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Project Title: Information and Communication Technology (ICT) research,
dissemination and utilization in Southern African Universities.
By
Dr. Luckson M. Kaino (Project Leader)
Department of Mathematics & Science Education
Faculty of Education
University of Botswana, BOTSWANA
P.O. Box 70025, Gaborone, BOTSWANA
Tel: +267 355 2175 (Office); +267 3133201 (H/se); Cell: +267 7214 8826
Email: [email protected] or [email protected]
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Executive Summary
The proposed project intends to analyze the contribution of academic research in ICTs towards
improvement of economic and social development of societies in the countries of three sampled
universities in the South African region. These universities are the University of Botswana, the
University of Namibia, and the University of Zimbabwe in the three neighbouring countries of
Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe respectively. The study will target ICT projects undertaken
by these universities and how the projects are benefiting or intend to benefit the communities in
these countries as contribution to realisation of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by year
2015. The focus will be on MDGs’ educational goals which if attained are believed to alleviate
poverty in society. This study premises that access to ICT by people in community can increase
access and participation in educational, social and economic activities that can contribute to well
being of the people involved. With ICTs in place, it has been realised that the interaction nature
of these facilities provide a conducive environment where people of both sexes can participate.
The participation aspect is crucial (if access is availed) especially to gender imbalances where
females have historically been disadvantaged. Specifically, the study will focus on the
contribution of ICTs to MDGs’ educational goals on expanded access in higher education,
advanced life-long learning, improved quality of education and gender equality programmes in
education in the three sampled countries. Specific objects targeting the above will be to (i)
identify the nature of ICT research projects undertaken by universities in the sample, (ii) find out
the processes used to dissemination research findings to community, (iv) determine how research
findings have benefited the community (where disseminated) or can benefit community (where
not disseminated), (iv) suggest ways of utilization, dissemination to communities among
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universities sampled in the study, and (v) provide the plan of collaboration among universities in
the sample and beyond.
The study will be descriptive in nature using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. The
conceptual framework of the study will be guided by research production and utilization function
models knowledge outlined in the literature of this study. Data will be collected by researchers in
the three universities assisted by recruited assistant researchers in these countries.
Questionnaires, interviews and observation schedules will be used in data collection. Data will
be analysed by three main researchers who will compile the project report. Questionnaires and
interviews will be conducted to researchers in ICT in targeted projects, offices of research at the
three universities, policy makers on ICTs in departments and ministries concerned in sampled
countries, and people in communities directly benefiting from ICTs projects. At completion of
the study, six dissemination workshops and one seminar are planned. Three are planned for the
three universities (1 each) and these will involve researchers and research bodies at the
universities. The other three workshops will target ICT policy makers in the three countries (1
each). The planned seminar will draw researchers and sponsors of the project to draw up a future
strategic plan of action as it is believed by the project leader that without an action plan all the
efforts and resources invested in the project could become redundant. This action plan will be
drawn after dissemination workshops.
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Background information and Literature Review
The contribution of academic knowledge to economic and social development of societies is
widely emphasized. This recognition has raised attention to the role of higher learning
institutions such as universities in research outputs and their relevance to society. Universities
have the role not only to teach and carry out research but also to contribute directly to economic
growth of the society in which they were embedded (Etzkowitz, 2002). University research has a
potential in the contribution to achievement of Millennium Development Goals such as
Education for All (EFA) goals and expanded access to secondary, vocational and higher
education by 2015. Set for the year 2015, the MDGs are an agreed set of goals that can be
achieved if all actors work together and do their part (MDGs, 2008). The challenges faced by
countries in increasing access to post-primary education, improving quality of education and
addressing threats to education systems from pandemics, natural disasters and civil conflicts,
need participation of all parties which include higher education institutions. Countries need to
strengthen the management of education systems, provide better teaching materials and increase
expenditure for training, hiring and management of teachers. For example, an estimated 4.5
million teachers needed in Africa to achieve the MDGs by 2015 (MDGs 2008 ibid.) is a
challenge to try to achieve within time left.
