una p o l i t i c a g l o b a l d e l t iempo t e n d r i a que u l t r a p a s a r e s t a d i s t i n c i o n y t e n e r como o b j e t i v o p r i n c i p a l a1 canzar que " todo" e l t iempo d i sponi b l e f u e r a usado de forma e q u i l i b r a d a y humanamente s a t i s f a c t o r i a . Lo a l c a n z a r i a reconociendo l a d i v e r s i d a d de 10s i n d i v i d u o s y l a continuation de sus necesidades y func iones s i n d e j a r de asegura r les e l c o n t r o l de sus p r o p i a s v i d a s . Un e lemento e s e n c i a l de t a 1 p o l i t i c a s e r i a l a participation de 10s t r a b a j a d o r e s en l a determination de sus ta reas . Habr7a tambi6n que r e o r g a n i z a r l a education, l a information y l a c u l t u r a para i n t e r e s a r a l a qen te en 10s cambios s o c i a l e s que se l e s propone

aumentar su capacidad de autonomia.

VERSION PROVISOIRE

AMENAGEMENT DU T E M P S ' E T STRATEGIES DE DEVELOPPEMENT

11 y a une vinataine d'annees deja, des responsables denon- caient- 1 e desequilibre economique provoque par la synchronisa- tion des horaires, et proposaient d'etaler les activites dans le temps (en decalant les horaires de travail, ou les dates de vacances), de facon a mieux rentabiliser les infrastructures et les equipements existants. A cette premiere preoccupation, s'est plus recemment adjointe celle d'alleger certaines contraintes. temporelles imposees aux individus -cornme les horaires stricts e t les durees fixes de travail- e t de leur laisser une plus grande souplesse pour 1 'organisation d e leur emploi du temps. Peu ti peu s'instaurent ainsi l'horaire variable, les vacances par roulement, la retraite progressive, les conqes formation, 1es conqes parentaux, le travail a temps partiel, le contrat an- nuel de travail ... Mais ces mesures (1) restent ponctuelles, meme dans les cas oij i1 existe des organismes charges exclusive- ment de 1'"amenagement du temps (comme en France) et elles '

n'ont pas encore trouve leur coherence entre les deux princi- paux objectifs qu'elles poursuivent : une meilleure qestion du patrimoine collectif et l'amelioration de la quality de vie des travailleurs.

Elles ont le merite toutefois de faire @merger le ~ r o b l e m e TEVPS dont nous sommes "malades", au dire des medecins, de socio- loques et d'autres encore, qui denoncent l'orqanisation du temps des soci6tt?s industrielles..Cette diversite d'actions e t de re- c h e r c h e ~ nous incite a mener une reflexion globale sur l'en- semble des dimensions temporelles d e la vie individuelle e t so- ciale, seule condition pour definir les objectifs et les grandes lignes d ' u n e politique de developpement axee sur la qualit@ des temps e t la diversite des styles d e vie.

I L'ORGANISATION TEMPORELLE DES ACTIVITES

DANS LE TEMPS

[;~~-DUIJEE : Dans de nombreux cas, prendre un emploi revient a vendre une certaine quantite de temps, qui est fixee par l'em- ployeur e t non en fonction des besoins personnels (en temps ou e n argent). Le probleme du ch6mage -que l'automation risque d e rendre plus aiqu dans les annees qui viennent -incite ti envi- sager une diminution de la duree du travail qui est jusqu'alors restee tres e n - d e ~ a des effets d e l'auqmentation d e la produc- tivite. Pourquoi ne pas laisser alors les travailleurs choi- s i r la quantite de t r a v a i l q u i leur convient ? Dans la mesure oG la question des revenus y afferant ne sera pas eludee (et e n tenant compte, par exemple, du fait qu'une baisse de la du- r e e entralne un accroissement de la productivite), l e develop- pement du travail ti temps partiel, o u le systsme du contrat an- nuel de travail (actuellement a l'etude) reoresentent des solu-

tions interessantes.

Ceci pose evidemment le probleme de l'organisation du travail : lorsque celui-ci ne consiste qu'en gestes d'execution, que le temps est totalement exterieur a l'homme e t independant d e sa fonction dans l'entreprise, i1 suffit de faire un effort dans la qestion d u personnel. Mais i1 est des cas ou la coordina- tion des taches necessite une beaucoup plus grande circulation de l'information ; aussi faudra-t-i1 veiller a c e q u e la repar- tition des responsabilites ne renforce les inegalites sur le ~ l a n de la carriere professionnelle. Car l'assouplissement des riur6es ne doit e n aucun cas se substituer a une veritable ame- lioration des conditions de travail. 11 reste que c e modele porte en 1ui les germes d'une diversifi- cation des styles d e vie, puisqu'il offre a chacun de choisir entre le niveau de revenus e t I e temps disponible qui lui con- viennent -autrement dit, de beneficier de l'accroissement de la productivite comme i1 le prefere : en augmentant son niveau de vie, ou e n s'adonnant a de nouveaux types d'activites, hors du circuit economique marchand.

LES MOMENTS : les horaires rigides et rigoureux obligent en- - - - - - - - - - - - core la majorit6 des travailleurs a ornaniser toute leur jour- nee autour du temps de travail, malgre la concurrence d'autres horaires : ceux des autres membres de la famille, ou ceux d'ac- tivites de loisirs, de formation o u de services. Cette con- trainte, qui impose la reference constante a l'horloge, quelles que soient les obliqations ou les occasions exterieures , dis- parait avec l'horaire variable. 11 ne chanoe e n rien la duree globale de travail (qui reste identique au niveau de la jour- nee, de la semaine o u du mois, selon les cas) e t fixe un cer- tain nombre de limites (avec les plaqes fixes, la duree des reports et l'amplitude maximale de la journee), mais i 1 per- met au travailleur d'organjser l'ensemble de ses activites quotidiennes avec plus de s o u ~ l e s s e , en fonction de ses "hu- meurs" e t de ses preferences (certains oreferent se lever tard, d'autres sortir du travail plus t6t . . . ) , en fonction de ses activites e x t r a - ~ r o f e s s i o n n e l ? , e s , et non plus des horaires de travail imposes. L'"elasticit6 de l'emploi d u temps rend plus disponible : les trajets sont moins minutes e t I ' o n peut alors saisir 1es occasions d'enrichissement qui s e presentent.

Au niveau de la collectivit6, l'horaire variable e t le systeme de roulement des vacances sont des moyens d'etaler les activites (les deplacements e n particulier) tout aussi efficaces que les decalages concertes, qui sont en general imposes aux entre- prises e t aux travailleurs. Dans l'entreprise, l'interdepen- dance des travailleurs n'exige pas toujours la coordination stricte de leurs horaires ; et faire disparaltre l'uniformi- te e t la ponctualite ne d e w d e bien souvent qu'un effort de gestion du personnel. L'amelioration d u climat social e t l'augmentation d e la productivite qui s'ensuivent ont d'ail- leurs incite quelques entreprises a integrer le souci d'at- tenuer 1es contraintes horaires dans leur politique de deve- loppenent, e t alors 2 proceder au reamenagement du systsme

de production n6cessaire

La question du moment est posee en termes de preferences per- sonnelles ou d'imperatifs sociaux : la tendace generale est a la concentration du temps de travail (avec la journee conti- nue, les lonqs week-ends, les vacances regroupees . . .) , car les travailleurs desirant disposer de plus longs moments de d6- tente. D'un autre cote, pour repondre aux exigences de la pro- ductivite et pour mieux staler les services, le travail de nuit ou par equipes est en augmentation. Dans les deux cas, on oublie que le corps humain a son rythme propre et qu'il ne s'adapte au monde exterieur que dans une certaine mesure : 1e sommeil de jour est moins reparateur que celui de nuit ; i1 y a des heures de la journee, ou des periodes de laannee, mieux adaptees a certaines activites de l'organisme (la prise d'aliments on de medicaments, par exemple) ; on sait qu'il y a plus d'erreurs commises durant 1e travail de nuit, ou que l'etre humain est au mieux de ses capacites physiques en juillet et en aoit.

L'environnernent et l'organisation des activitss constituent, dans certains cas, des facteurs de stress dont 11 faudrait me- surer les consequences sur la sante et sur la qualite de vie. Les chanqements brusques de mode de vie sont eux-memes no- cifs : un travail de quelques heures tous les jours serait moins dangereux pour l'orqanisme, et ~ l u s ~ r o d u c t i f , que l'alternance de journees d'activites trop intenses et de journees de repos regroupees. Le choix des moments et de la rythmicite de nos activites doit done s'appuyer sur une meilleure connaissance de nos rythmes biologiques (qui varient aussi d'un individu 5 l'autre) ( 2 j , pour trouver, dans les cas 00 ils ne peuvent @tre respectes, les cycles qui -favoriseront la readaptation de la structure circadienne ; le travail de nuit, par exemple, est moins nuisible lorsqu'il est requlier, et la rotation rapide des postes (tous les trois ou quatre jours) est mieux toleree par l'organisme que lorsque le cycle est plus lona.

PAR L E TEMPS

La duree et les horaires (la place qu'elle occupe dans le temps de reference) nous donnent a connaftre la "qeom6trie" temporelle d'une activite. Mais la chronometric et l a c h r o - nologie n e suffisent pas pour apprehender toutes les propri- etes du temps. I1 ne faut pas oublier en particulier qu'il est succession : l'etre vivant est orient@, bioloqiquement d'abord ; i 1 mQrit et sa conception du monde, comme sa fa- con d'etre vis-a-vis du monde, evoluent. "L1activit@ de l'in- dividu l'amene a des comportements dont i1 prend l'habitude ; ces comportements habituels-nqendrent des attitudes, qui con- tribuent 5 la constitution de la personnalit6". W. Grossin, qui a mis a jour les mecanismes de cette socialisa- tion, nous incite a ne pas considerer le Temps comme un bien neutre et exterieur aux ph@nom@nes, comme un avoir ou meme un

capital, mais comme 1 'etre de l'homme.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ; I ; - ~ T - A ~ ~ ~ E S T E M P S : la rigidite ou la souplesse des ho- raires creent des liens differents entre les activit&s. Mais leur interrelation se situe aussi 8 un autre niveau. Temps pas- sif que l'on aime perdre, ou bien que 1'0; utilise avec f6bi-i- lit@, pour 1 e rentabiliser en faisant un maximum d e choses , le temps de loisir est etroitement lie au temps de travail : c'est lui qui engendre ces comportements, par reaction ou par mimetisme. La coupure nette qui est de plus en plus souvent etablie entre travail et autre temps est elle-meme sinne d'alie- nation ; car le temps disponible ne peut compenser totalement 1e temps de travai1,dont 1e contenu imprime sa marque sur le corps comme sur le mental. Des physiologistes ont montre que s u p p r i m e r dans la vie de travail toute "activite cerebrale entra7re 3 la lonque une atrophie cerebrale et engaqe un pro- cessus de vieillissement rapide et premature ; W. Grossin, a son tour, ji fait apparaitre que "les temps etroitement organi- ses, prepares, imposes, enlevent a l'individu le gout de l'or- qanisation, de la construction, de la production d e temps per- sonnels. 11s 1ui enlsvent beaucoup plus : le sentiment du temps, l'orientation personnelle, l'etendue de l'horizon tem- porel. 11s limitent sa disponibilite et sa sociabilite".

