Iceland: Land of Fire & Ice · 2016-07-13 · Iceland: Land of Fire & Ice Discovery Journal Sometimes those classroom walls can be confining. Reading books and looking at pictures

Iceland: Land of

Fire & Ice

DISCOVERY JOURNAL

AcknowledgmentsThis Discovery Journal features activities developed by the WorldStrides staff in surveying the best available science curricula offered by educational and scientific organizations throughout the nation. We wish to acknowledge the many individuals who assisted us with this effort.

Special thanks to the Course Leader team for their guidance, encouragement, and use of program materials. They have provided us with enthusiastic support and offers to “test drive” our activity plans.

IN CASE OF EMERGENCYIf you have lost contact with your group or need assistance for a medical condition, injury, or any other emergency, please call a staff member immediately at the toll-free number listed below.

In Iceland call 354-860-0402This number should be used for emergencies only. When you call, please be prepared to give your name, the number you are calling from, your location, your group name or teacher’s name, and the reason for the call. The person you speak with will give you further instructions.©WorldStrides 06/16 KMBD0092 P1368

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Introduction

My Name

My Program Leader’s Name

My Course Leader’s Name

Dates of My WorldStrides Program

My Hotel

My Customer / Traveler ID#

Trip ID#

My WorldStrides Iceland Discovery Journal

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Iceland: Land of Fire & Ice Discovery Journal

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Discovery for Credit ..............................................vTake a LEAP with Us! ...........................................viUsing Your Discovery Journal ............................viiLet’s Get Social ...................................................viiiSymbols in Your Discovery Journal ...................viiiAdventure Photography ......................................ixTools of the Trade .................................................x

Welcome!Welcome to Iceland! ........................................... 2Icelandic Culture & Language ............................. 3General Info ......................................................... 4

OrnithologyBinoculars: Let’s Take a Closer Look! .................. 7Marsh Census Data .............................................. 8

Icelandic HorsesThe Icelandic Horse and Natural Selection ...... 10Man’s Other Best Friend.................................... 11

Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics ................................................... 12Volcanic Eruptions ............................................. 13The Science of Eruptions ................................... 13Types of Volcanoes ............................................ 14Evidence on the Ocean Floor ............................ 15Plate Tectonics in Action ................................... 16Volcanic Questions ............................................ 17

Introduction

Lessons & Activity Journal

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Table of Contents

Geothermal AreasHot Springs & Geothermal Activity .................. 18The Uses of Geothermal Waters ....................... 20Chemical Analysis .............................................. 21Hveragerði: A Town Snap Shot ......................... 22What is Energy? ................................................. 23Geothermal Energy ........................................... 24Other Common Uses of Geothermal Energy ... 25Energy Discussion.............................................. 26

Rocks & MineralsRocks vs. Minerals.............................................. 27Mineral Testing .................................................. 28Common Mineral Identification Chart .............. 29

Erosion & WeatheringWeathering vs. Erosion ..................................... 30Waterfalls ........................................................... 31Coastal Erosion .................................................. 32

GlaciersGlaciers .............................................................. 33Sketch It Out! ..................................................... 34Do Glaciers Have an Impact on Humans? ........ 35Discussion Questions ........................................ 36Here’s Some Hot Career Ideas for You .............. 37

GPSGPS: Global Positioning System ........................ 38Put Yourself on the Map ................................... 39Geocaching ........................................................ 40Try Your Own Earthcache! ................................ 41

AurorasAuroras ............................................................... 42Auroral Colors .................................................... 43

Viking SettlementIceland’s Cultural and Political Roots ................ 44National Museum of Iceland ............................ 46

Bonus Pages!Eco-pedia ........................................................... 47Notes .................................................................. 50

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Introduction

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Introduction

Discovery for CreditYour WorldStrides journey is going to be a fun, amazing educational experience. You will see and do many new things, and we believe you should definitely get credit for everything you’re going to learn! That’s why WorldStrides offers a special Discovery for Credit option with each of our programs. Your entire trip is built around an accredited WorldStrides program that gives you the opportunity to earn high school or even college credit by completing post-trip online coursework.

What is Discovery for Credit?Discovery for Credit is comprised of online activities offered together with your travel program. All content has been specially developed by the WorldStrides Curriculum & Academics team to help you take the valuable lessons you learn while traveling and incorporate them into your ongoing education.

How does it work?To access Discovery for Credit, go to worldstrides.com and follow the academic credit links to create a student account using your Trip ID and Customer Account Number. Once you are logged in, you can access our Discovery for Credit Dashboard to enroll in courses and preview the online assignments that go with them. After travel, you’ll use your trip experiences to complete the assignments in your course. If you have any questions while you work, our WorldStrides Online Instructors are standing by to help! Need help logging in? Contact Customer Support at 800-468-5899.

High School Credit Details

— No additional cost.

— Deadline for completing coursework is six months from the return date of travel.

— Upon successful completion of coursework, WorldStrides will mail you your transcript.

College Credit Details — Discounted tuition rate

based on the number of credits you wish to earn.

— Deadline for completing coursework is six months from the return date of travel.

— You can request an official transcript via the partner university.

*To best facilitate the transfer of credit earned, WorldStrides recommends that students and parents inquire about their high school’s transfer credit policy, in case additional paperwork is requested prior to beginning coursework. Our Director of Curriculum & Academics encourages students to submit their WorldStrides transcripts in addition to their main high school transcript as part of their college applications. Having an extra transcript is a great way to showcase the learning you’ve done outside of your regular school program.

For more information, visit worldstrides.com

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Sometimes those classroom walls can be confining. Reading books and looking at pictures is not the same as firsthand, upfront and personal experience. That’s where WorldStrides comes in…

When you begin your WorldStrides program, you are embarking on a whole new educational journey. Your trip’s Course Leader can’t wait to bring your destination to life with WorldStrides’ unique educational philosophy, LEAP—Learning through Exploration and Active Participation. LEAP isn’t a lesson plan, it’s a way of being that embodies a hands-on, exploratory approach to travel and learning.

Not LEAPLEAP

Take a LEAP with Us!With the LEAP Approach, Your Course Leader Will:

— Turn up the volume and connect with you. Your Course Leader wants to talk WITH you...not AT you!

— Spark curiosity with active instruction that engages you through hands-on experience.

— Tailor your experience because this trip is about you! You are a key ingredient. It will reflect your interests and be as unique as you are!

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Introduction

You are probably familiar with the Scientific Method from your science classes. The Scientific Method includes several major steps:

A OITC NAsk A Question Collect Info Test It Out Investigate Offer A Solution Next Steps

Taking Action

1. Ask a question 2. Conduct research

3. Form a hypothesis 4. Perform an experiment

5. Analyze your results 6. Develop a conclusion

During your WorldStrides program, the ACTION steps will take you beyond the Scientific Method to transform you into a conservation activist! ACTION steps are more than just basic scientific questioning. They encourage you to evaluate the ways you interact with the natural world and develop a plan for improving it.

Using Your Discovery JournalGeneral AdviceTo make the best use of your Discovery Journal on your WorldStrides program:

— Personalize your journal! This is your research, thoughts, and observations. They are unique to you and reflect your individual perspective.

— Write with as much detail as possible! There is plenty of space throughout the journal to take notes or sketch. If you run out of space, use the notes section at the end of the journal.

— Be prepared! Bring your Discovery Journal with you for every activity in the field. Your program will have planned and spontaneous opportunities to use your Discovery Journal.

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Let’s Get SocialShare your travel photos and videos and favorite memories with us! Here are some tips on safely sharing your photos with us:

— Tag us! We are listed as @WorldStrides on Instagram and Twitter!

— Use the hashtags #BestTripEver and #WorldStrides so we can find your shots—we share our favorites on our own social media channels!

— Hashtag and tag the places you’re visiting, too! Are you in Iceland? Use #WorldStrides and #Iceland.

— Share your photos and favorite memories with your friends.

— Be smart about what you share. Don’t post personal information or details about hotel accommodations. Also, don’t engage in conversation with people you don’t know on social media. Have fun and share your photos, but be smart!

Symbols in Your Discovery JournalCareer CornerEver thought about being a veterinarian? What about a marine biologist? Throughout your journey, you’ll find people who pursue some exciting career paths. Career Corner highlights a few of these interesting occupations so you can take a closer look behind the scenes.

Action Figures: Throughout your trip, you’ll meet people who practice a variety of exciting careers. Whether it’s a profession that you’ve never heard of or one you’ve dreamed of pursuing, you can read more about these unique jobs in the career section. You may even be inspired to learn more about these careers when you return home.

Write It Down!There is so much to take in while on your travel

program! The sites, sounds, and smells are sure to inspire you during your trip. Use the available spaces to write down what excites you, scares you, makes you happy, stumps you, or maybe you just want to remember something for when you return—write it down!

LEAPLearning Through Exploration & Active Participation

It would be difficult to cover the entirety of your destination in a few days, but we can try! These adventures will take you off the beaten path and onto the road to discovery. Learn your way by interacting with the people and animals, eating the food, mapping your route, and much more!