The contribution of ICTs in achieving these goals and the participation of higher learning
institutions in particular cannot be over emphasized as a number of ICT projects are carried out
by these institutions. The significance of ICTs is realized in many aspects such as improved
access to learning by all (Kaino, 2007), creation of conducive learning environment by gender
(Kaino; 2004, 2006, 2007, and 2008), quality of knowledge delivery (Kaino, 2008), expanded
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secondary and post secondary education, reduction of expenditure on training and many others.
This is to the advantage of advances in Information Technology (IT) that have changed ways of
communication in education and delivery of knowledge to society. Some new delivery
technologies using for example electronic learning (e-learning) in virtual programs, internet
courses delivery strategies, audio and video communications have changed and challenged ways
of knowledge delivery in the education sector. The current trend in Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) has brought a phenomenon which can be termed a “fourth
revolution” in IT. The first revolution comprised of films, radio, television and satellite
broadcasting, while the second comprised telecommunications and microcomputers (Paisley,
1985). The integration of telecommunications and microelectronic technology in computing was
termed a “third revolution” and came to be what is called Information Technology (IT). The third
revolution was said to promise not only a more productive person, a problem- solver and a life-
long learner, but also a better informed, rational and participative citizen, a modern ‘renaissance’
person, living in the web and network of a worldwide electronic community (Papagiannis et al,
1987). This latter revolution came at a time when there was increasing financial and economic
stress in many countries of the world. At this time, there was increasing unemployment and
stagnation of economic growth affecting many sectors of life and the introduction of this
technology had some policy implications that had to be tackled (Papagiannis et al, 1987). The
current “fourth revolution” in ICT has a globalization component force that has replaced other
revolutions and accelerated its influence worldwide. Globalization has been described as the
intensification of interconnectedness (McGrew, 1992), a process of elimination of economic
borders and increase in international exchange and transnational interaction (Dolan, 1993), and a
process by which peoples of the world are incorporated into a single global society (Wallerstein,
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1995). The advantages of ICTs have been recognized worldwide and national policy makers
have realized the potential of these to restructure organizations, promote collaboration,
increase democratic participation of citizens, improve the transparency and responsiveness
of governmental agencies, make health care more widely available, foster cultural
creativity and enhance the social integration of individuals with different abilities and
groups of different cultural background (Kozma, 2005). The policies crafted should aim at
programs that promote economic and social growth in societies.
In education, the delivery of knowledge using ICTs has influenced the design of various
curricula programmes nationally and globally in launching of different educational programmes.
The current technology for example, allows learners’ interaction with the computer screen rather
than the teacher. Through the computer network, learners were able to communicate with the
instructor on the material and could discuss assignments involved. In this process learners were
able to attend lectures “online”. Current technologies in e -learning such as AulaNet tend to
provide a groupware for creation, participation and maintenance of Web-based courses
emphasizing group learning where individuals shared ideas online (Gay & Lantini, 1995 and
Fuks, 2000). It has been argued that ICT was a way to move from elite to mass education
through digital media where more learners could get access to education for both campus and
distance-learning students Kennedy (2001). ICT is seen as a way to promote educational
change, improve the skills of learners and prepare them for the global economy and
information society (Haddad & Draxler, 2002; Kozma & Wagner, 2005; McNamara, 2003;
UNESCO, 2002). ICT is used to improve delivery of and access to education. ICT as focus
of learning, it tends to improve the understanding of the learner, increase quality of
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education thereby increase the impact of education on the economy. While basically ICT-
based innovations can occur in classrooms, their linkage to national policies is essential to
achieve intended social and economic outcomes.