L'augmentation du temps disponible offrirait l'opportunite de s'adonner a des activites plus diversifiees et mieux appro- priees aux aspirations personnelles - a condition q u e , d'une part, 1es nouvelles activites ne soient pas soumises aux normes, aux horaires et aux lieux que les rapports marchands et la division du travail imposent dans tous 1es secteurs, y compris le tourisme et le loisir ; et que d'autre part, l'in- dividu ait la capacite de produire des temps qualitativement differents (le bricolaqe et l'artisanat, anciennes formes de travail passees dans le domaine des loisirs, r@v61ent cependant une certaine aspiration a creer son propre temps par 1e "faire", a 1 e rythmer par la progression de 1 'oeuvre, a s e 1 'approprier par l'action e t l'initiative personnelles). Meme danscces cas, si l e travail n'est qu'un moyen de gagner sa vie, d'"acheter" des temps d'un autre type et d'une autre qualite (moins assu- jettis), 11 reste cette part de temos vendue, durant laquelle la vie est mise entre parentheses. Sauf quand i1 y a refus de se plier a la r6gle e t marqinalisation -mais ce choix indivi- duel reste exterieur au systeme economique dominant ; i1 eloigne des lieux d e pouvoir oii se prennent les decisions, meme celles qui concernent 1es details de notre vie quotidien- ne. Une baisse d e la duree d u travail apparait alors tout a fait insuffisante ; i1 e s t tout autant essentiel d e redonner un sens au travail, une veritable qualit@, dont n'a pas tenu compte l'organisation de l a p r o d u c t i o n avant que le desinte- ret croissant des travailleurs ne fasse sentir ses effets sur la productivite et sur la qualit6 du produit ou du service.

Ld_$UB$TBFCE d u temos de travail commence ainsi 3 faire l'objet

d ' u n e p l u s g r a n d e a t t e n t i o n : l ' a m e l i o r a t i o n d e s c o n d i t i o n s t r a v a i l n e s e l i m i t e p l u s a l a s e c u r i t e , i l ' h y q i e n e e t a u x c a d r e s ( s p a t i a u x e t t e m p o r e l s ) - q u i n e s o n t q u e l a p e r i p h e r d u t r a v a i l . L ' e r q o n o m i e , q u i a c c o r d e a u t a n t d ' i m p o r t a n c e i d i m e n s i o n s o c i a l e q u ' a l a d i m e n s i o n t e c h n i q u e , s ' e f f o r c e d e m i e u x a d a p t e r l a m a c h i n e a l ' h o m m e . L a r o t a t i o n d e s p o s t e s r o m o t l a r n o n o t o n i e d e s a e s t e s e t r e n d l ' o o ~ r a t e u r o o l v v a l e n L i l 1 i i s t a u r a t i o n d e s t o c k s t a m p o n s s u r l e s k h a i n e s l i b i e r e l ' o u - v r i e r d e s c a d e n c e s d i r e c t e m e n t i m p o s e e s p a r l a m a c h i n e ; e t g r a c e a l ' e l a r g i s s e m e n t d e s t z c h e s , l e s g e s t e s s o n t m o i n s m o r - c e l e s e t r n o i n s r e p e t i t i f s p u i s q u e 1 e t r a v a i l l e u r r e a l i s e u n e n - s e m b l e e n t i e r d ' o p e r a t i o n s - p e u t - e t r e l e t e m p s p a s s e - t - i l p l u s v i t e a i n s i ( c a r p l u s u n e a c t i v i t e e s t m o r c e l e e , p l u s e l l e p a - r a i t l o n g u e ) . M a i s l a v a l o r i s a t i o n d e s t S c h e s n e c h a n q e p a s f o n d a m e n t a l e m e n t l a d i v i s i o n d u t r a v a i l e t d e s r e s p o n s a - b i l i t e s , q u i n ' a f a i t q u e s ' a c c e n t u e r e t s ' i e t e n d r e a d e p l u s n o m b r e u x s e c t e u r s d e p u i s l ' e p o q u e de T a y l o r . S e u l l ' e n r i c h i s s e m e n t d e s t a c h e s r e p r e s e n t e u n r e t o u r e n a r r i i e r e p a r r a p p o r t a c e t t e e v o - l u t i o n : i 1 c o n s i s t e i d o n n e r a u t r a v a i l l e u r p l u s i e u r s f o n c - t i o n s ; p a r e x e m p l e , l e c o n t r 6 l e e t l ' e n t r e t i e n d e s a m a c h i n e , l e c o n t r 6 l e d e s o n p r o d u i t , a l a c o n c e p t i o n e t a l a p r e p a r a t i o n d u q u e l i 1 p e u t m6me p a r t i c i p e r . L e t r a v a i l p e u t a u s s i 6 t r e e f f e c - t u e e n q r o u p e s s e m i - a u t o n o m e s , q u i d e f i n i s s e n t e t s e r e p a r t i s - s e n t eux-m6mes l e s t i c h e s q u ' o n l e u r a f i x e e s ; i l s s o n t g l o - b a l e m e n t r e s p o n s a b l e s d e l e u r p r o d u c t i o n , a l a g e s t i o n de 1 a - q u e l l e i l s s o n t p a r f o i s a s s o c i e s . L e s r a p p o r t s d e l ' i n d i v i d u a u p r o d u i t d e s a f a b r i c a t i o n , a u x a u t r e s o u v r i e r s d u g r o u p e e t a l ' e n t r e p r i s e s o n t i c i d a v a n t a q e m o d i f i e s .

11 e s t a d m i s m a i n t e n a n t q u e c h a q u e homme a b e s o i n d e s ' e x p r i m e r , de s ' a c c o m p l i r d a n s s o n t r a v a i l , d ' e t r e r e c o n n u p a r l e s a u t r e s p o u r c e q u ' i l f a i t ( e t n o n s e u l e m e n t comme f o r c e o u meme com- me c a p i t a l - t e m p s d e t r a v a i l ) , d ' e t r e r e s p o n s a b l e e t d ' a v o i r acc ies 3 u n e p r o m o t i o n . M a i s d a n s l e s f a i t s , c e s p r i n c i p e s n ' o n t e n c o r e d o n n e l i e u q u ' a de r a r e s e x p e r i e n c e s , d o n t o n c o n n a l t ma1 1 e s r e s u l t a t s . 11 n e f a u t d ' a i l l e u r s p a s s e c a c h e r q u e 1 e s e n j e u x e c o n o m i q u e s q u i d i c t e n t l ' e v o l u t i o n n e p r e n n e n t e n c o n s i d e r a t i o n l a q u a l i t e d e v i e " q u e d a n s l a m e s u r e o i l 1 1 s n ' e n c h a n g e n t p a s f o n d a m e n t a l e m e n t l a d i r e c t i o n . L e s r e f o r m e s p o n c t u e l l e s l i e s o n t s o u v e n t q u ' u n m o y e n d ' a s s u r e r l e l o n g t e r m e . Une f o r t e p r o p o r t i o n de t r a v a i l l e u r s r e s t e n t so.umis a u x o r d r e s d e s s u p e r i e u r s h i e r a r c h i q u e s o u a l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n m e c a n i s e e q u i l e u r d i c t e n t n o n s e u l e m e n t l e c o n t e n u d e l a t S c h e m a i s a u s s i s o n d e r o u l e r n e n t e t s e s r y t h m e s . L 'homme e s t m a T t r e d e s o n t e m p s q u a n d i 1 d e c i d e l u i - m e m e d e s q e s t e s , d e s p a r c o u r s , d e s m o m e n t s d ' e f f o r t e t d e r e p o s , q u a n d i 1 a u n e p a r t d ' i - n i t i a t i v e e t de d e c i s i o n . E t u n e t 5 c h e p r e n d u n s e n s d a n s l e p r e s e n t s i e l l e f a i t a p p e l a u n p a s s e q u i p r o c u r e u n s a v o i r e t s i s o n ach ievement u l t e r i e u r s u p p o s e u n e a v a n c e e ; e t s i l e t r a v a i l l e u r t r o u v e u n e r a i s o n d ' e t r e a u t r e q u e " q a g n e r s a v i e " , c ' e s t - 8 - d i r e l o r s q u ' i l a c o n s c i e n c e d ' u n b u t , d ' u n e f o n c t i o n s o c i a l e ; e t q u a n d l e r e s u l t a t o r o d u i t n r e n d s a m a r q u e p e r s o n - n e l l e .

La v i e p r o f e s s i o n n e l l e de te rmine en qrande p a r t i e l e mode de v i e , a l o r s q u ' e l l e n ' e s t l e r e s u l t a t d ' u n v e r i t a b l e cho ix que pour une m i n o r i t 6 de p r i v i l e q i @ s . La p l u p a r t d e s t r a v a i l l e u r s p r e n n e n t un e m p l o i a u x c o n d i t i o n s m a t e r i e l l e s e t t e m p o r e l l e s Auwquellifr~ i 1 d o i t s e p l i e r . C ' e s t u n peu u n moule dans 1 e - quel on s e g l i s s e . C ' e s t done t o u t e l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n s o c i a l e d u t r a v a i l qui d o i t e t r e r e p e n s e e , dans son ensemble , de f a ~ o n a s a t i s f a i r e l e mieux p o s s i b l e aux c a p a c i t S s e t aux a s p i r a t i o n s de chacun , dans sa p r o f e s s i o n meme, e t non seu lement au d e h o r s .