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Introduction

Adventure PhotographyBe creative with the pictures you take. Try to create a narrative with your pictures that will help you document the experience. Before you gear up to go, check out these photography tips:

Use flash outdoorsIt seems like a flash would be the last thing you need on a bright day but the sun can cast harsh shadows and your flash will fill in the shadows. When taking pictures of people on sunny days, turn your flash on. You may have a choice of fill-flash mode or full-flash mode. Both are good on a sunny day.

Move in closeA common mistake is being too far away from your subject. Get close! Your goal is to fill the picture area with the subject you are photographing. Up close, you can reveal more about your subject. If you can, don’t rely on the zoom to move in. You’ll get a better, sharper photo if you physically move closer to your subject rather than zooming in.

Find a simple background to use A simple background shows off the subject you are photographing. When you look through the camera viewfinder, find an area surrounding your subject that is not complicated. Make sure no

How to be an Adventure Photographer

It’s all about telling a story, and having a front row seat to the ACTION! Taking a great picture requires technique and getting close. Use a hip pack or shoulder strap so your camera is accessible.

But remember, no photo is worth risking your safety! Use the reflections of the sun to your creative advantage with water, particularly when calm water comes between you and the brightest part of the sky during sunrise and sunset.

poles grow from the head of your subject and that your subject isn’t sharing the spotlight with something else.

Move it from the middleThe middle of your picture is not always the best place for your subject. Bring your picture to life by simply moving your subject away from the middle of your picture. Imagine a tick-tack-toe grid in your viewfinder (see the image below). Now place your important subject at one of the intersections of lines. You’ll need to lock the focus if you have an auto-focus camera because most of them

focus on whatever is in the center of the viewfinder.

BE READY! It’s the worst feeling in the world to have something happening when you’re not ready, your camera is in your bag, turned off, or set to the wrong settings. Usually you know if you are planning on shooting photos at an event. Have a practice drill for getting your camera out quickly and getting it set to shoot. Settings need to change when the lighting does. Take a few practice shots with your settings adjusted before the action happens.

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Tools of the TradeAs an investigator, you should bring the following tools of the trade with you when you embark on an adventure.

TOOL Purpose

Discovery Journal

Keeping a journal is an important part of fieldwork. Scientists use journals to write down observations, thoughts, and ideas. Your Discovery Journal serves as a learning resource and a place to record your thoughts.

List 5 examples of types of information you will be able to capture in your Discover Journal:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Pens & pencils

It’s difficult to record your observations without a writing utensil! Be sure to bring writing instruments with you.

Camera

A digital camera is useful for documenting animals, plants, and landscapes you encounter on your adventures. Note the time, date, location, and subject of your photos for future reference. You can also use photography apps to create photo journals with captions.

Write 3 tips to help capture great images.

1.

2.

3.

Team- Mates

In the field, scientists often collaborate and help each other to accomplish a project. Throughout your program, your Course Leader will divide your group into teams to compete in various challenges. Each team member brings a unique perspective and sharing different ideas is key to successful research.

Essential QuestionsThroughout your trip, you will work with your peers and Course Leaders to answer the following questions:

— How have different species adapted to living in the sub-Arctic/Arctic climates? What role does living on an island play in adaptations?

— With access to unlimited amounts of renewable energy, how would your lifestyle change? What would you do with an excess of energy?

— What threats do natural disasters pose to Iceland’s ecosystems? What threats do human activities pose to Iceland’s ecosystems?

— Why is it important to study glaciers?

The Eco-pediaHave you become a little rusty on your science concepts or vocabulary? No need to worry! There’s a great tool at the back of your Discovery Journal—the Eco-pedia. Go there if you are confused about a term or concept or if you want more information about a topic. Like a dictionary, terms are organized alphabetically.

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Welcome!

Welcome!

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Welcome to Iceland!When you arrive on this small island country you will be transported to a whole new world with stunning landscapes and ecosystems unlike anything you’ve ever experienced. Discover the secrets of a place that is home to both glaciers and volcanoes, thousand year-old traditions and cutting edge technology. Be sure to notice how Iceland’s many natural resources have contributed to the unique culture of its citizens. What can you learn from the Icelandic way of life?

Take it all in, keep an open mind, be curious, and discover all the wonders that Iceland is waiting to share!

Background Located in the North Atlantic between the coasts of Norway and Greenland, Iceland is the world’s 18th largest island and has long been considered a part of Europe. The first people known to have inhabited Iceland were Irish monks or hermits who came in the eighth century. These early Celtic settlers left with the arrival of the Norsemen who settled the island on a larger scale between 870 A.D. and 930 A.D.

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Welcome!

As you journey across Iceland, you will find yourself immersed in learning about the culture, history, and language of others. You’ll discover while many locals speak English, it can be fun and useful to know a few Icelandic terms. Icelandic uses some pronunciations and a few letters that are different from others but, like English, it is the Germanic Linguistic family, so you may hear a few things that sound familiar!

Useful Icelandic PhrasesHello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Halló/Góðan daginn

Goodbye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bless

Good Morning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Góðan daginn

Good Afternoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Góðan daginn

Good Night . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Góða nótt

Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Já

No . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nei

Nice to meet you . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gaman að kynnast þér

What is your name? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Hvað heitir þú?

My name is ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ég heiti ...

How are you? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Hvernig hefur þú það?

Good . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Góður/Góð (masc./fem.)

Bad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vondur/Vond (masc./fem.)

Thank you . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Takk

Please . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vinsamlegast/Takk

Excuse me . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Fyrirgefðu

How much is this? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Hvað kostar þetta?

Where is ...? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hvar er ...?

Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Strætisvagn

Airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flugvöllur

Hotel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Hótel

Restroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Klósettið

What have you learned?The motto of Iceland’s capital city, Reykjavik, is

hreinn orka, or pure energy. What other interesting words or phrases have you learned? Keep track of your favorites!

Icelandic Culture & Language

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What to learn more? Follow the QR code to the left to listen to Icelandic phrases and learn about their pronunciation!

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GeologyIceland is located along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the Eurasion and North American tectonic plates are spreading apart and forming new oceanic crust. The country sits on a hot spot along the ridge, making it a very geologically active island. Most of the activity stems from the divergent plate boundary. Divergent boundaries like the one between the Eurasian and North American plates produce rift valleys, allowing molten lava to rise and fill the gaps. These boundaries can also create massive fault zones that lead to earthquakes.

Weather The North Atlantic current helps regulate the temperature in Iceland, so despite its closeness to the Arctic Circle, the island has a relatively moderate climate compared to other locations in the same latitude. The south part of the island is generally warmer, wetter, and windier than that in the north, where snowfall is more common. Iceland typically remains ice-free through the winter and the average temperature for Reykjavik in the summer months is 54 degrees Fahrenheit.

BiodiversityAt the time of first human arrival on the island, the only native land mammal was the arctic fox (with the occasional Polar Bear wander-ing over from Greenland). Birds, on the other hand, are drawn in by

the surrounding calorie-rich ocean and it is common to see a variety of seabirds such as puffins, skuas, and kittiwakes nesting on the sea cliffs. Iceland is fortunately devoid of all types of mosquitoes, but there are 1300 known species of other insects found there. Animals introduced by man include Icelan-dic sheep, cattle, chickens, goats, the Icelandic sheepdog, and the Icelandic horse.

SustainabilityIceland is a leader in green energy because they make such efficient use of their natural resources to power everyday life. Geothermal steam heats most buildings in the country and accounts for about 25% of its electricity, the remainder is fueled by hydroelectricity. With such a low demand for fossil fuels—they

General Info

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Welcome!

are used almost exclusively for transportation—residents enjoy access to inexpensive hot water, heating, and electricity.

Iceland’s capital city: ReykjavikAlthough it has a small population by American standards (roughly 120,000 people), Reykjavik is a vibrant cultural center and draws in an ever-increasing number of visitors each year. The city was established around 870 A.D. when the first permanent Nordic settler, Ingolfur Arnarson, made it his home. The name of the town is said to have been inspired by the steam rising from the hot springs around it. Reykjavik translates to “Smoke Cove” or “Steam Cove.” Today, Reykjavik is known for its thriving art scene and has made its mark on the international stage with events like the Reykjavik Arts

Festival, the Iceland Airwaves, RIFF (The Reykjavik International Film Festival), and the Sonar Festival. Famous natives to the city include, singer Björk, members of the alternative rock band Sigur Rós, and comedian Jón Gnarr who also served as the city’s mayor from 2010 to 2014.

First impressionsYou’ve just arrived in Iceland’s beautiful cultural center, Reykjavik. One thing you should always do when you arrive in a new place is walk outside and take in the atmosphere. As you stroll around Reykjavik, use your five senses to describe the urban environment around you. How does it compare to your hometown? Do you notice any cultural differences or manners? Write down some initial thoughts about Reykjavik.

Write down your observations0

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Lessons & Activities

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Ornithology

Ornithology, or the study of birds, is a very important branch of Zoology. By tracking bird behavior and populations, scientists are able to judge the health of an ecosystem at large. If a bird population is shrinking or no longer migrating in large numbers to a certain area, that may indicate a problem with the local environment. Perhaps increased logging has removed many nesting options or the birds’ primary food source is no longer readily available. In the unique ecosystems of Iceland, where there are very few native land mammals to observe, birds are especially important environmental indicators.