While the benefits of these technologies have been acknowledged there have been some
constraints of adoption especially in developing countries. The constraints are many and include,
access to computers (email and internet), affordability of computers and connectivity, telephone
and electricity infrastructure, computer literacy, expertise, etc. (Davis & Danning, 2001; Oliver
et al, 2001; Knowlton & Knowlton, 2001; Sibiya, 2003; Gumbo, 2003). While such problems
have been acknowledged, the main reasons behind the slow pace of adoption have been
identified as lack of effective policies on ICTs (Kaino, 2004). Many countries have outlined the
significance of these technologies and much of these policies have remained on paper without
committing enough resources to policies. Some countries like Egypt have acknowledged the
significance of investing in ICTs where the influence on nation’s educational and economic
developments have been realized (NDP, 2003). In developing countries, there has been
some cases where ICT resources have been abundant but remained underutilization
(Kaino; 2004, 2005). The issue of utilizing a fraction of the capacity of existing ICT facility in
developing countries has been noted in past studies (Cawthera, 2002).
A number of studies on ICTs have been done by universities and the relevance of production of
such knowledge to society has been in current debates on how universities should be engaged in
not only research but also on utilization and dissemination of generated knowledge to the market
needs. The production of knowledge by universities can be analyzed into two types. The first,
involves the pursuit of scientific truth by scientists described by Huff (2000) to contain many
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epistemic traditions that involve disciplined based work, university centered and dominated by
highly trained individuals. Such type of work was basically cognitive in nature, validated by peer
review and documented in libraries, published in proceedings, journals, etc. The output of the
work could be applied later or never used at all. Many universities emphasized this type of
knowledge production where recruitment and promotions were based on published research
outputs. However, there has been a shift (mainly in developed countries) on knowledge produced
by universities and its role in society. The second is a radically different style that characterizes
knowledge in an application approach. In this type of knowledge production, the work is
described to be heterarchical and not hierarchical as in the first type (Huff, 2000 ibid.); it tends
to be transdisciplinary. While the former was described to focus on individual work for
certification, the later is said to be group based and critical of response time. Furthermore, it is
argued that in the second type, knowledge was validated in use and thus tends to be transitory.
With current ICTs, the second type could easily transmit knowledge that can be applied where
required.
Recent changes in universities in developed countries suggest an entrepreneurial model of
academic research. The key feature of this model is said to be accepted by universities that have
the responsibility not only to provide teaching and carry out research, but also to contribute
directly to economic growth of the society (Etzkowitz, 2002 ibid). The triple helix model (of
academic-industry-government relations) by Etzkowitz, et al (2000) outlines the entrepreneurial
paradigm that describes an “entrepreneurial university” as the one that encompasses a ‘third-
mission’ of economic development in addition to teaching and research. This model involves
both internal development of the university and external influences on academic structures
associated with the emergence of knowledge based innovations (outlined in appendix).
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Problem statement
The significance of ICTs in economic and social development of societies is now widely
recognised and the need for higher learning institutions to contribute knowledge in this area is
emphasized. There are many ICT studies that have been conducted by these universities, and
how the projects have benefited or intend to benefit the communities in these countries is not yet
explored and disseminated to researchers in neighbouring universities. Also how this knowledge
has been disseminated for the benefit of the people in the region is not known. The university
research on ICTs has place in realization of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by year
2015 which would alleviate poverty if they are achieved. Dissemination of ICTs knowledge to
targeted groups in community can increase access and participation in educational, social and
economic activities that are believed to contribute to well being of society. Currently, it is proper
to take the advantage of the versatility of ICTs that provide a conducive interaction nature for
participation of both sexes. While the latter has been extensively done in developed countries, it
is yet to be encouraged and popularized in developed countries where some traditional
approaches have to be innovated with current technologies for development. Sharing of
knowledge on ICTs research, dissemination and utilization as well as ICTs policies as they
contribute to educational, social and economic development to society, in realization of MDGs’
educational goals, is important to linkage of researchers in neighbouring higher learning
institutions and the region as a whole. Some case studies such as from Finland indicate that
knowledge creation, technological innovativeness, organizational networking and
knowledge sharing can support both sustained economic growth and social development
(Kozma, 2005).