I1 U N E POLITIQUE G L O B t A L E O'AMELIORATION D U TEMPS

En f a i t , une p o l i t i q u e qu idee par l a v o l o n t e de donner 3 chacun l a m a U r i s e de son temps d o i t s ' e l a b o r e r p a r r a p p o r t a l ' e n - semble de l a v i e . La d i s t i n c t i o n t r a v a i l / h o r s - t r a v a i l d o i t e l l e - meme e t r e d e p a s s e e . D'abord parce que l a v i e p r o f e s s i o n n e l l e (comme 1e l o i s i r , d ' a i l l e u r s , ou t o u t e a c t i v i t e ) r e v e t des r e a - l i t 6 5 d i f f e r e n t e s : u n emploi c o n v i e n t p l u s ou moins a t e l l e personne e t s u r t o u t 1 e s d i f f e r e n t s emplo is o f f r e n t des c o n d i t i o n s t e m p o r e l l e s d i f f e r e n t e s ( p e u t - o n comparer l a v i e de t r a v a i l d ' u n o u v r i e r s p e c i i t l i s e a c e l l e d ' u n p r o f e s s e u r de l ' u n i v e r s i - t e ? ) . E n s u i t e , p a r c e que l e s d i f f e r e n t s temps i n t e r f s r e n t l e s uns s u r l e s a u t r e s , de maniere dynamique -non seu lement au n i - veau des c a t e g o r i e s d ' a c t i v i t e s mais a u s s i 3 c e l u i des moments s u c c e s s i f s d ' u n e meme a c t i v i t e ( l a methode des budge ts - temps , qui ne s a i s i t l e s a c t i v i t e s q u ' a t r a v e r s l e u r d u r e e e t l e u r s h o r a i r e s , e t l e s f i q e en l e s nommant, en l e u r f a i s a n t ( s o u - v e n t ) c o r r e s p o n d r e u n c a d r e s p a t i a l , ne o a r v i e n t pas a p rendre en compte l e u r i n t e n s i t e e t s e s v a r i a t i o n s i n t e r n e s ) .

LrHARMONIE DE LA VIE QUOTIDIENNE

L'homme s e s e n t d ' a u t a n t mieux dans s e s temps que sa v i e e s t ordonnee dans son ensemble , harmonieuse , e q u i l i b r e e , mesuree (non pas p a r 1 ' h o r l o q e , mais p o n d e r e e ) .

U F I ; T E ~ ~ C O N T I ~ U I T E : l ' i n d i v i d u ne t r o u v e s a p e r s o n n a l i t e ( son u n i t e d q u T ~ c 6 n d i t i o n que sa v i e a i t une c e r t a i n e homoqeneite e t une c e r t a i n e c o h e r e n c e . Les a c t i v i t e s nous a s s i q n e n t souvent des r o l e s p r e c i s ; mais on n ' e s t p a s , a t e l moment, seulement employe d e s P . T . T . , on r e s t e a u s s i pere de f a m i l l e , joueur de p ing-pong , h a b i t a n t de t e l l e v i l l e . . . Ces d i f f e r e n t s a t t r i b u t s t a c o n n e n t ensemble 1 ' 6 t r e de l 'homme. La v i e n ' e s t pas uniforme c a r l e s a c t i v i t e s peuvent e t r e t r e s d i v e r s i f i e e s ; mais e l l e s ne s o n t pas seu lement a d d i t i o n n e e s dans l ' e m p l o i du temps , au f u r e t a mesure q u ' e l l e s p a s s e n t , n i opposees comme temps qui . s e compensent . Un l o i s i r 'qui e s t seu lement u n moyen de "re- cuperer ' ; ou au c o n t r a i r e de s ' e c h a p p e r h o r s de l a r e a l i t @ quo- t i d i e n n e , ne t r a n s f o r m e pas c e l l e - c i . Leur cornpiementar i t6 d o i t s e s i t u e r 2 u n a u t r e n i v e a u ~ q u i a s s u r e u n minimum de c o n t i n u i t 6 e t d ' e v o l u t i o n . O r ' l e s l i a i s o n s r i q i d e s e n t r e a c t i v i t e s , l e s changements b r u s - ques de mode de v i e ( t e l s que nous 1 e s v i v o n s , p a r exemple, dans l ' d l t e r n a n c e de j o u r n e e s de t r a v a i l i n t e n s e e t de j o u r s

de repos regroupes) perturbent 1es rythmes biologiques comme les rythmes psychologiques. Le contenu d'un moment est en rap- port dialectique avec sa dur6e et avec son contexte, dans la succession : o n sait que le temps passe plus ou moins vite se- 1on l'interet de l'activite presente e t celui des activites qui precedent ou qui suivent. I1 a une intensite, e n dehors d e sa dur6e ; toutefois, exces d e nouveaute et dlattention,comme exces de redondance e t d'ennui nuisent 8 l'harmonie des acti- vites qui se succedent.

Aussi devrait-on chercher les moyens qui permettent un meilleur equilibre. Entre apprendre, produire (utiliser un savoir dans un but precis e t social) e t se distraire, se reposer o u s e de- tendre (qui sont plus qratuits en c e sens qu'ils demandent moins d'efforts e t qu'ils ne sont pas tournes vers un objectif im-

pose). Entre l'information, l'auto-satisfaction, la production de temps personnels et leur integration dans des cadres sociaux. La redistribution entre ces differents types de temps -entre ces situations dans lesquelles se trouve place l'homme- n e doit pas s'operer au niveau de la vie globale mais plus r&guliSrement, chaque jour, dans les activites elles-memes : le travail, com- me le loisir peuvent faire alterner, si c e n'est fondre ensemble, ces qualites de temps, dans une nouvelle rythmicite.

y ~ ~ y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : cet "art de vivre" pourrait s'inspirer de la rythmanalyse decrite par G. Bachelard (4) lorsqu'il esquisse sa philosophie du repos : "pour bien c o n n a U r e o u utiliser son temps, i1 faut activer le rythme d e la creation e t de la destruction, de l'oeuvre e t du repos8',Le travail lui-meme doit ?tre fait de ces oscillations entre moments forts e t mo- ments de repos "actif". La duree et son deroulement, le contenu et la succession sont composes par cette rythmique, "seule maniere de discipliner e t de preserver les energies 1es plus diverses". Mais G. Bachelard se situe deja dans la perspective d'un temps p e n s e " et "voulu", qui suppose la connaissance et une attitude active. En admettant pour l-'instant qu'elles soient acquises, l'exercice par l'homme de cette liberte temporelle pose d'autres conditions : un assouplissement des contraintes exterieures sur loorganisation individuelle du temps ; rythmes sociaux e t rythmes personnels s e contrarient parfois e t seule une organisa- tion sociale du temps assez souple, qui encadre et integre les temps individuels, permet de les accorder l e mieux possible. D e plus, chacun ne peut choisir sa propre temporalit6 qu'S la con- dition que le travail e t l'ensemble des activites offrent des choix veritables, qui ouvrent 1 e champ des possibles et fa- vorisent la spontaneite e t la creativite -choix qui soient da- vantage que des options entre des types d'emplois du temps, entre differents modeles proposes dans des secteurs bien delimites.

Par ailleurs, 1 ' homme ne d o G e r a un style 8 sa vie que s a i l l'oriente vers un but, que s'il est tourn6 vers l'avenir e t s i e n meme temps i1 tient compte des possibi71t6s r6e11es qu'il a d'y parvenir. O r les conditions de vie chanqent maihte- nant si rapidement que 1es modifications sont p e r c e ~ t i b l e s a

a l'echelle d'une generation ; mais elles suivent des rythmes diffgrents (on sait que les mentalit6s evoluent moins vite que les techniques, que la 1oi est en retard sur les faits . . . ) ; d'oil d e s distorsions qui, lorsque l'ecart est trop grand, pro- voquent des reactions d'angoisse o u d'incomprehension -auxquels n e sont pas eti-angers les phenomenes souvent observes d e "re- sistance au changement", ou d e besoin de securite et de prise en charge par la societe. Trop rapide, le chanqement social ne permet pas d'integrer les nouvelles connaissances dans l'acquis anterieur et dans les schemes mentaux. Mais son absence est 6- galement un facteur de stress (lorsque le present ne se diffe- rencie qualitativement ni d u passe, ni du futur, quand rien ne change, m@me ce que l'on voudrait). Car nous sommes des etres psychologiques qui accordons une valeur aux evenements en fonc- tion de c e que nous e n attendions. Et nous sommes a l'aise dans le temps s'il y a un certain ajusternent entre 1es espoirs et les attentes, entre les besoins personnels e t les occasions que don- ne reellement l'environnement, entre les exigences de l'environ- nement e t les capacitgs d e l'individu (5).

LA M A I T R I S E DE SON D E V E N I R

P ~ ~ G B E S - S O C I A L - E ~ ~ ~ ~ E ~ I E - P E R S ~ ~ ~ E L : l'homme d'aujourd'hui gprouve des difficultes a trouver un Squilibre entre un passe devalorise, un present dechire (par des temps hSch6s et par de trop nombreuses informations) et un avenir incertain. La so- ciete e s t entisrement tournee vers l'avenir, tendue vers le meme but .3 atteindre (poser le problerne du developpement e n est une preuve). Elle remplit le present de futur. Mais les indivi- dus n e participent personnellement a la p r e ~ a r a t i o n des temps a venir que dans de rares cas (ce que revele l'enauete de W. Grossin). "On n'arrete pas le progr@sl', mais i1 echappe a l'homme ; c'est un mouvement qui l'entratne sans qu'il n'en com- prenne le sens et sans qu'il n'en attende beaucoup : ma1 per- cu, l'avenir n'est souvent que la transposition du present dans le futur. D ' o u cette attitude d'attente e t de resignai-ion ob- servee par la plupart de nos contemporains ; la revolts, la fuite dans l'utopie ou dans l'immediat (par la drogue, etc.) sont aussi des reactions contre l'absence de futur a faire, contre l'assujetissement d u present vecu aux exigences d'une evolution sur laquelle on n'a aucun pouvoir.