Ornithology

List some Icelandic birds and other observations that you see with your binoculars: 0

Binoculars: Let’s Take a Closer Look!Binoculars are an ornithologist’s most important tool. As you examine yours, you’ll notice they carry a set of numbers that refer to their configuration. For example, with 8x42 binoculars, the first number (8) refers to the magnification, or, how many times closer an object will appear. The second number (42) indicates the diameter of the objective lens (the light-gathering lens) in millimeters. Now that you know the basics, use the Center Focusing and Diopter Rings to adjust your view and see what you can spot!

Diopter Ring

Objective Lens

Eyepiece

Center Focusing Ring

Binocular Parts

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Following the FeathersIn order to effectively study birds, ornithologists must begin by taking a census, or an overview of the species found at a specific location at a specific time. Scientists complete a bird census to assess the species composition of an area and to give an idea of relative abundance. Information on population sizes of individual species can also be used to set priorities for conservation. In general, a smaller population size has a greater risk of extinction locally, regionally, and globally.

Today, we are going to conduct our own census by following a few simple steps:

— Identify an area and survey the boundary.

— Set a specific time limit. In this case, we are going to use 15 minutes.

— Identify species found and, if possible, whether male or female.

Marsh Census DataUse this table to record your observations. Get a bird guide from your Course Leader for help.

Species M/F Tally Total

Example Bird F 5

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Ornithology

Grid Map Example

By walking your transect line, you and your classmates should be dividing the marsh area up into a grid. This way, you cover the most ground and it is easier to track the locations of different bird sightings. Here are a few things to think about once you’ve compared your tallies:

What was the most common species? Why might that be?

Were there any birds you could not identify? What did they look like?

Were there any unique sightings? How might they be significant?

How could this data be collected daily to gain a vivid picture of the region’s bird composition?

A bias is anything that skews data. Current weather or time of year, for example. Do you think your data reflects any bias? If so, describe it.

Arctic Tern

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Icelandic horses are one of the oldest horse breeds in the world and, along with a few other rare breeds, they represent our closest remaining link to the first domesticated horses. These animals were first brought to Iceland by the Vikings between 874 and 930. Because space was so limited in their longboats, travelers brought only their very best horses. Since approximately 1100, importing new horses to Iceland has been forbidden so the breed has remained pure. This means Icelandic horses are free of many common diseases that plague continental European breeds. Through the process of natural selection, or the dominance of those genes that grant the highest rate of survival, the horses have become uniquely adapted to life in the intense climate.

Special AdaptationsIcelandic horses are known for traits that make them particularly suited to Iceland’s climate and terrain. Over time, the following special adaptations have developed which are now characteristic of the breed:

— Thick coats: These are often paired with a double-sided mane to combat the cold temperatures.

— A naturally calm demeanor: You have to keep a cool head to survive in a place with frequent volcanic activity, harsh terrain, and the occasional rock slide!

— A strong, stocky build: This allows them to carry heavy loads over long

distances and still have the strength for farm work. This was crucial to human and horse survival in Iceland as there are no other large load-bearing animals and no other form of land transportation existed there until the 1900s.

— Rare speed capabilities: Most horses have 3 gaits, or speeds: walk, trot, and canter. Icelandic horses are capable of up to five, the two additional are tölt or fast walk, and flugskeið, an exceptionally fast racing speed that translates to “flying pace.” With so many natural obstacles, a little extra speed can mean the difference between life and death!

The Icelandic Horse and Natural Selection

Think: Are there any species in your home region that have special adaptations?

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Icelandic Horses

Man’s Other Best FriendNatural selection has played a large role in the Icelandic horse’s survival, but humans have had a meddling influence as well. Over time, Icelandic owners culled out horses that were aggressive and prevented them from breeding with the herd. This, combined with the fact that Icelandic horses have no natural predators, has led to a breed that is extremely affectionate towards people. Lack of predators and any widespread disease also contributes to the long life span of these horses. Icelandic horses are true long-term companions and are known to live upwards of 30 years. The oldest Icelandic horse on record lived to be 56!

Fun Fact!Normally, a breed with a stature as short as the Icelandic horse would be qualified as a pony, but their exceptional strength exempts them from this classification. Of course, the fact that there is no Icelandic word for pony may also have something to do with it!

Allen’s Rule of Adaptation

Allen’s Rule is an evolutionary theory proposed by zoologist J.A. Allen in 1876. It suggests that a race of warm-blooded species in a cold climate typically has shorter protruding body parts (nose, ears, tail, and legs) than another race of the same species living in a warm climate. The basis for this theory is that

long protruding parts emit more body heat, while shorter ones expose a minimum amount of surface area to the cold and keep heat circulating close to the center of the body.

Some suggest that Allen’s Rule is not an adaptation over time but actually a direct response to

the cold. When warm-blooded animals are exposed to cold temperatures, their blood vessels constrict, reducing the blood and nutrient supply to the outer areas of the body. When this happens, bones and cartilage naturally do not develop as readily and the overall area doesn’t grow as well.

What do you think? Are the short legs and ears of Icelandic horses an adaptation from over 1,000 years on the island or a direct response to the cold?

What evidence is there for adaptation? Can you think of other evolutionary advantages to the horses’ shorter build?

What evidence is there for direct response? Do you think if an Icelandic horse was born and raised in a warm climate it might grow taller? Why or why not?

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The discovery of plate tectonicsIn 1912, geophysicist Alfred Wegener noticed that upon close examination, most of the continents seem to fit together like giant puzzle pieces. He suggested that this was because they had once been a single protocontinent, which he called Pangea (meaning “all lands”), that had slowly drifted apart over time. Today, we know Wegener’s theory is likely true, as comparison of the submerged continental shelves reveals an even better fit for formerly inter-locking coastlines. Unfortunately, at the time of Wegener’s proposal, there was no way to explain why this “continental drift” may have happened. Wegener suggested that the spreading resulted from the centrifugal force (the force that draws a rotating body away from the center of rotation) generated by the rotation

of our planet. This hypothesis was quickly rejected however, as other scientists argued that the speed of Earth’s rotation would not generate sufficient force for such a result.

It wasn’t until the early 1960s that scientists, Harry Hess and R. Deitz, found the probable cause of the “continental drift” that Wegener had described. A better understanding of the ocean floor suggested that the process of convection was at work within Earth’s mantle. Convection is when a substance is heated and its density decreases forcing it to rise to the surface until it is cooled and sinks again. Hess and Deitz hypothesized that convection-like conveyor belts of substances heating and cooling within the mantle add stress to Earth’s surface, and described it as “sea-floor spreading.”

The Basic Breakdown — A series of crustal plates

cover Earth’s surface.

— The ocean floors are continually moving, spreading from the center, sinking at the edges, and being regenerated.

— Convection currents beneath the plates move the crustal plates in various directions.

— Radioactivity deep in Earth’s mantle is the source of heat driving the convection currents.

Plate Tectonics

Convergent Plate Boundary

Transform Plate Boundary

Divergent Plate Boundary

Convergent Plate Boundary

Continental Rift Zone (Young Plate Boundary)

Strato- volcano

Shield Volcano

Oceanic Spreading Ridge

Trench

AsthenosphereHot Spot

LihtosphereOceanic Crust

TrenchIsland

Arc

Subducting Plate

Continental Crust

Plate Tectonics

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Plate Tectonics

Volcanic EruptionsVolcanic eruptions occur when hot magma is expelled onto Earth’s surface. The conditions necessary to create this magma are found at these locations:

Divergent plate boundaries such as the oceanic ridges or spreading centers are regular sources of magma. When the oceanic ridges rise above sea level, most eruptions are basaltic, meaning the magma is composed of super-heated igneous rock.

Convergent plate boundaries where the process of subduction is occurring are also a major source of magma. Subduction occurs when

one plate of oceanic lithosphere (Earth’s crust and uppermost mantle) slides under another, adjacent plate. Most of Earth’s subduction zones are in the Pacific Ocean, which is why we have the Ring of Fire—the long horseshoe-shaped string of some of the world’s most active volcanoes.

Hot spots are usually located in the interior of plates, away from the plate margins, and they appear to result from plumes of hot mantle material upwelling toward the surface. Hot spots are independent of the convection cells thought to cause plate motion. They tend to be fixed in position, with the plates moving over the top.

A Little More Volcano VocabularyCinder conesAnother volcanic landform that has a small volume and is made up predominantly of the ash and scoria that result from mildly explosive eruptions over time.

CratersCircular depressions, usually less than 1 km in diameter, that form as a result of explosions that emit gases and ash.

CalderasMuch larger depressions, circular to elliptical in shape, with diameters ranging from 1 km to 50 km. They form as a result of a collapsed volcanic structure. The collapse occurs when the volcano’s underlying magma chamber is emptied.

The Science of EruptionsVolcanic eruptions are determined by the viscosity (the extent to which a liquid thickens and resists the tendency to flow) of the magma and the pressure of gas bubbles formed within the planet core.

Effusive or non-explosive eruptions have low gas content and low viscosity magmas, usually basaltic or andesitic (granite) magmas. Lava flows are produced on the surface, and these run like liquids down the slope, along the lowest areas they can find. When the lava erupts under

water the lava is referred to as pillow lava. If the viscosity is high, but the gas content is low, then the lava will pile up over the vent to produce a lava dome or volcanic dome.