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Justification for the project
The contribution of university research on ICTs to achievement of MDG’s goals is of
significance not only to universities in the sample but would have impact for further activities in
the region. Such ICT studies targeting expanded access in higher education, advanced life-long
learning, improved quality of education and gender equality programmes in education are rare in
the region and will not only provide collaboration among university researchers on ICTs but also
underline the contribution to achievement of MDG’s 2015 goals. Also important, the project will
promote capacity building in the universities under study by encouraging academic
entrepreneurship in the region if intended plan of action succeeds.
Theoretical framework
ICTs policies
(i) Implementation constraints in ICT policy framework
One of the main obstacles to adoption of ICTs in developing countries in particular, has been
identified as ineffective policies in government departments (Kaino, 2004). While much efforts
have been made to stipulate ICT policies, not much have been done on the implementation side
and especially on the structures and processes in place. For example, the structure of Science and
Technology (S&T) policy in Botswana (fig.1 below) does not specifically stipulate the ICT
policy in schools, colleges and other learning institutions/satellites. Different institutions and
departments interpret the policy in various forms for implementation. For example, the
Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation (DCD&E), (Ministry of Education)
develops curricula and translates the policies, and presents them in the school syllabi for
implementation. DCD&E is under the Government and Parastatal Institutions in the S&T policy
structure. DCD&E stipulates three forms of ICT knowledge involving computers at basic
education (primary and junior school levels) and senior school level. From the policy structure,
the MoE seems not to be in control of the implementation of the policy and it was the duty of the
Ministry of Communication Science and Technology (MCST) to effect the process through
government departments. Furthermore, the policy has no gender dimension not only on ICT but
on education as a whole. The latter aspect was observed in many countries in the region as
shown by data on access, participation and expenditures on education (Kaino, 2007). To realize
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full impact of ICTs, educational policies and programs need to be coordinated with those in other
ministries, such as economic development, human resource development, telecommunications,
agriculture, rural and urban development. Countries like Singapore and Finland have national
plans for implementing ICTs in education. Typically the plans describe the hardware, software,
and networking that will be implemented in schools as well as technical support and training of
teachers. The national plans should specify measurable goals, authorize and fund specific
programs and projects to advance the vision and provide the resources needed to implement
them. The plans should indicate how technology would be coordinated with change in
curriculum, pedagogy, assessment, teacher professional development and school restructuring.
Policy leadership is key to any successful development strategy, particularly if these efforts are
to contribute to economic and social transformation.. for example in Finland, successful
development was guide by a clear vision of how the availability of new technologies could
increase economic productivity, improve the quality of life and enrich the culture (Kozma,
2005).
Fig1 : ICT policy flow structure in Botswana
Ministry of Communications, Science and Technology
National Centre for Scientific and Industrial Research
Secretariat NCS & NCRST
National Commission for Science & Technology
National Council for Research, Science and Technology
R&D Institution
Professional institutions and Private sector
Govt. and Parastatal institutions
NGOs, S&T service and Financial institutions
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(ii) Addressing Dissemination and Utilization strategies
Dissemination of produced knowledge to users and utilization by the same are basically
affected by ICTs policies in place and the process to assess or measure their outcomes is
quite important. Studies in the field of knowledge utilization are based on two designs: the
discrete event design and the decision-making process design. In the first design, respondents
are asked to identify how the findings of a single study affect a discrete decision by the users
of research. The conceptualization and operation of utilization in terms of instrumental use
transform utilization into events. According to Weiss (1980), instrumental use is rare and
when observed, it would tend to be more frequent in private than in public organizations
(Dunn, 1980; Caplan, 1975). In the second design, respondents are asked to identify how the
knowledge produced across all stages of the research process influence all the spectrum of
the stages of the decision-making process of the users (Lomas 1997; Landry, Amara and
Lamari, 2000). An assumption that a discrete decision can be attributed to the use of a
discrete research report has been considered to be simplistic because research findings
generate many effects, not a single effect (Mandell and Sauter, 1984), and because decisions
do not depend on a single piece of research, but on a series of research results converging
toward one direction (Booth, 1990; Rich, 1997; Amara et al 2001). This study will be based
on a decision-making process design based on above argument. The scale to be used in the
study involves six stages: reception, cognition, discussion, reference, effort, and influence.