Ces attitudes ne sont pas etrangeres aux conditions de vie tem- porelles. En effet, leg attentes sont plus faibles, les projets moins frequents et a moins lonq terme chez les personnes qui vivent un present repetitif, monotone et tres absorbant 2 la fois, c a r minute e t coupe en tranches. Ce qui explique que la population ouvriere se montre beaucouo olus conservatrice, dans ses constructions temporelles imaginaires, que les tra- vailleurs intellectuels (3)-Selon les cas, l'emploi rapproche du temps social (de l'information, du pouvoir, de la decision), est source d'enrichissernent o u au contraire deteriore les temps personnels. De 1ui depend aussi 1 e niveau des revenus qui per- mettent de gaqner du temps (le Concorde, 1 e train 2 qrande vi- tesse, etc, sont conqus pour les plus favorises), et de mieux

choisir ses activites extra-professionnelles. En faisant la meilleure part aux visionnaires, a ceux qui se sentent bien dans le devenir social, la societe elitiste creuse l'ecart entre les difffirentes couches de la population et n'offre 8 la ma- jorite que la possibilite de deleguer ses pouvoirs, de don- ner sa voix a une minorite qui fait l'avenir.

LA FORMATION : comment donner a chaque homme les moyens d'elabo- - - - - - - - - - - - 7 rer des projets, individuels et collectifs, et de oarticiper reellement au changement ? La capacite de faire des choix s'ac- quiert. Mais elle suppose que l'education ne soit pas seulement une preparation 2 la vie professionnelle, un apprentissage de techniques e t de methodes - q u i d u reste se demoderont e t ne- cessiteront un recyclaqe, une reeducation"-, auxquels se su- perpose un vernis culture1 totalement deconnecte de la realit6 vecue. Une culture dont le but est de donner 2 chacun la maltrise d e sa vie quotidienne et de son propre devenir doit inculquer c e q u l A . Jeanniere (6) appelle "l'esorit prospectif". Celui-ci suppose un changement radical de mentality vis-a-vis de l'a- venir, qui ne doit plus etre percu comme Ie simple prolonge- ment d'un mouvement qu'on a pu observer dans le passe, ni com- me l'effet de m o d i f i c a t i o n ~ previsibles du systems present. I1 ne s'agit pas d e deviner l'avenir -pour mieux en accepter les changements- mais d e le considerer plut6t comme le resultat de l'action presente et done comme un ensemble de possibles, qu'on va experimenter 2 partir des conditions presentes,

Cette attitude prospective restitue a la vie quotidienne sa dynamique. En retour, elle implique que la formation soit un outil de lecture des evenements, qui permette l'enrichis- sement continu e t l'exercice par chaque homme de sa liberty temporelle, a chaque moment de sa vie -clest-2-dire qu'il ait la possibilite de changer d'orientation s'il en eprouve l e desir. Toute activite doit etre l'occasion d'une experimenta- tion.

Au niveau global d e la societe, i1 reste a mettre en place des-structures oQ se prendront les decisions, e t qui soient en quelque sorte l e carrefour des differents projets. Dans tous les domaines (production, urbanisme, loisirs, culture..) doivent etre rechercheaydes strategies coherentes mais souples (l'avenir devra offrir des alternatives, 2 son tour) effi- caces collectivement (en associant plus etroitement la re- cherche et l'action) et qui feront @merger de nouvelles va- leurs.

L'evolution dans c e sens se heurte encore a de nombreux ob- stacles, d e tous ordres (Sconomiques, institutionnels, psycho-sociaux . . . ) . Mais une-veritable politique d'ameliora- tion du temps e s t un moyen de les surmonter peu a peu, si elle se fixe avant tout comme objectif? la formation : par l'enseignement, orient@ vers la profession mais aussi vers la vie politique, urbaine, culturelle . . . ; par l'information

tegalement, dans l'entreprise, Ie quartier-et l'environnement im- mediat ; et aussi par l'expterimentation vecue et par l'enrichis- sement de tous les temps de la vie quotidienne.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

(1) L'analyse detaillee de ces actions fait l'objet de l'annexe technique.

(2) La physiologie et surtout la chronobiologie nous appren- nent a mieux connaltre la structure temporelle de l'organisme, dont les fonctions et la susceptibilitte varient dans le temps

des rvthmes reauliers et ortevisibles {voir en oarticu- sel on 1 ier

(3) M

( 4 ) G

(5) L et ma 1 adies", communication au symposium international s t r e s s , maladies de la civilisation et vieillissement" (Paris, 28-29 avril 1975).

es trivaux du Professeur REINBERG). '

GROSSIN : "Les Temps de la Vie Quotidienne", Mouton, 1974

BACHELARD : "La dialectique de la duree", P.U.F., 1963.

LEV1 : I' Situations stressantes, reactions de stress

(6) A. JEANNIERE : "Les structures pathogenes du temps dans les societes modernes" in " 1e Temps et les philosophies", Payot/UNESCO, 1978 (sous la direction de P. RICOEUR).

INTERACTIONS

B . A . Jenny

TECHNOLOGY, DOMESTIC DISTRIBUTION AND NORTH-SOUTH RELATIONS (UNITAR Projec t on the Future: Progress repor t by Graciela Chichilnisky and Sam Cole (UNITAR, August 1978), 90 pp., with a preface by Phil ippe de Seynes, Director of the Projec t )

In the contemporary North-South dialogue i t i s s a id by some t h a t (as Phil ippe de Seynes points out c l ea r ly and concisely i n the preface t o t h i s volume) one c a n n o t go wrong" in promoting conventional trade and a id po l i c i e s ; Third World countries experience severe shortages in foreign exchange and in domestic savings, and these must be reduced - no matter what the long-term considerations may be. But, what i s s t i l l ignored by many countr ies - and what has long been ignored by conventional wisdom throughout the U N system - i s t h a t t rade and a id can indeed go wrong: whi ls t i t i s admitted t h a t exchanges among unequal par t - ners can sometimes produce gains f o r both p a r t i e s , given the appropriate mechanisms f o r compensation, i t may a l so be the case (and i t has been the ca se ) t h a t the terms of t rade de t e r io ra t e continuously, aggravate the ex i s t i ng inequa- 1i t i e s and induce new ones a t the expense of Third World countries and t h e i r poorest s t r a t a . I t i s t rue t h a t there i s an emerging new concern a t the i n t e r - governmental l eve l , shared by both indust r ia l ized and Third World countr ies , f o r more equal i ty and f o r the eradica t ion of mass poverty. But what i s not y e t admitted by many (nor f u l l y understood) i s t h a t t r ad i t i ona l t rade and a id po l i c i e s have f a i l e d when Third World countries attached p r i o r i t y t o the improve- ment of d i s t r i bu t ion - both domestically and in t e rna t iona l ly .

This UNITAR s tudy, of which we now have the f i r s t progress repor t , attempts t o understand the d i s t r i bu t ive mechanism a t work, both a t domestic and in t e rna t io - nal l eve l s , through macro-economic modelling and case s tud ie s ; scenario analys is i s used t o p ro j ec t current development paths and perspectives i n t o the fu tu re .

The study i s b u i l t around several normative concerns: i t should contr ibute pos i t ive ly t o the in ternat ional development debate by ident i fy ing mechanisms which can bring about equi table economic and socia l development in a l l pa r t s of the world; i t should provide policy impulses and instruments f o r the U N develop- ment s t r a t egy f o r the 80s ( t he " th i rd development decade") f o r the e l iminat ion of extensive and extreme mass poverty, the improvement of income d i s t r i b u t i o n , and the r ed i s t r i bu t ion of national and in ternat ional wealth and power. The be l i e f i s expressed t h a t "the foundations of a p l en t i fu l and equi table socia l and economic development" can be l a i d in the next decade, i f "adequate national and in ternat ional s t r a t e g i e s a r e adopted and implemented". The study wants t o demonstrate the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of adequate s t r a t e g i e s through s c i e n t i f i c analys is of the very complex and d i f f i c u l t technical and p o l i t i c a l i ssues t h a t a r i s e in such a context.

The method of the study consis ts of an attempt t o i n t eg ra t e contr ibut ions from severa l d i f f e r en t d i s c i p l i n e s , including long-term development planning,

diivelopment theory, econometrics, scenar io analys is as we11 as s tud ie s concerned with concrete sec tora l /na t ional problems. Three techniques a r e employed: mathe- matical modelling, scenario analys is and analys is of case s tud ie s .

Modelling cons i s t s , f i r s t , of constructing an aggregated macro-economic North- South model which can show the quan t i t a t i ve re la t ionships and in t e r ac t ions of d i f f e r en t income groups, in both Northern and Southern countr ies , through "market behaviour". Productivity , consumption of bas ic goods ( ag r i cu l tu ra l products) and d i s t r i bu t ion pat terns throughout the economies a r e important para- meters of t h a t model. Furthermore, "sub-models" a r e constructed to study spec i f i c i ssues - such as the range of possible e f f ec t s of a id on the parameters of Southern economies, transnational behaviour, technology and innovation and, in pa r t i cu l a r , the e f f e c t s of export-led indus t r i a l i za t ion on terms of t rade and d i s t r i bu t ion . Sub-models and t h e i r r e su l t s a re intended t o be fed i n t o an a l t e r n a t i v e interdependence model" which should demonstrate possible t rade and development pa t terns among f ive theore t ica l regions and in s i x d i f f e r e n t markets (food, raw mater ia ls , energy, manufactures, capi ta l goods and armaments).

Scenario analys is i s used t o enable the study t o take i n t o account f ac to r s which cannot ( e a s i l y ) be quant i f ied and t o take account of problems f o r which the theory may be too complex o r data a r e unavailable. I t i s a l so used t o c l a r i f y issues concerning the normative elements of the study, and one of i t s purposes i s t o i den t i fy preferences and i n t e r e s t s (power, coa l i t i ons ) and t o c l a r i f y t h e i r impact on the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of economic and socia l policy. This i s done on the bas is of three Northern scenarios (1 ibera l i za t ion , interventionism, col lec t iv ism) and three Southern scenar ios ( N I E O , co l l ec t ive s e l f - r e l i ance , exchange among unequal pa r tne r s ) .