Explosive eruptions are determined by high gas content and high viscosity magmas, usually andesitic to rhyolitic (silica-rich) magmas. The explosive bursting of gas bubbles fragments the magma into clots of liquid that cool as they fall through the air. These solid particles become pyroclasts or volcanic ash.

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Stratovolcano

CompositionStratovolcanoes comprise the largest percentage (about 60%) of Earth’s individual volcanoes. Most are characterized by eruptions of andesite and dacite lavas that are cooler and more viscous than basalt.

Eruption typePlinian; explosive eruptions; generate large eruptive columns powered by expanding gas

Found in Iceland?n Yes n No

Shield Volcano

CompositionShield volcanoes are almost exclusively basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid when erupted.

Eruption typeHawaiian; very calm eruptions; highly fluid with low gas content


Scoria Cone

CompositionThe cinder and scoria volcano, also called ash and cinder, is the most basic type of volcano. Usually under 1,000 feet with a round crater at its summit, the cinder, or scoria, is the result of gas-charged lava cooling during an eruption.

Eruption typeStrombolian; pasty lava


Types of Volcanoes

15

Plate Tectonics

Evidence on the Ocean FloorDuring World War II, there were a number of advances in sonic depth recording that were soon followed by the development of the nuclear resonance type magnometer (proton-precession magnometer). This meant for the first time, a detailed map of the ocean floor could be created. New information like this made it possible for scientists, Hess and Deitz, to support the sea-floor spreading theory.

Features that supported the sea-floor spreading hypothesis include:

— Mid-oceanic ridges: The mid-oceanic ridges rise 3,000 meters from the ocean floor and are more than 2,000 kilometers wide, well-surpassing the size of the Himalayas! Research into the ocean floor shows that the greatest heat flow is centered at the crests of mid-oceanic ridges and that the ridges experience an elevated number of earthquakes. All of which indicates intense geological activity at the mid-oceanic ridges.

— Geomagnetic anomalies: Occasionally, at random intervals, Earth’s magnetic field reverses. New rock

formed from magma records the orientation of Earth’s magnetic field at the time the magma cools. Study of the sea floor with magnometers shows “stripes” of alternating magnetization running parallel to the mid-oceanic ridges. From this, we know that there is a continuous formation of new rock at the ridges.

— Deep sea trenches: Massive trenches plunge as deep as 35,000 feet below the ocean's surface. These ridges are often parallel to large continental mountain ranges. There is also an observed parallel association of trenches and island arcs. Like the mid-oceanic ridges, the trenches are seismically active, but they have a very low level of heat flow by comparison.

— Island arcs: Chains of islands like the Aleutians, Kuriles, Japan, and the Philippines are found throughout the oceans and especially in the western Pacific margins. These “island arcs” are usually situated along the continental side of deep sea trenches.

What Does This Mean?Each of these features supports the theory that underneath Earth’s crust (the lithosphere: a solid array of plates) is a malleable layer of heated rock known as the asthenosphere, which is heated by radioactive decay of elements such as Uranium, Thorium, and Potassium. Because the radioactive source of heat is deep within the mantle, the fluid asthenosphere circulates as convection currents underneath the solid lithosphere. The constant exchange of hot and cool produces currents of magma flowing in opposite directions and generates the forces that pull the sea floor apart at the mid-oceanic ridges. As the ocean floor is spread apart, cracks appear in the middle of the ridges allowing molten magma to surface and form the newest ocean floor. The older layers of ocean floor then spread away from the mid-oceanic ridge and eventually become subducted underneath continents. It is this process that leads to gradual changes in the landscape.

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Plate Tectonics in Action

Do you love plate tectonics as much as we do?

How would knowing whether the map feature was a ridge or trench lead us to predict the type of plate boundary?

How do we explain the location of the isolated volcanoes in the model?

Can you locate the Ring of Fire?

Can you use the depth information to predict the type of plate boundary?

What are the 3 types of plate boundaries?

What is missing? How do you know?

Your Course Leader will give you 6 different maps of Earth:

— Sea floor

— All volcanoes

— Regular earthquake sites

— The sea floor’s age in different places

— Magnetic patterns

— An answer key

The answer key will show the boundaries of Earth’s tectonic plates. Place each map into a single transparent sheet protector in the following order: sea floor map, volcanoes, earthquakes, sea floor age, magnetic patterns, and answer key.

Using a different colored marker for each page, outline the major features of the map on the page protector, then remove that map. Repeat this process with each map and see how each border you draw corresponds to the plate boundaries outlined on the last map.

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Plate Tectonics

Natural Hazards: Volcanic eruptions

Upswellingmagma

Magma conduit

Magmareservoir

Central vent

Extinct volcanoes

Solid lithosphere

Partially moltenasthenosphere

Volcanic QuestionsWhat is the difference between an active volcano, a dormant volcano, and an extinct volcano?

What is the best indicator of the future behavior of a volcano and how is this determined?

What types of monitoring are necessary for short term prediction of volcanic eruptions?

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Geothermal areas Geothermal areas occur when meteoric water (water that has recently fallen as precipitation) from above mixes with the hot groundwater from below, creating amazing results. There are several different hydrothermal features that result from the mixing of these two different forms of water, and you will even have the chance to encounter some while you are in Iceland!

At the most basic level of geothermal activity, you see fumaroles or steam vents which occur when there is so little water underground that it boils away before reaching the surface. Water is released as

steam along with a few other gases including hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide.

Hot springs Hot springs represent the next level of geothermal activity. These discharges of groundwater are usually rich in minerals from beneath the surface and range in temperature from 30° to 104°C or 86° to 219°F. Hot Springs develop in two settings: where deep groundwater surfaces along faults or fractures, and in geothermal regions where groundwater is heated by shallow magma or hot rock.

As hot spring water flows out of the ground unobstructed,

the resulting pool of water has several distinct rings of temperature, the hottest of course being around the center. High temperature water prohibits most life, but occasionally you will find organisms that feed off of the released hydrogen gas. This lack of life makes the water look clear and blue. However, the outer temperature rings do allow some bacteria to live, so each ring is a slightly different color depending on which organisms can live there.

When hot springs travel through volcanic ash to reach the surface, a viscous slurry called a mud pot is formed. Mud pots are very acidic and tend to dissolve nearby rock.

Hot Springs & Geothermal Activity

Mud pot Geyser

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Geothermal Areas

GeysersGeysers are one of the more explosive forms of geothermal activity, erupting hot water from the surface of the planet. It can be helpful to think of them like underground hot springs at the base of a constricted plumbing tube. The water at the bottom of the “spring,” close to the hot underground magma, becomes superheated by its proximity. Gradually, the water begins to boil (the boiling point is much higher underground because of the increased pressure) and produce steam. This steam quickly pushes towards the surface, violently ejecting all the water in the “plumbing tube” above it. This is why geyser eruptions begin with a column of water and end with a release of steam. These eruptions happen periodically depending on how long it takes to heat the water beneath the geyser.

All geysers get their name from one famous example, the great Geysir of Iceland, located northwest of Mount Hekla. The name Geysir means “roarer” in Icelandic and refers to the loud roaring noise made by the exiting steam. Outside of Iceland, there are three other main areas where geysers occur: Yellowstone Park in the United States, New Zealand’s

Geyser

Hot Spring

SteamGroundwater

Superheated Water

Porous Rock

HeatMagma Chamber

Porous Rock

North Island, and Kamchatka, Russia. There are a few other geyser locations around the world, but because of the rare underground conditions needed to create them, they are not a frequent phenomena.

While you are in Hveragerdi Geothermal Park, you may

encounter some natural hot springs. Using a thermometer, see if you can identify the different temperature zones in relation to the color change.

Why do you think it’s important for scientists to study water chemistry? What can we learn? Discuss with your classmates.

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The Uses of Geothermal WatersNaturally enriched and heated, geothermal waters are a major source of energy and minerals for the areas around them.

EnergyHumans can tap into the energy of high pressure water and steam by drilling in geothermal fields. This reduces the pressure and allows the water to “flash” steam. The steam can then be led into turbines to generate electricity or used for domestic and greenhouse heating.

MineralsIn 1986, scientists discovered that significant quantities of gold and silver were present in depressurized geothermal

waters. Mineral deposits (gold, silver, and lesser amounts of base metal sulfides) are now thought to be located near the boiling zones of formerly active geothermal systems.

Environmental implicationsDepressurizing and extracting geothermal fluids can be risky. The reduction in pressure is harmful to geysers and hot springs. Extracted waters also contain a significant amount of toxic metal compounds, including arsenic and mercury. Additionally, the sulfide minerals deposited around hot springs can be oxidized during the extraction process and release metal cations that make the surrounding water more acidic.

Do your own analysis!Work with your Course Leader and classmates to learn how scientists measure different chemicals in the geothermal waters around you. Your Course Leader will show you how best to measure for each chemical. Discuss your pH and temperature results.

0What do you think?