The scale is cumulative in the sense that cognition builds on reception, discussion on
cognition, reference on discussion, effort on reference, and influence on effort. Although it
may not be proper to restrict to a single measure of utilization as a dependent variable, we
assume that the cumulative advancement of scholarly knowledge in the field of knowledge
utilization would be more facilitated by several applications of the same specifications of use
than by single applications of different specifications of use in every study of knowledge
utilization.
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Empirical evidences regarding the particular categories of factors that explain the utilization
of knowledge in a statistically significant manner has been debated for a number of years
(Dunn, Holzner & Zaltman, 1985; Amara et al 2001). Many pioneering studies on utilization
of knowledge paid attention to variables related to the characteristic of research products (see
for example Caplan, 1977; Conner, 1981; Weiss, 1981). Later on, a number of scholars
began to stress the importance of policy contextual factors (see for example Lester & Wilds,
1990; Webber, 1984; 1987; Amara, 2001). And more recently, the importance of other
exploratory factors such as dissemination and linkage and exchange between researchers and
users of research output is stressed (Huberman, 1994; 1999; Landry, Amara & Lamari, 200;
Lomas, 2000; Amara et al 2001). In order to facilitate the discussion and the cumulative
growth of knowledge in the field of knowledge utilization, the categories of variables
employed in conceptual and empirical studies should be derived both from prior studies and
then integrated in general conceptual frameworks which would become heuristic devices
predicting what factors determine knowledge utilization.
In this category of explanations, university research is the source of new or improved
knowledge. Specifically, these explanations predict knowledge utilization with the recourse
to two determinants: the types of research results and the dissemination effort. In many cases,
the products of research never get widely disseminated and thus have little significant impact
(MacLean, 1996). Furthermore, the one-way flow of information and “traditional”
dissemination approaches have not proven to be effective in encouraging the adoption and
implementation of new research results. Scholarly journals have been said to be inconvenient
since they neglect to adapt to content, calendar, form, and mode of diffusion to meet the
particularity of the users (Lomas, 1997; Oh and Rich, 1996). The mere reception of
knowledge by the potential user does not imply in its “use”. Huberman and Thurler (1991)
developed valid and interesting indicators of adaptations of research products for users.
Adaptation includes factors such as efforts to make reports more readable and easier to
understand, efforts to make conclusions and recommendations more specific, more
operational, efforts to focus on variables amenable to interventions by users, efforts to make
reports more appealing. When researchers invest resources to adapt their products as to
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facilitate their appropriation by users, it increases the use of research. In terms of transaction
cost economics, it means that the higher the costs supported by researchers to adapt their
products, the lower the costs supported by the users and, as a consequence, the higher the use
of research. Acquisition efforts are made when users engage resources into the acquisition of
research knowledge, more precisely, when they have meetings to discuss the subject and
scope of research projects with researchers, to discuss results with researchers and to acquire
knowledge results from researchers. One may deduce that the more resources researchers
engage in dissemination activities, the higher the research use (Amara 2001).
The lack of interaction between researchers and their potential audiences has been identified
as the main problem in under-utilizing research findings (Oh and Rich, 1996; Leung, 1992;
Huberman, 1987; Lomas, 1997). This diagnostic has given rise to the interaction
explanations (Dunn, 1980; Yin and Moore, 1988; Huberman and Thurler, 1991; Landry,
Amara et Lamari, 2000; Nyden and Wiewell, 1992; Oh, 1997). It suggests that knowledge
utilization depends on various disorderly interactions occurring between researchers and
users rather than on linear sequences beginning with the needs of the researchers or the needs
of the users. The supporters of these explanations predict that the more sustained and intense
the interaction between researchers and users, the more likely there will be utilization. Unlike
prior explanations, this perspective suggests giving greater attention to the relationships
between researchers and users at different stages of knowledge production, dissemination and
utilization. Huberman and Thurler (1991) devised one of the most interesting sets of
indicators of mechanism linking researchers and users. The mechanisms considered include
informal personal contacts, participation in committees, and transmission of reports to non-
academic organizations. It was premised that the more resources the users and researchers
invest in these types of linkage mechanisms, the higher the use of research.