I t i s expected t h a t the combination of exact econometric analys is and scenario analys is wi l l allow an in-depth c r i t i que of development s t r a t e g i e s which a re being (and wi l l be) proposed, and t h a t i t wi l l allow the precise i den t i f i ca t ion of the main ac to r s , t h e i r i n t e r e s t s - and conf l i c t s - of i n t e r e s t . On t h i s bas i s , the study wants t o derive i t s own conclusions and pol icy recommendations within the c r i t i c a l framework of o ther i n i t i a t i v e s .

One major challenge of the study i s the in tegra t ion of the varied s t rands of inves t iga t ion in to a framework of so l id prescr ip t ions - "feas ib le and viable" ( t o use a frequently expressed wish of the intergovernmental community). I t appears t h a t Graciel a Chi chilnisky and Sam Cole, the co-directors of the study, are well aware of the magnitude of t h i s challenge - as they are aware of the dangers and p i t f a l l s of "modelling". They a re experienced in t h i s complex d is - c ip l ine . They want to avoid the mistakes and over-simplifications of e a r l i e r models; they continue the useful e f f o r t o f , perhaps, the most i n t e r e s t i ng ( i f opt imis t ic) of the recent world models - Bariloche - and t r y t o l i nk i t up with the real world by tackl ing major i s sues , such as the current world recess ion, the place of the South in the world economy, and (on a normative bas i s ) the more fundamental questions of our time - d i s t r i b u t i o n , socia l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , and mass poverty. They a l so expect t o complete the whole study in mid-1980 when the new decade i s t o be launched.

The proposed e f f o r t i s , however, monumental. One looks a t the whole projec t and i t s ( so f a r ) 29 summarized background papers with t repidat ion and hopes tha t they can hold a l l the elements together and weld them i n t o a s t r a t e g i c framework as

w e l l r e f l e c t e d and as we11 balanced as t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s .

I n the w o r s t case, i f the r e s u l t s shou ld f a l l s h o r t , by f a r , o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s and "normat ive concerns" o u t l i n e d i n t h i s progress r e p o r t ( a t l e a s t i n the p r a c t i c a l sense), t h e s tudy may s t i l l pe r fo rm a u s e f u l f u n c t i o n : i t has t h e p o t e n t i a l t o c o n t r i b u t e p o s i t i v e l y t o an i n t e l l e c t u a l renaissance i n t h e UN system - a renaissance long overdue and b a d l y needed i f t h e system wishes t o make an e f f o r t t o recap tu re some o f i t s c r e d i b i l i t y o f an e a r l i e r , more o p t i m i s - t i c epoch.

The f o l l o w i n g suggest ions a re based on the hope t h a t some o f t h e s t u d y ' s r e s u l t s would have p o l i t i c a l re levance i n the minds o f the main a c t o r s . I n f raming i t s p o l i c i e s and p r e s c r i p t i o n s , t h e s tudy shou ld a t tempt t o e s t a b l i s h e x p l i c i t l i n k s w i t h t h e r e a l ( o r imagined) problems which a r e h o l d i n g t h e a c t u a l i n t e r g o v e r n - mental d ia logue and n e g o t i a t i o n s down i n t h e p resen t deadlock. For ins tance , shou ld t h e new development s t r a t e g y be a t r u l y g l o b a l one, o r would i t be w i s e r t o concen t ra te on t h e development o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ? Given t h e d e f l a t i o n of the b a s i c needs and NIEO formulae, what cou ld be t h e new n e g o t i a t i n g frame- work f o r t h e s o c i a l and s t r u c t u r a l element o f the s t r a t e g y ? How can t h e t e c h n i - ca l and p o l i t i c a l f e a s i b i l i t y be inc reased t o l i n k s o c i a l change a t domestic l e v e l s , b o t h i n i n d u s t r i a l i z e d and T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , w i t h t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r d e r ? What k inds o f commitments ( b i n d i n g o r non-b ind ing) can be expected f rom member S ta tes? It shou ld be borne i n mind, a l s o , t h a t no amount o f reasoning and r i g o r o u s a n a l y s i s can change the h e a r t s and minds o f t h e a c t o r s o f ha rd s t a t e s ; t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s a r e about changing the balance o f power, b o t h n a t i o n a l l y and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , and t h e n e g o t i a t i n g t o o l s must be fo rged a c c o r d i n g l y .

CHAKRAVARTHI RAGHAVAN

THE UNCTAD SCENE

The T h i r d World i s s l o w l y b e i n g pushed i n t o the r e a l i s a t i o n t h a t i t r e a l l y has no s o f t op t ions , and must r e l y on i t s e l f even t o p r o v i d e t h e h o r i z o n t a l l i nkages t h a t would s t r e n g t h e n i t s b a r g a i n i n g power w i t h t h e Nor th .

Th is was f o r c i b l y b rough t home a t t h e October sess ion o f t h e UNCTAD Committee on Economic Co-operat ion among Developing Countr ies (ECDC). The ECDC concept was fo rmu la ted a t Man i la e a r l y i n 1976 as p a r t o f t h e i d e a o f c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n c e o f the South. I t rece ived suppor t i n t h e A c t i o n Programme a t t h e S r i Lanka summit meet ing o f non-al igned c o u n t r i e s i n August 1976 and was shaped i n t o a s e r i e s o f recommendations a t t h e Mexico m i n i s t e r i a l meet ing o f t h e T h i r d World i n September 1976. When t h e ECDC concept was fo rmu la ted , i t n o t o n l y r e c e i v e d t h e suppor t o f t h e " l i ke -minded c o u n t r i e s " i n the North, b u t o t h e r s - severa l o f whom perhaps though t ECDC and TCDC would ease pressures on them f o r more a i d , s t r u c t u r a l changes o r even NIEO.

ECDC was endorsed by the UN General Assembly i n 1976 and aga in i n 1977 when i t c a l l e d on the UN Secretary-General t o co -o rd ina te a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n t h e UN system through t h e ACC. UNCTAD was g i v e n t h e l e a d r o l e i n ECDC and launched severa l s t u d i e s .

That the Nor th , whether o f the East o r o f the West, has d i f f e r e n t views on co- o p e r a t i o n w i t h i n T h i r d World was b rough t home when UNCTAD was asked t o o rgan ize and convene s e v e r a l meet ings on ECDC d u r i n g 1979 i n v o l v i n g s e c r e t a r i a t s o f group- i ngs o f t h e T h i r d World, m u l t i l a t e r a l f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , and sub- reg iona l and r e g i o n a l economic groupings and government e x p e r t s o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . A programme was drawn up and a modest sum, f rom budge t a l l o c a t i o n s a l r e a d y made f o r such events, earmarked. The Trade and Development Board, whose approva l was sought, had r e m i t t e d the d e t a i l e d exami- n a t i o n t o t h e Committee on ECDC and a t t h i s mee t ing i n October , b o t h Group B (Western European and o t h e r s ) and Group D (Eas te rn Europe) c o u n t r i e s j o i n e d i n b l o c k i n g i t . They argued t h a t the UN and i t s agencies were " u n i v e r s a l " i n scope and c o u l d n o t s e r v i c e o r convene such meet ings. Th is r e a l l y meant t h a t t h e r e c o u l d be no ECDC o r TCDC, o r any o t h e r , un less t h e Nor th had an o p p o r t u n i t y t o be p r e s e n t and p a r t i c i p a t e and shape i t t o ensure the con t inued dependency o f the South on the Nor th.

The UN General Assembly r e s o l u t i o n had s p e c i f i c a l l y urged " t h e s p e c i a l i s e d agencies and o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f the UN system, i n accordance w i t h t h e i r e s t a b l i s h e d procedures and p r a c t i c e s , t o s u p p o r t measures o f economic co- o p e r a t i o n among deve lop ing c o u n t r i e s , i n c l u d i n g s e c r e t a r i a t s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s and o t h e r s u i t a b l e arrangements t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e h o l d i n g o f meet ings by t h e deve lop ing c o u n t r i e s i n pursuance o f the o b j e c t i v e s o f economic co -opera t ion among deve lop ing c o u n t r i e s " .

Con f ron ted w i t h t h i s , the Group B and Group D took r e f u g e i n t h e words " i n acc- ordance w i t h t h e i r e s t a b l i s h e d procedures and p r a c t i c e s " . C a r r i e d t o l o g i c a l conc lus ion , UNCTAD shou ld n o t s e r v i c e o r p r o v i d e f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e v a r i o u s group meet ings-- o f t h e 77, o f group ' b ' o r group ' d l - - t h a t t a k e p l a c e i n UNCTAD o r o t h e r f o r a . A lso , t h e N o r t h i s a l r e a d y represented, a t t h e s e c r e t a r i a t and membership l e v e l s , i n the v a r i o u s r e g i o n a l commissions. B u t t h e South has no such r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n the ECE. There fo re ECE shou ld no l o n g e r be f i nanced o r s e r v i c e d o u t o f UN revenues. I n e f f e c t t h e message (as i n A l i c e i n Wonder- l a n d ) t o t h e T h i r d Wor ld was t h a t i t c o u l d have NIEO, TCDC, ECDC, o r any o t h e r concept so l o n g as "words s h a l l have t h e meaning we a s s i g n t o them".

Whether t h e message g o t across t o t h e T h i r d World w i l l be seen a t Arusha i n February when m i n i s t e r s o f the Group o f 77 a r e t o meet on UNCTAD V .