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Geothermal Areas

Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (mg/l)

pH

Hydrogen Sulfides (H2S) (mg/l)

H2O Temperature (°C)

Turbidity (NTU)

Nitrate (NO3) (mg/l)

Phosphate (PO4) (mg/l)

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) (mg/l)

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Chemical AnalysisDate:___|___|______ Site #2 _____________

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Hveragerði: A Town Snap ShotHot Springs Capital of the WorldLocated just 45km from Reykjavik, Hveragerði is spread out over a 5,000 year old lava field and peppered with hot springs. Pillars of steam can be seen rising from the town’s many warming waters throughout the year, and it is this abundance that first led people to settle there. The natural hot water can be used for space heating, cooking, baking and laundry. Hveragerði’s amazing natural resources have also bolstered the economy with jobs for its residents. Gardening, for example, is a major source of revenue because the warm water allows locals to grow and sell produce all year long.

You’ll have a chance to see those hot springs in action when you visit the Geothermal Park! You will experience first-hand just how useful the warm waters can be. Record your observations below:

Cooking an egg:

Geothermal bread:

Water chemistry:

Foot soak:

Geocaching:

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Geothermal Areas

What is Energy?

Potential energy is stored energy or gravitational energy. Examples:

— Chemical energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is found in substances like petroleum and natural gas.

— Mechanical energy is energy stored in objects by applying a force, like the energy stored in compressed springs or stretched rubber bands.

— Nuclear energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. The energy is released when the nuclei are combined in the process of fusion or when split during fission.

— Gravitational energy is the energy of position. An object's height and weight are usually a good way to determine gravitational energy. A heavy rock positioned at the top of a steep cliff has high gravitational energy because it has the potential to generate so much energy by falling.

Kinetic energy is motion. The following are some examples:

— Electrical energy is the movement of electrons. Electricity is electrons moving through a wire.

— Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Solar energy is an example.

— Thermal energy (heat) is the internal energy in substances. It is due to the vibration or movement of atoms and molecules within substances. Geothermal energy is a form of thermal energy.

— Motion energy is the movement of objects and substances from point A to point B. Wind is an example of motion energy in action.

— Sound energy is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal waves. Sound is produced when a force causes an object to vibrate.

We already talked a little bit about how geothermal waters can generate energy, but what defines energy? Energy is the ability to do work.

All forms of energy fall into two categories: Potential and kinetic.

Energy ClassificationsThe ten major sources of energy today can also be classified as either renewable or nonrenewable.

Nonrenewable energy sources: Coal, petroleum, natural gas, propane, and uranium. These sources cannot be replenished in a short period of time.

Renewable energy sources: Biomass, geothermal energy, hydropower, solar energy, and wind power. Each of these sources can be quickly renewed and reused indefinitely.

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Geothermal EnergyAs you saw in Hveragerði, geothermal energy is heat that comes from beneath the surface, and it is a very versatile energy source. In addition to the hands-on examples you saw of geothermal energy you saw in the Geothermal Park, there are several types of geothermal power plants that generate energy from drilling wells into geothermal reservoirs near the surface:

Flash steam plantsMost geothermal power plants are flash steam plants. Hot water from production wells flashes (explosively boils) into steam when it is released from

the underground pressure of the reservoir. The force of the steam is used to spin the turbine generator. To conserve water and maintain the pressure in the reservoir, the steam is condensed into water and injected back into the reservoir to be reheated.

Dry steam plantsA few geothermal reservoirs produce mostly steam and very little water. In dry steam plants, the steam from the reservoir shoots directly through a rock-catcher into the turbine generator. The rock-catcher protects the turbine from small rocks that may be carried along with the steam from the reservoir.

Binary cycle power plantsBinary cycle plants transfer the thermal energy from geothermal hot water to other liquids to produce electricity. The geothermal water is passed through a heat exchanger in a closed pipe system, and then reinjected into the reservoir. The heat exchanger transfers the heat to a working fluid—usually isobutane or isopentane—which boils at a lower temperature than water. The vapor from the working fluid is used to turn the turbines. Binary systems can, therefore, generate electricity from reservoirs with lower temperatures. Since the system is closed, there is little heat loss, almost no water loss, and virtually no emissions.

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Geothermal Areas

Other Common Uses of Geothermal EnergyHot spring bathing and spasFor centuries, people have used hot springs for cooking and bathing. Early Romans used geothermal water to treat eye and skin diseases. Disputes over lands with hot springs even led to some medieval wars. Today, hot springs are still used for bathing around the world, and millions of people visit health spas to soak in the mineral-rich water.

HeatingAfter bathing, the most widespread use of geothermal energy is as a means for heating buildings. Geothermal district energy systems pump hot water from a reservoir through a heat exchanger that transfers the heat to buildings through a sequence of separate pipes. The water is then pumped back to the geothermal reservoir to be reheated. The first district heating system in the U.S. was built in 1893 in Boise, Idaho, where it is still in use. There are many other systems in use in the country today. Because it is clean and economical, district heating is becoming increasingly popular. Almost 90 percent of Iceland’s residents use geothermal energy for heat and hot water, and that is only one way that Iceland takes advantage of its renewable resources. Per capita, Iceland is the

world’s largest producer of clean energy and clean electricity.

Agriculture and aquacultureGeothermal waters are used in many places to warm greenhouses that grow fruits, vegetables, and flowers. Natural warm water can also speed up the growth of organisms like fish, reptiles, and amphibians. In the U.S., aqua-farmers grow tropical fish for pet shops and Iceland raises market species such as Arctic char and Atlantic salmon through aquaculture.

IndustryHeat generated from geothermal waters can also be used for dying cloth, drying fruits and vegetables, washing wool, pasteurizing milk, and drying timber products. It is also used to help extract gold and silver from ore.

Geoexchange systems: heating and coolingOnce you reach about twenty feet below Earth’s surface, the temperature is remarkably constant year round. For most areas, this means that soil temperatures are usually warmer than the air in winter and cooler than the air in summer. Geothermal exchange systems take advantage of this to heat and

cool buildings. A liquid—usually a mixture of water and antifreeze—flows through a long loop of pipe buried in the ground. This liquid absorbs heat from the ground and carries it into the building in cold months and absorbs heat from the building during warmer months, carrying it back out of the building. A major benefit to these systems is that they don’t have to manufacture heat. The heat is free, renewable, and readily available in the ground. The system only needs a small amount of electricity to pump the liquid through the pipes and deliver the conditioned air to the building.

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0

Energy DiscussionAs one of Earth’s main renewable energy sources, geothermal energy gives humans a lot of room for expansion. With some exceptions, most methods for utilizing it produce no emissions and cause little to no damage to the environment.

With that in mind, discuss the following energy implications with your classmates:

When you dry your clothes outside, what source of energy are you using?

What would your life be like without petroleum?

Other than the United States, what other countries do you think use a lot of energy? Justify your answer.

In times of drought, which energy source would experience a drop in production?

What are the advantages and disadvantages to rising oil prices?

Should the U.S. use more energy than it can produce? Why or why not?

What natural resources does a community need to utilize geothermal energy? If it’s not an easily accessible source of energy in your community, what are some other renewable energy sources you could use instead?

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Rocks & Minerals

Rocks vs. Minerals

Igneous RocksRocks formed from the solidification of molten rock materials. The two basic types are intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive igneous rock, such as granite, solidifies below Earth’s surface. Extrusive igneous rock, such as basalt and pumice, solidify above the surface.

Metamorphic RocksRocks that have been modified by heat, pressure, and chemical process usually while buried deep below the planet’s surface. The two basic types of metamorphic

rock are foliated and non-foliated. Foliated metamorphic rock such as gneiss and slate have a layered appearance produced from exposure to heat and directed pressure. Non-foliated metamorphic rock such as marble and quartzite do not have a layered appearance.

Sedimentary RocksRocks formed by the accumulation of sediments. The 4 basic types are clastic (such as sandstone), chemical (such as rock salt), organic (such as coal), and some limestones.

What’s the big difference? It’s pretty simple actually! Rocks are made of two or more minerals. Minerals are the same all the way through. You’ll encounter lots of different kinds of rock formations in Iceland, and it’s important to know the three basic categories that classify them.

Rock IdentificationUsing the rock collection provided by your Course Leader, see if you can classify each rock. Note the main characteristics and write why you think it falls into a certain category.

Rock Characteristics Classification

1

2

3

4

5

6

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Mineral Testing

Use the identification chart on the next page and your findings below to help identify each mineral you find:

In this activity, you’ll put your geology skills to work and examine a variety of characteristics in order to identify the minerals inside a piece of rock. Here are the characteristics to look for:

1. Luster/Color: Luster and color are properties which show how a mineral shines or how it is colored. A hand lens can help you examine a mineral more closely for these characteristics.

2. Streak Color: Rub the mineral against a white unglazed porcelain tile and observe the streak or color of the powder left behind. If the mineral is harder than the tile and leaves no streak, scratch the mineral with a nail to observe the powder’s color.

3. Hardness: All minerals have a hardness number between 1 and 10. The hardness is how much the mineral resists scratching. Here are some simple tests for each hardness number:

— 1-2: The mineral can be scratched with a fingernail.

— 3: The mineral can be scratched by a copper coin.

— 4-5: The mineral can be scratched with knife. If scratching is done easily then it is a 4 but if more force is required, it's a 5.

— 6-7: The mineral cannot be scratched with a knife, but can scratch glass. The more

easily it scratches the glass, the closer it is to 7.

— 8: The mineral scratches glass very easily.