Contribution of ICTs policies to education, social and economic development
The contribution of ICTs policies to education, social and economic development are premised
on ICT policy framework structure illustrated below in fig.2. The framework illustrates how the
development framework and a systematic approach to policy formulation can align economic,
15
social and educational strategies. Resulting strategies would differ from country to country.
Aligning policies and programs across factors and sectors, application of framework supports
educational, social and economic transformation.
Fig. 2: ICT policy development strategy framework
Growth Factors
Types of Development
Economic Development
Social Development
Educational Development
Knowledge Creation and Technological Innovation
Support of invention of new products and services in targeted clusters; research in agriculture, tourism etc.
Increase knowledge and best practices information on education, adult literacy, and modern farming practices, etc.
Increase pedagogical knowledge and best practices on teaching for understanding and problem solving and on technology use.
Organizational Networking and Knowledge Sharing
Develop participation of SMEs in light industry, tourism, entertainment, and agriculture. Support networking between urban, rural, and regional resources and markets. Expand agricultural extension services.
Develop community knowledge sharing and collaboration; open government and education organizations to community and parent participation.
Decentralize decision making; foster teacher professional development communities and knowledge sharing, particularly between urban and rural schools.
Deepening of Physical Capital
ICT infrastructure and support the deepening of private capital, targeting e.g. agriculture, tourism, light industry, entertainment,
Target rural areas; build community technology centers; support private acquisition of ICT; facilitate internet cafes and “hotspots”.
Build and modernize school facilities, particularly in rural areas. Community technology centers in rural areas.
Improvement of Human Capital
Upgrade labour; develop technology use, application, and production skills.
Strengthen education and social services, particularly employment transition and community development in rural areas targeting the poor and marginalized groups.
Focus curriculum and pedagogy on understanding, real world problem solving and creativity. Include technology skills. Upgrade teachers’ content, pedagogical, and technological knowledge.
Monitoring and Evaluation
Monitor effectiveness of government policies on key economic indicators.
Monitor effectiveness of government policies on social equity indicators; obtain community feedback.
Monitor indicators of high-level student learning; assess application of knowledge to solve problems.
Modified from Kozma’s (2005) development framework
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Role of ICT in accelerating MDGs
ICTs are to be used to address social and economic inequalities by extending the ICT
infrastructure to rural areas and establish community technology centres. For example, the
internet would allow for inexpensive distribution of resources to remote areas, and for example
rural teachers would have access to materials as well as distance learners. Emphasis sould be
given to deeper understanding of developing technological skills. Equipped with these skills and
knowledge, rural learners could be better prepared to use modern agricultural practices or to
work in the nearby eco-tourism industry and the like. Remote access to experts can also support
adult literacy programs. The plan to succeed should have the policy formulation that aligns
economic, social and educational strategies to leverage strengths, coordinate investments,
advance national goals and visions.