The f u t i l i t y o f end less search f o r words accep tab le t o a l l , and capable o f such v a r y i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , was b rough t home a t t h e mee t ing o f t h e Committee on I n v i s i b l e s and F i n a n c i n g r e l a t e d t o Trade. S ince i t s i n c e p t i o n , UNCTAD has been i n v o l v e d i n i ssues r e l a t i n g t o t r a d e and monetary i ssues , i n c l u d i n g deb t . The Group B has always t r i e d t o a v o i d d e c i s i o n s and p r e f e r r e d t h e coz iness o f t h e Fund-Bank o r GATTwhere t h e decis ion-making process and t h e s e c r e t a r i a t i s t r a i n e d t o sa feguard t h e i r p o s i t i o n . Under p ressure a t t h e m i n i s t e r i a l mee t ing on deb t o f UNCTAD's Trade and Development Board, they agreed t o a consensus d r a f t t o p r o v i d e t h a t deb t n e g o t i a t i o n s a t t h e i n s t a n c e o f d e b t o r coun t ry , shou ld take p l a c e " i n an a p p r o p r i a t e mu1 t i l a t e r a l framework c o n s i s t i n g o f i n t e r e s t e d p a r t i e s and w i t h t h e h e l p , as a p p r o p r i a t e , o f r e l e v a n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s t o ensure t i m e l y a c t i o n " . The words " r e l e v a n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s - t i t u t i o n s " were chosen i n o r d e r t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n would n o t be by f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a lone .

In April 1978, UNCTAD o f f i c i a l l y sought an inv i t a t i on t o pa r t i c ipa t e a t the Par is Club meetings on debt questions, and renewed the request in October when Peru, which sought a meeting on i t s debt , asked t h a t UNCTAD should be invi ted a s observer j u s t l i ke IBRD, IMF, O E C D and E E C . The Chairman of the Paris Club gave a non-committal reply about the fu ture but turned down U N C T A D , and Peru's requests f o r UNCTAD pa r t i c ipa t ion in the meetings held on 2 and 3 November.

The UNCTAD Conference on a Code of Conduct f o r International Transfers of Tech- nology, a f t e r a four-week session t h a t ended with the usual c l i f f -hanger f i na l session going in to the wee-hours of t he morning, i s t o meet again f o r two weeks in February 1979. Against the background t h a t four years ago the Group B could not even conceive of the poss ib i l i t y of a code, the d is tance t ravel led towards a code might be considered encouraging and UNCTAD could pat i t s e l f . But i t might be prudent t o remember t r ad i t i ona l Southern wisdom: a person f a l l i n g i n t o a well must swim the whole diameter t o reach the bank and save himself . Halfway success wi l l s t i l l mean drowning.

The Group B has advanced somewhat - f o r example, while s t i l l i n s i s t i ng on the code serving as voluntary guidel ines , they envisage the p o s s i b i l i t y of an in t e r - national supervising machinery and review of the voluntary aspect of the code a f t e r some years . True, the supervising machinery i s as weak as the O E C D one on Transnationals and i s more l i k e l y t o crea te translucency than transparency. But considering how much the Transnationals want t o prevent any "wailing wal l" on TNCs in the U N system, the Group B's present posit ion may look l i k e revolu- t i on.

But the hard core i ssues s t i l l remain. Even i f a s a t i s f ac to ry code can be evolved in a11 other respects , wi l l i t apply t o t ransact ions between the parent Transnational and i t s subs id iary o r branch, or between the branch in one country and some other en t e rp r i s e in t h a t country i t s e l f ? What would be the l imi t a t i ons on national sovereignty of s t a t e s in regulating these matters through domestic l e g i s l a t i o n ? Would the Third World give up i t s asser ted r igh t s of sovereignty over natural resources and accept t h a t not only in ternat ional agreements they have accepted, but 'evolved' or 'common law' aspect of in ternat ional law ( t h a t s a n c t i f i e s pr iva te con t r ac t ) would prevail over t h e i r sovereignty?

The Third World wi l l have the opportunity of reviewing i t s posit ion a t Arusha. The Group B appeared anxious t o ge t a commitment from the 77 t h a t they should meet again in November (negot ia t ions t i l l death?) and would not r a i s e the i ssue o r force a so lu t ion a t Manila. The f e a r of Manila perhaps i s f o r the technic i - ans a t the negot ia t ing conferences t h a t t h e i r p o l i t i c a l bosses might y i e l d under pressure and might not understand the technical issues f o r safeguarding the real t ransnat ional power s t ruc tu re .

SMALL FISHERMEN'S CHARTER

INTRODUCTION

There a re a t p resen t more thdti one rin i 1 ioi, sma I1 f ishermen I r~ t he ASEAN c o u n t r i e s o f South- East As ia . T h e i r average pe r c a p i t a income from US$100 t o US$300 and i t i s wel l -known t h a t t hey a re amongs t he poo res t cornmuni t i e s i n t h e i r c o u n t r i e s . I n May 1978, sma l l f ishermen leaders f rom f o u r o f the f i v e A S I A N c o u n t r i e s and Japan met i n Bangkok f o r f i v e days t o draw a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i r p l i g h t , .i-iscuss problems pos ing t 6 beg in a process whereby they cou ld improve the condi f i v e a c t i o n . A Small F ishermen's man i f es to adopted by l a t e d and has c rea ted s i g n i f i c a n t impact i n t e r n a t i o n a l 1 man i f es to 1 s reproduced be1 ow

a t h r e a t t o t h e i r i i v e l i h o o d s ana t i o n s o f t h e i r 1 i v e s through c o l lec these leaders has been w i d e l y c i r c u - y and a t t h e n a t b jnal level ""he

PREAMBLE We, the small fishermen of Thailand, Malaysia, mdonesia,

Philippines and Japan, gathered a t the ACFODIFAO Small Fisher- men Seminar in Bangkok, 22 - 26 May 1978 wishing t o assert our right t o live in harmony with the sea and sea-life, our fellow fisher- men and society, wanting t o draw attention t o our plight as being amongst the poorest communities in our countries and t o the threats t o our livelihood and our relationship with the sea hereby adopt the following resolutions:-

RESOLUTIONS i. We call for a n immediate stop t o all forms of pollution which

destroy t h e rivers, lakes and seas and its life-forms. We urge the establishment of anti-pollution bodies and laws to protect the sea.

2 We deplore man-made activities such as reclamation, filling-up of mangrove swamps and shore-line development for tourist hotols industrial factories o r rommercial ~nternrises whirh

. We urge training be extended t o small fishermen t o upgrade their fishing practices and other economic activities with the emphasis o n appropriate and ecologically sound techniques. This should include opportunities for exchange of information and experiences between small fishermen both within and between countries t o be provided by national organizations, non-governmental bodies and international organizations such as t h e FAO.

11. We urge the establishment of local, national and regional research and practical study institutions which can serve the special needs of small fishermen.

12. We urge t h e building up of appropriate information and com- munication services t o serve small fishermen both within and between countries.

13. We urge the widespread dissemination of literature on existing fisheries laws and regulations, the condition of t h e seas and such other literature so as t o promote consciousness amongst wial l f i ch~rmen and the nublic about t h e problems facing

., w.bL .c.' .... -... -< ...,.+-.. . . . h . . % . .... ~*...% *.b>.,.,,a. %&. ...,.. ..,..b." seek to conserve and increase fish stocks and rehabilitate depleted fishing grounds.

We are concerned that regional fish development programmes such as the South China Seas Fisheries Programme -are not 15. benefitting us and strongly urge funding and implementation agencies not to proceed with such programmes until we have an opportunity to study them and our views communicated.

We protest against the encroachment by powerful foreign 16. fishing fleets into our national and regional waters. We also request our governments to prohibit the setting-up of joint- venture fishing enterprises unless they serve the interests of small fishermen and the local consumer.

We draw attention to existing policies which have led to the increasing domination of the fishing industry by big business and big fishermen and call instead for positive discrimination in favour of small fishermen as against existing privileges to 17 . big fishermen. We also call for the abolition of policies e.g. . concessioning sea areas which only benefit big fishermen.

We call for the progressive elimination of privately-owned trawler-boats and the issue of licences instead to genuine small fishermen co-operatives. Such bodies must strictly ob- serve laws which set a limit in terms of area of fishing, power 18. capacity and gross tonnage so that inshore fisheries can be safeguarded.

We urge effective control of middlemen and other inter- mediaries t o prevent them from over-exploiting small fisher- men and call for the establishment of comorehensive integrated

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mic projects which can set into motion the local economic and social mechanism for development amongst coastal communi- ties and other peoples dependent on fisheries. We request a realignment of government policies in non-fishing sectors e.g. fiscal, infrastructural, etc. so that support can reach fishing con~munities who are acknowledged to be amongst the poorest peoples in our countries.

We call for a reorientation of attitudes and policies of govern- ment agencies dealing with fisheries so as to ensure that meaningful assistance reaches us. Presently widespread in- difference, inefficiency and even corruption characterise the departments working with small fishermen. These must be stamped out and a new strategy of development leading from the bottom upwards such as that formulated in the FA01 RAFE Small Fisheries Programme instituted.

We urge the establishment of small fishermen co-ordinating bodies at local, national and regional levels along both govern- mental and non-governmental basis to work for the true aspirations and hopes of small fishermen. In this context we especially solicit the support of FAOIRAFE and ACFOD to assist in the organization of such bodies.

We request governments and international bodies to work for the eventual setting-up in the respective countries of fisheries and fishermen reform e.g. transfer of ownership of assets from private business to co-operatives along the broad lines of agrarian reform which can take into account the special pro- blems and interests of small fishermen.

local and national co-operative organizations for small fisher- - CONCLUSION men which can strengthen fair Notwithstanding these resolutions we reserve the right to take markets Our produCk strengthen cOmmufity such further action as may be necessary to protect our hereditary activity and fight against capitalist exploitation. rights as small fishermen, especially in lieu of such decisions as may We call for special credit arrangements for small fishermen be made at the forthcoming Law of the Seas conferences. We urge d l from government and institutional bodies with an emphasis on peoples and governments to take heed of our resolutions and we credit for coastal area development to purchase improved tools pledge our collective resources to act in solidarity to overcome our of production and for diversification of means of livelihood, problems.

Hameeda Hossai n

EMPLOYMENT THROUGH CRAFT PRODUCTION: OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN I N BANGLADESH

C r a f t p r o d u c t i o n has been a t r a d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e o f Benga l ' s r u r a l economy, domest ic demands b e i n g supplemented by r u r a l consumption a t v i l l a g e hats (marke ts ) . Some p roduc ts a l s o found o u t l e t s i n e n t r e p b t s f o r overseas markets and f o r s o p h i s t i c a t e d urban consumption. Not enough i s known, however, o f the e x t e n t t o which economic b e n e f i t s f i l t e r e d down t o the t r a d i t i o n a l a r t i s a n , n o r indeed, how economica l l y v i a b l e c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n can be f o r the contemporary worke r i n Bangladesh. Yet many p r o j e c t s and programmes have been launched a f t e r independence, t o draw t h e unemployed i n t o c r a f t p roduc t ion , i n t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t a minimum o f t r a i n i n g would be r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e b a s i c e a r n i n g s f o r the workers.