— 9-10: The mineral can cut glass. The more easily it cuts glass, the closer it is to 10.

4. Magnetism: Test to see if your mineral is magnetic by holding a magnet near the rock sample.

5. Carbonate: You can judge whether a mineral is carbonate (meaning it contains any compound with the group CO3) based on its reactivity to an acid. We’ll use a few drops of vinegar as our acid.

Sample # Color Streak Color Hardness Magnetic Y/N Carbonate Y/N Mineral Name

29

Rocks & Minerals

Common Mineral Identification Chart

Mineral Name Color Hardness Streak Specific Gravity Crystal System

Apatite Green or Brown 5-5.5 None 3.15-3.2 Hexagonal

Azurite Azure Blue 3.5-4 None 3.77 Monoclinic

Barite Various 3-3.5 None 4.5 Orthorhombic

Bauxite Various 1-3 None 2-3 Various

Beryl Various 7.5-8 None 2.65-2.8 Hexagonal

Biotite (a Mica) Black or Brown 2.5-3 None 2.8-3.2 Monoclinic

Borax Clear or White 2-2.5 None 1.7 Monoclinic

Calcite Clear or White 2.5-3 None 2.72 Hexagonal

Chalcocite Gray to Black 2.5-3 Gray-black 5.5-5.8 Orthorhombic

Chalcopyrite Brass-yellow 3.5-4 Green-black 4.1-4.3 Tetragonal

Cinnabar Red to Brown 2.5 Scarlet 8.1 Hexagonal

Copper Copper red 2.5-3 None 8.9 Isometric

Corundum Various 9 None 4.02 Hexagonal

Cuprite Red 3.5-4 Red-brown 6.1 Isometric

Diamond (a form of Carbon) Clear 10 None 3.5 Isometric

Dolomite Pink 3.5-4 None 2.85 Hexagonal

Fluorite Various 4 None 3.18 Isometric

Galena Lead-gray 2.5 Lead-gray 7.4-7.6 Isometric

Garnet Various, red 6.5-7.5 White 3.5-4.3 Isometric

Gold Yellow 2.5-3 None 15-19.3 Isometric

Graphite (a form of Carbon) Black 1-2 Black 2.3 Hexagonal

Gypsum White or Clear 2 None 2.32 Monoclinic

Halite Clear or White 2.5 None 2.16 Isometric

Hematite Brown to Black 5.5-6.5 Red 5.26 Hexagonal

Hornblende Black 5-6 None 3.2 Monoclinic

Magnetite Iron-black 6 Black 5.18 Isometric

Malachite Bright Green 3.5-4 Light Green 3.9-4.03 Monoclinic

Microcline (a Feldspar) White to Yellow 6 None 2.54-2.57 Triclinic

Muscovite (a Mica) Clear 2-2.5 None 2.76-3.1 Monoclinic

Olivine Olive Green 6.5-7 None 3.27-3.37 Orthorhombic

Orthoclase (a Feldspar) White or Gray 6 White 2.57 Monoclinic

Pyrite Brass-yellow 6-6.5 Green-Black 5.02 Isometric

Quartz Various 7 None 2.65 Hexagonal

Silver Silver-white 2.5-3 Silver-White 10.5 Isometric

Soda Niter White 2 None 2.29 Hexagonal

Sulfur Yellow 1.5-2.5 None 2.05-2.09 Orthorhombic

Talc Various 1 None 2.7-2.8 Monoclinic

Topaz Various 8 None 3.4-3.6 Orthorhombic

Tourmaline Various 7-7.5 None 3-3.25 Hexagonal

Turquoise Blue-green 6 None 2.6-2.8 Triclinic

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Weathering vs. Erosion

As you tour Iceland, you will be able to see obvious signs of erosion. In fact, erosion plays an active role in creating formations like hills, valleys, and islands. By removing sediment from areas that were once covered by glaciers, erosion also shapes the shorelines of lakes and coastlines, and transports material downhill from elevated sites.

In order for erosion to occur, three processes must take place: detachment, entrainment, and transport. Detachment is the process of

disengaging a particle from its surroundings. Entrainment occurs when a particle is lifted by an agent of erosion. Transport is the movement of eroded material by way of a mediums like air, water, or ice. Erosion ends with deposition, when transported particles fall out of the transporting medium and settle on a new surface.

Water is a very powerful agent of erosion. One of the most frequent side effects of fresh water erosion is the creation of waterfalls. You’ll see many examples of this as your travel through Iceland.

New waterfalls begin when streams that flow from soft rock to hard rock erode the soft rock, leaving a hard ledge over which the stream falls, creating a waterfall. The velocity of a stream increases as it approaches a waterfall, and as speed increases, so does the rate of erosion. Sometimes, the erosion at the base of a waterfall can cause it to retreat. Additionally, erosion behind a waterfall can also cause a rock shelter or cave-like structure to form. Read the next page to find about more about the different kinds of waterfalls that are caused by erosion.

Weathering involves two processes that often work together to decompose rocks. Both types of weathering work on the rocks as they rest in place, no movement is involved in either process.

All weathering is a surface or near-surface process. Metamorphism also causes chemical changes in rock composition due to pressure, heat, or chemically active liquids. However, metamorphic changes

occur at depths where either the temperature and/or pressure are significantly higher than conditions found on Earth’s surface.

Erosion takes place only if a rock particle is actually moved by a flowing agent such as air, water, or ice. When gravity is the cause of the movement, it is called mass wasting. So rock falls, slumps, and debris falls are instances of mass wasting.

Chemical WeatheringA chemical change that alters some or all of the minerals within a rock.

Mechanical WeatheringA physical breaking of rocks into pieces without changing the chemical make-up of the minerals inside them.

The Landscapes of Erosion

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Erosion & Weathering

WaterfallsWaterfalls do not have a standard classification system. They are sometimes classified by their volume of water, their width, their height, and even the way water descends. The most frequently accepted scientific approach is to use volume. The calculation is based on how much water is present during the vertical drop of the waterfall. The following diagram outlines this principle.

Abbreviations Keyt = time h = height s = seconds m = meters g = 9.8 m/s2 e = 2.72

A few of the geometrical waterfall classifications:

— Plunge: Drops vertically without touching the cliff face.

— Horsetail: Drops vertically while maintaining some contact with bedrock.

— Fan: Fans out as the drop.

— Punchbowl: Has a plunge pool deeper than the height of the waterfall.

— Block: Has a rectangular shape. Sometimes these waterfalls are wider than their height.

— Tiered: Has more than one vertical tier from a singular perspective.

— Segmented: Splits into two or more parallel threads.

— Chute: Has a watercourse forced into a narrow channel resulting in an ejection of water.

— Scree: Flows over loose rocks down a gentle slope.

— Slide: Flows over a low-angle slope.

Calculations

Average TimeAverage time a horizontal slice of water is dropping through the air: t = √2gh/g (s)

Average DischargeAverage discharge of watercourse: ƒ m3/s

Volume Present v = tƒ m3

Beisel RatingRound to the nearest tenth. B = lnv Or B = loge (v)

Can waterfalls make you happy? Scan this code to learn more.

hVolume of water present in the waterfall

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Coastal ErosionCoasts erode as a result of high energy waves, long fetches (lengths of water over which a given amount of wind has blown), high exposure to the elements, and a lack of newly deposited material. Eroding coasts are also influenced by the longshore currents (currents that flow along the shore).

Shoreline cliffs are a common result of erosion and form when waves scour away at the base of coastal rock formations until a wave-cut notch forms. This notch enlarges, undercutting the cliff above until it is so thin that it collapses. As a cliff retreats, a beach may eventually develop in its place and act as a buffer to slow the process of erosion. Here are a few other common results of shoreline erosion:

— Wave-Cut Platforms are gently sloping rock ledges that extend from the high tide line at the base of a cliff to below the low tide level. Rock pools form in the hard bedrock of the platforms creating small habitats for coastal ecosystems.

— Bays are surrounded by land on three sides and occur in sheltered, low energy zones where the shore has weaker, less resistant rock.

— Headlands are pieces of land that jut out from the coastline, where they often flank bays and are surrounded by water on three sides. They consist of stronger, more resistant rock than the bays. Due to the way waves refract

around the headlands, the energy stored within the waves concentrates on the sides of the headlands and over time develops coastal features like caves, arches, and stacks.

When you visit Iceland’s coastline, you’ll be able to see examples of the kind of stacks we mentioned above. These are the final result of high energy waves hitting the sides of headlands, first forming caves, then arches as the back wall of the cave is eroded away, and finally stacks as the top connecting piece of the arch washes away. Check out the photo of Vik Beach below. We can see a cave undergoing the erosion process and two stacks in the background that are the remains of a long eroded headland.

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Glaciers

Glaciers1. Glacial Valleys: formed as the glacier passes through, these valleys have a more curved U shape as opposed to the V shape of river cut valleys.

2. Cirques: bowl-shaped impressions left behind when a glacier erodes a mountainside.

3. Aretes: jagged narrow ridges that result when 2 glaciers meet.

4. Horns: when several cirque glaciers erode a mountain leaving behind a single steep peak with sharp ridges leading to the top.

Glaciers form when packed snow remains long enough to compress into thickened ice masses. These large, beautiful structures are unique in that they move due to their sheer mass and flow almost like a very slow river.