ICT policy framework based on the Millennium Development Goals
The ICT policy framework should basically have an ICT for development approach. The study
will develop this approach derived mainly from two ICT principles adopted by FAO’s (2001)
“Magic Box” and DFID’s (2003) Sustainable Information and Communication Technology
documents. The ICT for development approach is to analyze objectives, institutional
frameworks, local capacity and development benefits of ICT. The ICT policy principles to be
considered in the framework, to increase impact on MDGs, by targeting poor communities and
marginalized groups are:
i) Policy decisions on the type and location of technology by local community,
introduction of communication and technology needs of the target groups
ii) Nature of dialogue with target groups about information they wish to
communicate, the most appropriate communication of this information, and
impact an ICT project have on cultural and social norms of the community
iii) Understanding of different ways in which people learn, communicate and use
information when designing an ICT program
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iv) Incorporation of monitoring and evaluation during project design, and impact
assessment and ensuring these components are implemented.
v) Design process of holistic projects: incorporating the social, economic, and
communication systems already in place in the target group.
vi) Nature of creation of partnership with public and private institutional
infrastructures; building on existing formal and non-formal organisations and
communication networks.
vii) Nature of provision of ICT skills at all levels, according to community need.
Paying attention to youth, women and marginalized groups.
[Ref.: Michiels, A.I. & Van Crowder, (2001). The Magic Box: Local
appropriation of ICTs. Rome, Italy.FAO”]
i) Objectives: objectives accepted by majority stakeholders
ii) Target groups: the focus on the majority poor to have an increase impact on
MDGs. Target group characteristics essential, e.g. women’s groups, agricultural
cooperatives, small miners, etc.)
iii) Intermediaries: the need for re-intermediation by incorporating middlemen into
ICT projects due to both social and cultural norms
iv) Policy environment: how can government policies on ICT affect the day-to-day
operation of ICT projects
v) Institutional arrangements: links between institutions and target groups on
projects for sustainability
vi) Linkages: linking of ICT projects to local authorities and other organizations
working in relevant areas.
vii) Project process: planning and involvement of target group for sustainability
viii) Capacity: human capital and technical and organizational capacity for
sustainability
ix) Technology: use of locally available equipment, ability to overcome technical
difficulties, matches the style and quantity of equipment to its users.
x) Finance: sustainability of ICT projects and the use cost-recovery mechanisms
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xi) Development benefits: use of ICT to support other development objectives where
it can have an immediate and identifiable benefit.
[Ref.: Batchelor, S. & Norrish, P. (2003). Sustainable Information and
Communication Technology. London, DFID]
Proposed work plan
Activity Month
Review of study and Preparations of research materials by
3 researchers 1 & 2
Pre test of instruments 3 &4
Validation of materials by 3 researchers 5 & 6
Review of constructed materials, typing and preparation for data
collection 6&7
Research assistants seminars in three countries 8 & 9
Data collection 10, 11 &12
Data analysis (coding and computations) 13 &14
Preparation of report draft 15
Presentation seminars in three countries 16 & 17
Report writing 18 & 19
Report preparation and presentation 20
Dissemination seminars in three countries 21 & 22
Final Report writing and presentation 23 &24
Expected outputs
(i) Identified ICTs research projects undertaken by universities in the sample: to be
identified through interviews and checklists designed by researchers. These will be
administered to ICTs researchers at universities.
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(ii) Determined processes used to disseminate ICT research findings by universities to
community: to be determined through interviews and questionnaires administered
through university researchers, administrators, research departments at universities and
communities where they are disseminated.
(iii) Determination of projects that benefit the communities (where disseminated): to be
determined through observation schedules, interviews and questionnaires. Where not
disseminated: to be determined through analysis of intended objectives and interviews
with researchers.
(iv) Dissemination workshops: to be conducted to ICTs researchers in sampled universities,
communities where disseminated and ICTs policy makers in these countries. These will
be facilitated by researchers of the study.
(v) Provision of the plan of collaboration among universities in the sample and beyond. This
is to be drafted by researchers of the study after dissemination workshops which will
have identified the needs and possibilities of action.
Projected outputs against Challenge Funds Outputs
i) Contribution of university research in ICTs in realization of MDGs’ educational goals
of expanded access in higher education, advanced life-long learning, improved
quality of education and gender equality programmes in education.
ii) Collaboration of research among researchers in universities on ICTs as an
encouragement to disseminate and utilize produced knowledge in higher education
institutions in the region and promote entrepreneurship in academic research in higher
education institutions.