When the problems o f d i s l o c a t i o n and d i s r u p t i o n c r e a t e d by t h e war o f 1971 i n Bangladesh h i g h l i g h t e d the need t o c r e a t e areas o f employment f o r t h e d isposse- ssed - a l a r g e s e c t o r o f which was c o n s t i t u t e d by women - the i n t e r e s t o f government p lanners , community v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s and f o r e i g n ' r e l i e f ' agencies, was t u r n e d t o the p o s s i b i l i t y o f p r o v i d i n g a l t e r n a t i v e o r supplement- a r y employment o u t l e t s . The need t o draw t r a d i t i o n a l l y dependent women, now d e p r i v e d o f t h e i r male c r u t c h , and d e s p a r a t e l y i n search o f e a r n i n g o p p o r t u n i - t i e s , i n t o an o rgan ized l a b o u r f o r c e was recogn ized .

It i s n o t d i f f i c u l t t o see why c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n o f f e r e d one o f t h e few o u t l e t s f o r employment i n the v i l l a g e s and urban slums. A t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n o f p r o d u c t i o n dependent on manual d e x t e r i t y , i t demanded a minimum o f sca rce i n p u t s , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e o f c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n was an e lementary one, t h e b a s i c w o r k i n g u n i t b e i n g t h e f a m i l y , which gave a s o c i a l cohesiveness t o t h e w o r k i n g groups. When h i r e d l a b o u r was r e c r u i t e d t i e s o f k i n , c l a n o r occupa t iona l cas tes were p r e f e r r e d . S ince work was c a r r i e d on a t home cons ide rab le f l e x i b i - l i t y o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n s t r u c t u r e c o u l d be ma in ta ined .

A f t e r 1972, s e v e r a l t r a i n i n g programmes were i n i t i a t e d i n v a r i o u s c o t t a g e i n d u s t r i e s - agro-based and c r a f t - b a s e d , t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l . Amongst the c r a f t s t o which women were drawn i n as workers o r t r a i n e e s t h e f o l - l o w i n g o f f e r e d a scope f o r development i n view o f t h e i r m a r k e t a b i l i t y :

1 . J u t e s t r i n g s , rope, bags, e t c .

2. Cane and bamboo f u r n i t u r e

3. Cane and reed baske ts

4. S i l k worm r e a r i n g on c a s t o r o i l p l a n t s

5 . S i l k weaving and s i l k y a r n s p i n n i n g

6 . Lea ther work, i n c l u d i n g foo twear

7. Garment s t i t c h i n g .

Some o f the t r a i n i n g programmes had s h o r t - t e r m o b j e c t i v e s , o f f e r i n g t r a i n i n g and d e s i g n i n g f a c i l i t i e s , b u t n o t d i r e c t l y l i n k e d t o marke t ing . O ther o r g a n i - z a t i o n s s u s t a i n e d t h e i r programmes o v e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e and some a l s o t r i e d t o

impose a formal marke t ing s t r u c t u r e . Beyond these broad o b j e c t i v e s t h e o r g a n i - z a t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n the development o f c r a f t s have shown a d i v e r s i t y o f approach, method and o r g a n i z a t i o n .

Amongst t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s w o r k i n g a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l , e i t h e r o n l y w i t h women o r p r i m a r i l y w i t h women, may be l i s t e d the f o l l o w i n g :

1 . I n t e g r a t e d Rura l Development P lan (IRDP) - a government o r g a n i z a t i o n , oper- a t i n g i n the r u r a l areas w i t h headquar ters i n Dacca.

2. Bangladesh H a n d i c r a f t Co-operat ive Federa t ion L t d . was formed w i t h the ass is tance o f government and f u n c t i o n e d b o t h w i t h urban and r u r a l groups, the headquar ters and main marke t ing c e n t r e b e i n g i n Dacca.

3. Women's Wel fare and R e h a b i l i t a t i o n Foundat ion, was s e t up by t h e government. I t operates d i s t r i c t - w i s e , b u t under t h e main Dacca o f f i c e .

4. Bangladesh Rura l Advancement Committee. A Benga l i v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n which works b o t h w i t h men and women, m a i n l y i n S y l h e t .

5. J u t e Works. A combine o f f o r e i g n v o l u n t a r y agencies funded and s e t up by OXFAM, Mennonites, e t c . , and f u n c t i o n i n g l a r g e l y th rough a l o c a l women's co -opera t i ve o r g a n i z a t i o n , the Jagaron i Mahi 1 a Samabaya Sami t i .

I n a d d i t i o n , o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s have mushroomed l o c a l l y i n d i s t r i c t s , p r o v i d i n g i n p u t s and o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s , b u t no comprehensive l i s t i s a v a i l a b l e . A p a r t f rom women's co -opera t i ves o r s o c i e t i e s thus i n s t i t u t e d , craftswomen have a l s o been r e c r u i t e d by p r i v a t e en t rep reneurs i n t o workshops.

A l though women have been s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e c r u i t e d i n t o the p r o d u c t i o n of c r a f t s o v e r t h e l a s t s i x y e a r s , no n a t i o n a l s t r a t e g y has been implemented f o r t h e e f f e c t i v e u t i l i s a t i o n o f t h i s l a b o u r f o r c e on a n a t i o n a l sca le , n o r i s compre- hens ive da ta a v a i l a b l e on b a s i c q u e s t i o n s d e t e r m i n i n g t h e v i a b i l i t y o f such economic e f f o r t s v i z : 1 ) the number o f women r e c r u i t e d i n t o c r a f t employment, 2 ) the impac t o f t r a i n i n g programmes on p r o d u c t i o n and wages, o v e r m a r k e t i n g and des ign ing . I t i s n o t c e r t a i n i f i n d i v i d u a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s have under taken any e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e i r work!/ t o d i s c o v e r t h e l e v e l s o f t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s o r t o determine the b o t t l e n e c k s t o the commercial development o f c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n which may o r i g i n a t e f rom problems o f techno logy , a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c a p i t a l , t h e m a r k e t i n g s t r u c t u r e o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o r g a n i z a t i o n .

An e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n i n r e c r u i t i n g and r e t a i n i n g women i n the l a b o u r f o r c e and i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r e a r n i n g p o t e n t i a l becomes necessary i f t h i s a rea o f employment i s t o b e expanded, and i f t h e economic b e n e f i t s a r e t o genu ine ly f i l t e r down t o t h e producers, r a t h e r than be skimmed o f f by t h e m i d d l e l e v e l s o f s o c i e t y - t h e en t rep reneurs and t h e middlemen. Such an e v a l u a t i o n can be under taken through a su rvey o f e x i s t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s , an a n a l y s i s o f t h e work/wage p a t t e r n s o f t h e women r e c r u i t e d , and t h e i r e n t r y i n t o t h e m a r k e t i n g network.

1/ Sondra Z e i d e n s t e i n and Taherunessa Abdu l lah have prepared a r e p o r t f o r ILO, - based on t h e i r f i n d i n g s , r e s u l t i n g f rom two y e a r s ' work w i t h r u r a l women i n IRDP.

&

The problems o f o r g a n i z i n g women e f f e c t i v e l y i n t o c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n t o enable them t o r e c e i v e the maximum b e n e f i t s can be s t u d i e d b o t h i n the n a t i o n a l and the r e g i o n a l c o n t e x t .

A. A n a t i o n a l s tudy o f c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n and i t s p o t e n t i a l i n Bangladesh s h o u l d r a i s e ques t ions r e l e v a n t t o s t r e a m l i n i n g p roduc t ion , and marke t ing . P r e l i m i n - a r y research i n t o the work o f s e l e c t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s which have c r e a t e d employ- ment o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n shou ld l e a d t o an i n t e n s i v e s t u d y o f t h e problems i n h e r e n t i n the p r o d u c t i o n o f c r a f t s , which may d e r i v e f rom snags w i t h i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n i t s e l f , o r f rom weaknesses and l i m i t a t i o n s o f f i n a n c e , o f technique, i n the s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and i n the m a r k e t i n g s t r u c t u r e . The research should, t h e r e f o r e , be s t r u c t u r e d around ques t ions which have a b e a r i n g on women's e f f e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n economic a c t i v i t y .

B. A r e g i o n a l s tudy which has a much w i d e r compass shou ld concern i t s e l f w i t h s e l e c t e d As ian s o c i e t i e s , which have r e c r u i t e d a l a r g e l a b o u r f o r c e i n t o c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n . The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e economic and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n s o c i e t i e s such as I n d i a , P h i l i p p i n e s , China and Vietnam has a l l owed a d i f f e r e n t approach t o be adopted i n each s o c i e t y . A comparat ive s t u d y shou ld concern i t s e l f w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g aspec ts :

1. An i n v e n t o r y o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s a v a i l a b l e

2. C r a f t o r g a n i z a t i o n s and t h e i r s t r u c t u r e

3 . T r a i n i n g programmes

4. Recru i tmen t t o the l a b o u r f o r c e

5. I n p u t s - f i n a n c i a l , t e c h n o l o g i c a l , e t c .

6 . Development o f t h e marke t ing s t r u c t u r e

7. S o c i a l b e n e f i t s d e r i v e d f rom such employment

8. Economic and s o c i a l m o b i l i t y ga ined through work i n c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n .

The r e s u l t s o f such a s tudy c o u l d 1 ) p r o v i d e p o l i c y o p t i o n s o r g u i d e l i n e s f o r the development o f c r a f t p r o d u c t i o n i n o t h e r s o c i e t i e s , 2 ) determine t h e p o s s i - b i l i t y o f r e g i o n a l co -opera t ion i n t r a i n i n g programmes and i n marke t ing , and 3 ) suggest schemes f o r a s h a r i n g o f improved technology.

Mrs. Hameeda Hossain was Vice-chai rman o f t h e Bangladesh H a n d i c r a f t Co-operat ive Federa t ion .