Despite their crawling pace, glaciers can actually be major engines of erosions. With their massive size, they not only transport articles as they move but also sculpt the land that falls in their path. There are several distinct landforms that are the result of glaciers.

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Glacier Fast Facts — Glaciers store almost 75%

of the world’s freshwater.

— These icy formations cover approximately 10% of the land area on Earth or 5.8 million square miles.

— If all that ice melted, sea levels would rise 230 feet worldwide!

— The world’s largest glacier is the Lambert-Fisher Glacier in Antarctica, measuring 250 miles long and 60 miles wide.

Sketch It Out!Weather permitting, you and your classmates will get an up-close and personal look at a glacier when you visit Iceland’s Solheimajokull Glacier. Keep an eye out for crevasses (deep cracks formed as friction slows a rapidly flowing glacier)

and moraine or debris created from the glacier pushing/carrying material. Moraines can be medial (running down the middle), lateral (running along the sides), or terminal (built up at the front or snout of the glacier). Using the box below, sketch some of the basic glacial characteristics you notice.

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Glaciers

Do Glaciers Have an Impact on Humans?In places like Iceland that depend on fascination with local glaciers to bring in tourists, these massive formations can have a major impact on the economy. But their influence doesn’t stop there. Glaciers are an important natural resource that people all around the world depend on. Their fresh water stores can provide drinking water, irrigate crops, and generate hydroelectric power. It is for these reasons that the threat to glaciers caused by the current warming trend, or climate change, is such a major cause for concern.

To learn more about this current predicament, scientists trace past climate trends by studying the climate records of glaciers. They do this by drilling and extracting ice

cores from glaciers to determine year-by-year information about historic climates. Analyzing trapped air bubbles and particles inside these cores reveals past atmospheric composition, temperature variations, and types of vegetation present at the time.

Because they are so sensitive to temperature change, glaciers provide scientists with crucial insight into the effects of global warming. Since the early twentieth century, most glaciers around the world have been retreating at unprecedented rates. Some scientists attribute this retreat to the Industrial Revolution beginning around 1760. Within the last 200 years, human activity has increased the amount of carbon dioxide in

the atmosphere by 40% and other gases, such as methane, by a factor of 2 or 3 times more. These gases absorb heat being radiated from the surface, slowly warming up Earth’s atmosphere. Other causes, such as increased dust and soot from agriculture and the burning of fossil fuels and forests, also have impacts on glacier retreat.

Today, we need glaciers more than ever because they play an vital role in off-setting the effects of climate change. In addition to all the other ways they serve as a natural resource, their highly reflective surfaces also work like giant mirrors, bouncing large amounts of solar energy back into space and keeping the planet cooler.

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Discussion QuestionsWhy is it important to study glaciers?

What makes glaciers move in nature?

Is glacier ice colder than regular ice? Why?

All glacier-melt water streams carry sediment. The amount of sediment in a stream can determine whether it is fit to be used for hydroelectricity. After viewing various rivers and streams in Iceland, which one do you think would be the best at providing hydroelectric power?

Want more?Follow the QR codes below to see these cool glacial resources!

The National Snow and Ice Data CenterKeeps the world’s glacier inventory with information on over 130,000 glaciers.

The British Geological Survey ObservatoryStudies glaciers at the Virkisjökull observatory.

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Careers

Here’s Some Hot & Cold Career Ideas for You

Think about your favorite elements of your Iceland journey. What memories stand out? Many of the lessons we’ve learned can be used later in an exciting career! There’s a whole wide world of opportunities out there. Here are a few professions that use this kind of information:

VolcanologistThese specialized geologists study formation, activity, temperature, and explosions of volcanoes around the globe. They spend a great deal of their time outdoors and in the field, living on the edge (literally), and drawing samples from Earth’s volcanic cauldrons.

GlaciologistIf you’re concerned about global warming and want to know more about the consequences of the greenhouse gas effect, you might want to consider a career as a glaciologist. These geologists study the formation,

movement, and makeup of current glaciers. Working in the frigid ice boxes of the world, glaciologists have recently become quite popular, offering disturbing scientific evidence linking global climate change to glacial melting.

GeophysicistThese scientists use remote sensing tools like light and sound to penetrate ice and water and see underneath. Geophysicists get to study parts of Earth that are usually invisible to us and research how these hidden elements affect the world around them. They can find things like mountains buried under the ice, or giant sand waves that have been carved into the dunes on the bottom of deep, cloudy rivers!

EngineerEngineers design and create any number of tools to help us better understand and interact with the world. Engineers can even design amazing airborne sensors to gather geophysical data in the Arctic and Antarctic.

OceanographerThis career covers a vast array of topics including marine life and ecosystems, ocean circulation, plate tectonics, geology of the ocean floor, and the physical and chemical properties of the ocean. Usually, an oceanographer specializes in one of these areas. Geological oceanographers for example, look at millions of years of sea-floor spreading, plate tectonics, and ocean circulation and climates. Their work helps us understand how Earth came to be formed like it is today.

PilotPilots specialize in working with research crews. They are highly trained in dealing with the climate and conditions of the research area. In cold climates like the Arctic and Antarctic, they train to fly in extreme conditions and have an extensive knowledge of how polar weather patterns and high altitudes will impact their aircraft and crew. These highly trained men and women are crucial members of any research team working in an intense climate.

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GPS: Global Positioning SystemThe Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the U. S. Department of Defense. It was originally intended only for military use, but in the 1980s, the government made the system accessible to civilians. One of the amazing things about GPS is that it works in all weather conditions, anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day, and there is no fee to access it.

Right now, the 24 satellites that make up the GPS space segment are orbiting Earth about 12,000 miles above us. They are constantly on the move, traveling at speeds

of roughly 7,000 miles per hour and making two complete orbits of Earth in less than 24 hours.

GPS satellites rely on solar energy as their primary fuel source, but they all also have backup batteries on board to keep them running in the event of a solar eclipse. Small rocket boosters attached to each satellite keep them flying in the correct path.

Today, GPS acts as a crucial tool for scientists, allowing them to pinpoint the exact location of their data collection and more easily map trends across different collection locations.

Can you name some ways that you use GPS in everyday life?

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GPS

Put Yourself on the MapTo pinpoint an exact location, GPS relies on the invisible longitude and latitude lines that humans use to divide Earth into segments. Longitude lines run vertically over the planet from pole to pole, dividing it into segments from east to west. The Prime Meridian is the line of 0 longitude, or the starting point for measuring distances going east and west across the globe. Latitude lines run horizontally around the planet, dividing it into segments from north to south (the Equator is a latitude line that represents the exact middle between the north and south poles). To name a location using this system, you give the coordinates or the points where the closest longitude and latitude meet. Now, while these degrees will give you a general

location, Earth is 25,000 miles around and dividing that into 360 pieces means each degree is spaced about 69 miles apart at the equator. That isn’t very precise. To help with that, each degree is divided into 60 minutes and each minute is divided into 60 seconds.

Another common way of listing more exact coordinates is to use the fractional degrees. Using that method, the White House Coordinates are 38.898648° north by 77.037692° west. Both methods indicate that the American President’s home lies slightly above the latitude line that is 38 degrees north of the Equator and a little further to the west of the longitude line that is 77 degrees west of the Prime Meridian.

The White House in Washington, D.C. GPS Coordinates

Deg: Min: Sec:

38° 53’ 55.133” N

77° 02’ 15.691” W

Map It!Estimate coordinates for the northern most part of our trip.

The Arctic Circle is located at 66.56 degrees latitude north. What do you think happens at this latitude line?

If the average distance between latitude lines is approximately 69 miles, estimate your distance to the Arctic Circle right now.

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GeocachingGeocaching is an activity that has derived from access to GPS. To play, participants work within a set of specific GPS coordinates and attempt to find the geocache (container) hidden at that location. There is a large database at geocaching.com that lists geocaches in different locations all around the world. To play all you need to do is choose which one you want to hunt down! Then enter the coordinates into your GPS device and use it to pinpoint exactly where the geocache is hidden.

Once you find the location and the hidden geocache container, sign the logbook and return the geocache to its original location. You can share your geocaching stories and photos online. If there is something inside the geocache that you can take, be sure to leave a new treasure in its place for the next person! The geocache community respects the caches and adheres to an honor code about trading cached items.

As you learn more about geocaching, you’ll see that there are many different kinds of things to search for. Following are a few examples of different geocaches you may encounter.

Traditional GeocacheThe original and most straightforward of geocaches, these finds will be containers at given coordinates. The size may vary, but at minimum, all of these geocaches will have a logbook. Larger containers may contain items for trade and trackables.

Mystery or Puzzle CachesThese geocaches add a level of difficulty by asking you to first solve a complicated puzzle in order to receive the correct coordinates.

Multi-CacheThe search for these geocaches involves two or more locations, with the final location holding the physical container. Each new location offers a clue towards your final destination.

EarthCacheAn EarthCache is a special geological location people can visit to learn about a unique feature of the landscape there. Visitors to these spots can see how our planet has been shaped by geological processes, how we manage its resources, and how scientists gather evidence there. Typically, to log an EarthCache, you will have to provide answers to questions about the location.