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iii) To bring together researchers on ICTs and policy makers and share knowledge on
utilization and dissemination of produced knowledge for the benefit of community in
which these institutions are embedded and thus contribute to MDGs’ (2015) vision.
iv) Sharing of knowledge on ICTs policies in sampled countries of study as also a
strategy of capacity building being part of MRCI program initiated by AAU.
BUDGET
Materials: papers, files, etc (for 3
countries)………………….………………………………….…………...P 24000
Secretarial Services: Typing [interview , observation schedules (pre-test and main data papers);
photocopies of papers for data
collection]…………………………………………………………………..P56000
Pre-test and Validation (travel and subsistence)…………………………....P60000
Data collection in three countries (travel, accommodation &
subsistence)…………………………………………………………………..P90000
Data coding and Entry …………………………………………………..…P15000
Computation of data ………………………………………………………...P18000
Data analysis (travel, accommodation &
subsistence)……………………….………………………………….............P33000
Seminars in three countries …………. ………..……………………..….….P32000
Report writing & typing………..…………………………………………...P16000
Dissemination in three countries………..………………..………………...P48000
Production of final Report………………………………………………..…P8500
21
TOTAL (approx.)……………….P 388850.00
(approx.)……………. £28804
(1 £= Pula 13.5)
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27
APPENDIX 1
Useful websites for reference:
Universities in knowledge production:
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=the+role+of+universities+in+knowledge+production&
btnG=Google+Search
The future of universities:
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=the+future+of+universities&btnG=Google+Search
Academic entrepreneurship:
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&q=academic+entrepreneurship&btnG=Search
The Triple helix Model:
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&q=triple+helix+model&btnG=Search
The Production model
The model comprises of two component functions: (i) the production function of knowledge, and
(ii) the utilization function of knowledge.
(i) Production function
The dependent variable of production function is defined as output knowledge produced at a
particular time through a particular research project, activity or study. Pi are affected by
different variables, (Xi), such as university funding, external funding/grants, type of research
28
area, gender, consultancy, promotion, publications, expertise and others which will be
selected.[Quantification of variables will adopt Landry, Amara & Rherrad, 2006’s process].
So the knowledge production function can be defined as:
where ; and are coefficients
that explain the magnitude of effect by the respective explanatory variable (Xi).
(ii) Utilization function
Adopting the views of Lester and Wilds, (1990); Lester (1993); Landry, Amara and Lamari
(2000), the dependent variable constitutes stages of utilization of produced knowledge as defined
by Knott-Wildavsky (1980) scale of knowledge utilization. It is determined as an index derived
from this scale which includes six cumulative stages of knowledge utilization: reception,
cognition, discussion, reference, effort, and influence generating. The general utilization function
is defined as:
where and , …. being coefficients and
are identified explanatory variables such as dissemination, demand, education of
users, marketing, availability of information, resources, availability of substitutes, and other
selected variables.
APPENDIX 2
Description of the Applicant
The project leader, Dr. Luckson M. Kaino, is a senior lecturer and currently the Head of
Department of Mathematics and Science Education (at the University of Botswana, Botswana). He
has researched widely in the education field and especially in ICTs as shown in literature.
29
The Department of Mathematics and Science Education at the University of Botswana, which the
project leader heads, offers degree programmes at undergraduate and graduate levels. It has the
responsibility of training quality mathematics, science and computer studies teachers for
Botswana's rapidly growing education section. It provides quality instruction and professional
support to both pre-service and in-service mathematics, science and computer teachers at
undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Proposed Co-Researchers are Dr. David Mtetwa of the
Department of Mathematics and Science Education (University of Zimbabwe) and Prof. Choshi
Kasanda of the Department of Mathematics, Science and Sport Education (University of Namibia).
Both are senior academics, active in science and technology research and well versed with ICTs
developments in their countries and the region. They are committed academics reliable in forming
a working team for the project.