Miche l S c h i r a y

AMENAGEMENT S O C I A L DU TEMPS: UN E N J E U POUR L E CHANGEMENT DES S T Y L E S DE V I E DANS L E S PAYS I N D U S T R I A L I S E S

Beaucoup d1e16ments, au n i veau n a t i o n a l e t i n t e r n a t i o n a l , convergent pour p l a c e r l e temps de l a s o c i e t e , sa r e p a r t i t i o n e t sa q u a l i t @ au c e n t r e des s t r a t e g i e s de developpement des pays i n d u s t r i a l i s e s : l ' i m p e r a t i f de 1 'emp lo i ,d labord ; l a r e - cherche de s t y l e s de consommation m a t e r i e l l e moins g a s p i l l e u r s e t p l u s adapt& aux ressources d i s p o n i b l e s , p l u s e g a l i t a i r e s e t p l u s conformes aux beso ins m a i t r i s e s de l 'emsemble de l a p o p u l a t i o n ; l e s ex igences de temps l i b r e a c c r u e t de developpement de l a c a p a c i t e i n d i v i d u e l l e e t c o l l e c t i v e de p r i s e en charge d i r e c t s d ' u n nombre c r o i s s a n t d ' a c t i v i t e s a l ' o r i g i n e du developpement de p r o f e s s i o n s d o n t l a v a l e u r d 'usage des s e r v i c e s e s t de p l u s en p l u s con tes tee ; au n i veau i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n f i n , e t e s s e n t i e l lement, 1 ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n p l u s autonome des pays peu i n d u s t r i a l i s e s .

Au cours des annees recen tes , l e s mesures developpees dans l a p l u p a r t des pays en m a t i e r e d'amenagement du temps o n t e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t v i s e a l i m i t e r l e s e f f e t s d 'une s y n c h r o n i s a t i o n t r o p r i g i d e des h o r a i r e s q u i e n t r a i n a i t encombrement e t g a s p i l l a g e de ressources e t de temps e t a a s s u r e r une m e i l l e u r e u t i l i s a t i o n des equipements. E l l e s o n t t r @ s ce r ta inement tendu v e r s l ' a m e l i o r a t i o n de l a q u a l i t 6 de l a v i e . L ' e n j e u semble p o u r t a n t beaucoup p l u s l a r g e ; i 1 s ' a g i t de r e c o n s i - d e r e r 1es d i f f e r e n t s usages du temps ( t r a v a i l , a u t o p r o d u c t i o n , f o r m a t i o n , a c t i v i t e s s o c i a l e s , c u l t u r e l l e s e t s p o r t i v e s , repos . . .) e t l e u r r e l a t i o n a l ' e c h e l l e s o c i a l e e t p e r m e t t r e , au n i veau i n d i v i d u e l e t c o l l e c t i f , l ' e x e r c i c e des cho ix e n t r e l e s d i f f e r e n t s usages e t l e u r r e p a r t i t i o n en f o n c t i o n de s t y l e s de v i e p ropres .

Une p o l i t i q u e g l o b a l e d'amenagement du temps de l a s o c i e t e nous semble d e v o i r s ' o r i e n t e r ve rs t r o i s o b j e c t i f s p r i n c i p a u x : l a d i m i n u t i o n du temps de t r a v a i l avec une r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l ' e c h e l l e s o c i a l e ; un e la rg i ssement s i m u l t a n e des p o s s i b i l i t e s de developpement des a c t i v i t e s "hors t r a v a i l " ; une f l e x i b i l i t e accrue des d i f f e r e n t s temps e t en p remie r l i e u l e temps de t r a v a i l .

1 ) La d i m i n u t i o n du temps de t r a v a i l l i e e a une r e d i s t r i b u t i o n du t r a v a i l , a l ' e c h e l l e s o c i a l e , e s t une reponse s t r u c t u r e l l e i n d i s p e n s a b l e f a c e au chomsge c r o i s s a n t q u i a f f e c t e l a p l u p a r t des pays i n d u s t r i a l i s e s . Mais c e t t e r e d i s t r i - b u t i o n peu t egalement s ' e l a r g i r a d ' a u t r e s couches, en p a r t i c u l i e r aux f e m e s q u i d e s i r e n t acceder au marche du t r a v a i l , mais a u s s i - dans c e r t a i n e s cond i - t i o n s - aux jeunes, aux personnes agees, aux handicapes ... q u i en s o n t e x c l u s . On s a i t que l a r e l a t i o n e n t r e l a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n e t l a d i m i n u t i o n du temps de t r a v a i l n ' e s t pas mechanique; e l l e suppose des p o l i t i q u e s adaptees de f o r m a t i o n comme des d i s p o s i t i o n s s o c i a l e s e t l e g a l e s p a r t i c u l i s r e s . D 'un co te , c e t t e mesure n ' e s t accep tab le que s i e l l e n ' e n t r a i n e pas une d i m i n u t i o n correspondante des revenus, en p a r t i c u l i e r des c a t e g o r i e s l e s p l u s dS favor i s6es . De l ' a u t r e , on ne p e n t pas non p l u s i g n o r e r l e s inc idencesde t e l l e s mesures s u r l a c a p a c i t 6 c o n c u r r e n t i e l l e des e n t r e p r i s e s soumises au marche i n t e r n a t i o n a l e . On p e u t

cependant observe r que: premierement, une d i m i n u t i o n p r o g r e s s i v e du temps de t r a v a i l sans r e d u c t i o n de s a l a i r e peu t 6 t r e en grande p a r t i e cornpensee p a r une r e p a r t i t i o n p l u s e q u i t a b l e des revenus; deuxiemement, l a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n du t r a v a i l s'accompagne 2 l ' e c h e l l e s o c i a l e d 'une d i m i n u t i o n des co i l t s soc iaux , a commencer p a r l e s i n d e m i n i t e s de ch6mage; t ro is iemement , en se s i t u a n t dans une p e r s p e c t i v e dynamique, l e s gains de p r o d u c t i v i t e peuvent pour l e u r p a r t largement fonder une d i m i n u t i o n du temps de t r a v a i l .

La d imension i n t e r n a t i o n a l e des problemes souleves encourage 1es e f f o r t s de c o o r d i n a t i o n e n t r e l e s pays, en p a r t i c u l i e r au n i veau s y n d i c a l , en m a t i e r e de r e d u c t i o n du temps de t r a v a i l q u i n ' e s t q u ' u n aspec t de l ' a m e l i o r a t i o n de l a v i e au t r a v a i l , i n d i s s o c i a b l e des a u t r e s .

2 ) I nden iab lement , l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n t e m p o r e l l e de l a s o c i e t e e s t c o n s t r u i t e a u t o u r du temps de t r a v a i l , e t l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n du systeme de p r o d u c t i o n a pese s u r l e s c o n d i t i o n s d ' e x e r c i c e des a c t i v i t e s domestiques e t d ' a u t o p r o d u c t i o n i n d i v i d u e l l e e t c o l l e c t i v e , de f o r m a t i o n des a c t i v i t e s s o c i a l e s , c u l t u r e l l e s e t s p o r t i v e s e t de repos, e t en a model* l e contenu. L ' e l a r g i s s e m e n t de ces a c t i v i t e s , l e u r en r i ch issement en f o n c t i o n d 'une p l u s grande m a i t r i s e i r i d i v i d u e l l e e t c o l l e c t i v e de ses c h o i x e t d ' u n e c a p a c i t e d ' i n i t i a t i v e accrue, f o n t c e r t e s appel a t o u t un ensemble de p o l i t i q u e s q u i f a v o r i s e n t d ' a b o r d l ' a c c e s aux ressources mate- r i e l l e s e t aux equipements c o l l e c t i f s , au n i veau l e p l u s d e c e n t r a l i s e .

Mais c e c i repose auss i s u r des mesures d'amenagement du temps de l a s o c i e t e pe rmet tan t , 2 un n iveau i n d i v i d u e l e t c o l l e c t i f , d ' a s s u r e r une r e p a r t i t i o n e n t r e l e s d i f f e r e n t s temps de l a v i e q u o t i d i e n n e , au cours de l ' a n n e e e t au cours d 'une v i e q u i f a v o r i s e n t l ' e x e r c i c e des d i f f e r e n t e s a c t i v i t e s e t q u i p u i s s e n t fonder une v e r i t a b l e c a p a c i t e de c h o i x e n t r e l e s d i f f e r e n t s usages du temps.

3 ) Le concept de f l e x i b i l i t e du temps apparaTt a c e t egard comme un concep t -c le . 11 suggere, en p remie r l i e u , des d i s p o s i t i o n s en f a v e u r du l i b r e c h o i x de l a quan- t i t 6 de t r a v a i l 2 f o u r n i r e t sa r e p a r t i t i o n dans l e temps.

Aussi e s s e n t i e l l e s o i t - e l l e pour a c c r o i t r e une m a i t r i s e i n d i v i d u e l l e e t c o l l e c - t i v e s u r l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n de son temps e t de ses a c t i v i t e s , l a mise en p r a t i q u e de ce concept se h e u r t e a un g rave o b s t a c l e i n s t i t u t i o n n e l e t s o c i a l . I 1 suppose en e f f e t que des d i s p o s i t i o n s e x i s t e n t pour g a r a n t i r l a c a p a c i t e de c h o i x des i n d i v i d u s q u i ne s o i t pas non p l u s 1e ~ r i v i l e g e de quelques m i n o r i t & .

C e t t e r e s e r v e e x p l i q u e l a r e t i c e n c e d ' o r g a n i s a t i o n s s y n d i c a l e s de nombreux pays devant l e s p r o p o s i t i o n s p a t r o n a l e s d 'assoup l i ssement des h o r a i r e s de t r a v a i l q u i , sous c o n v e r t d ' a m e l i o r a t i o n de l a q u a l i t 6 de l a v i e , imposera ien t une o r g a n i s a t i o n t e m p o r e l l e du t r a v a i l en f o n c t i o n des seules necess i tes de l a p r o d u c t i o n de l ' e n t r e p r i s e .

Michel S c h i r a y t r a v a i l l e au CIRED, 54 B l v d Raspa i l , F-75270 P a r i s