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GPS

Try Your Own Earthcache!If time permits, you and your classmates can work together to find a geocache near Gullfoss Waterfall. The geocache you are looking for is located at N 64° 19.523 W 020° 07.460.

In order to get credit for this find, there are specific requirements for logging this Earthcache. You’ll need explore the area around you and find the answers to the questions below:

What is the name of the farmer’s daughter who was instrumental in preventing a hydroelectric plant from taking over this area during the early 1900s?

What types of rocks are in the area? Log what you see underfoot and surrounding the falls. (You do not have to walk off the trail to do this.)

If the upper portion of the falls drops 11 meters (36 feet), estimate the distance the lower portion drops into the ravine below. (+/- 1 meter)

Why you think the river water is the “color” it is? Explain.

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AurorasIf conditions are right, you may catch a glimpse of the famous Au-rora Borealis (or Northern Lights). This amazing phenomenon occurs in ring-shaped regions around the north and south geomagnetic poles. The lights in the south are called the Aurora Australis, and they are a mirror image.

When they light up the sky, auroras appear in the shape of long, curving curtains. Although they may seem close, the lower edge of each these auroral curtains is actually 60 to 70 miles above Earth—that’s ten times higher than a jet aircraft flies! From there, the curtain extends about another 60 miles up into the ionosphere.

Despite their calm appearance, each beautiful band of light is actually the result of Earth’s atmosphere shielding against intense solar wind, a wind that would otherwise make our planet uninhabitable. When these electrically charged solar particles smash into the upper atmospheric gases, they release energy in the form of photons (light particles) that glow.

Earth’s magnetosphere protects us from the direct effects of the solar wind, but currents created by changing magnetic fields accompanying the aurora can seriously disrupt radio communications, radio

navigation, some defense-related radar systems, and power transmission lines.

Auroral intensity varies depending on the level of solar activity, but at their height, auroras can produce up to 10 million megawatts of electrical power. Their power levels seem to vary on an 11-year cycle characterized by erratic bursts of solar flares at the high end of the cycle and relatively stable solar activity at the low end. A few years after a maximum year of solar activity, auroras in high latitudes are brilliant. The last solar maximum was in the winter of 2013-2014.

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Auroras

Auroral ColorsMuch like a neon sign, auroral light is released by a high-vacuum electrical discharge. The combination of this discharge and the molecules in the air gives the aurora its color.

The color of the aurora depends on which atoms and molecules inside Earth’s magnetosphere are struck by the passing solar wind.

Each atmospheric gas glows a different color, so whatever gas is most prevalent at the time of the electrical discharge will determine the aurora’s primary color. Some of the color break-downs are listed here. But the total range and composition is quite complex.

Want to know the aurora forecast during your trip? Follow the QR code below to find out the expected visibility while you are in Iceland!

Green Oxygen atoms at about 60 miles altitude are responsible for the most common auroral color, a brilliant yellow-green.

Blue A sparkling blue is produced when ionized nitrogen molecules collide with solar wind.

Purple Auroras with purplish-red lower borders and rippled edges occur when portions of the atmosphere are hit with lots of neutral nitrogen molecules.

Red This rarity only occur when high-altitude oxygen atoms interact with solar wind. Due to their extreme height (300 miles), they can sometimes be seen from as far away as Chicago.

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LandfallAlthough there is some anecdotal evidence of a few earlier arrivals, 2001 archaeological evidence confirmed human habitation in Iceland from 871 AD onward. The Norse explorers who settled on the Island in the Ninth Century were unusual in that they were not claiming the land through any type of planned political or religious movement. Instead, Viking voyages into the far North Atlantic were independent explorations that took place as part of a larger pattern of expansion over a 300-year period. During this time, Scandinavian

peoples settled in Shetland, Orkney, and the Hebrides (all parts of Scotland and Ireland) as well as the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, and Finland.

The Viking settlement of Iceland was an important moment in European history because they brought with them the tradition of sharing and legislating power through the Thing System. Things, from the Old Norse þing, are the early assemblies found throughout Northern Europe as a result of Norse heritage. They are an early Viking form of democracy and were established so that disputes

could be settled in a neutral forum rather than by blood feud and violence. The foundation of this system is still recognized in modern day Iceland’s parliament, known as the Althing. This makes Iceland the oldest parliamentary democracy in the world.

The AlthingThe Alþingi (anglicised as Althing or Althingi) literally translates to “the all-thing” or general assembly. Its first meeting took place in 930 AD with Icelanders gathering at River Oxara in Thingvellir. The Parliamentary Plains and regular assemblies

Iceland’s Cultural and Political Roots

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Viking Settlement

continued there for 868 years until 1798. Much of the success of this early system can be attributed to Iceland’s relative isolation from the rest of Europe and the absence of local warlords. The safety afforded by ocean distance eliminated the hierarchy of older political systems. Rather than a king or feudal lord, Icelanders had representatives that served them at the Althing. There, local chieftains met on a council called the lögrétta where they reviewed old laws and made new ones.

After the meeting of leaders, all free men could attend the

assemblies, which were usually the main social event of the year. People from all over the country came, staying in temporary camps or búðir during the session. At the center of the gathering was the Lögberg, or Law Rock, a rocky outcrop where the assembly’s presiding official, called the Lawspeaker or Lögsögumaður, took his seat. One of his primary responsibilities was to recite all the current laws for the assembled crowd.

The successful rule of the Althing from 930 to 1262 is known as “The Golden Age of Iceland.”

Following that time period, governance of the island became slightly more complicated as first the Norwegian monarchy and later the Danish king exerted control over Iceland. Iceland’s parliament continued to meet throughout the rule of both foreign nations but their actions were largely redundant. One of the Althing’s most significant moves under Danish rule was ratifying their own constitution in 1874. While it took some time, this action helped them to eventually declare full independence from Denmark on June 7, 1944.

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National Museum of Iceland

Icelandic Time Line

Dawn of Icelandic Society — 800-1000

1000-1200 — Christian Chieftains Reign

Under Norwegian Rule — 1200-1400

1400-1600 — Under Danish Rule

Absolutism — 1600-1800

1800-1900 — Development of a Nation

Into the Modern World — 1900-2000

Looking through the exhibits, choose a time period in which you would like to have lived.

Write a paragraph on why you are attracted to this time period and describe an artifact from it that caught your attention.

Was there any older technology you selected that you wish you had access to today?

The National Museum of Iceland’s permanent exhibition, Making of a Nation - Heritage and History in Iceland, is intended to provide insight into the history of the Icelandic nation from the settlement up to the present day. The exhibition is designed as a journey through time, beginning with the ship in which medieval settlers crossed the ocean to their new home and ending in a modern airport, the Icelanders’ gateway to the world.

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Eco-pedia®

Adaptation: an adjustment or change in the physiology, structure, or behavior of an organism to become more suited to its environment.

Aerodynamics: The study of how air moves.

Aerspace: Business concerned with the manufacturing and operation of vehicles that fly in and above Earth’s atmosphere.

Air Pressure: Force pressed on an object by air or atmosphere.

Anenometer: A device that measures wind speed.

Arctic: Region at Earth’s extreme north, encompassed by the Arctic Circle.

Aquifer: A holding area for water.

Barometer: An instrument that measures atmospheric pressure.

Bioassessment: The gathering of information by studying the living things found in an ecosystem.

Buffer area: Area found between protected land and development.

Calculate: To reach a conclusion by mathematical or logical methods.

Calderas: much larger depressions, circular to elliptical in shape, with diameters ranging from 1 km to 50 km. They form as a result of collapse of a volcanic structure. The collapse occurs when the volcano’s underlying magma chamber is emptied.

Cinder Cones: another volcanic landform that has a small volume and is made up predominantly of the ash and scoria that result from mildly explosive eruptions.

Climatologist: A person who studies long-term patterns in weather.

Consistent: Maintaining a steady, reliable quality.

Craters: circular depressions, usually less than 1 km in diameter, that form as a result of explosions that emit gases and ash.

Ecology: The study of the natural environment and the relationships between organisms.

Ecosystem: All the relationships between the physical and biological factors in an area.

Endemic Species: Confined to a specific region; naturally found in a particular area.

Eco-pedia

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Engineer: A person who has scientific training to design and build complicated products, machines, systems, or structures.

Ephemeral: For a short period of time.

Equatorial: Having to do with the Equator or the area around it.

Exotic Species: Species not native to the community.

Forecast: To predict, especially the weather. Also, the prediction itself.

Frigid: Very cold.

Gust: A sudden, strong wind.

Habitat: Where a plant or animal is normally found.

Horizontal: Left-right direction or parallel to Earth and the horizon.

Hot-Wire Anemometer: Instrument that measures wind speed by measuring the amount of power needed to keep a hot wire at a consistent temperature.

Hydroperiod: The amount of time which the wetland is covered by and contains water.

Indicate: To display or show.

Instrument: Tool.

Invasive Species: Species which are out-competing the native and endemic species.

Invertebrate: An animal without a backbone.

LASER: An acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. This instrument emits a thin beam of light that does not fade over long distances.

Lull: Calm or still wind.

Meteorologist: Person who studies patterns and changes in Earth’s atmosphere.

Native Species: Species which are found in a specific community.

Particle: A small piece of material.

Periphyton: A community of numerous types of algae with a complex association.

Physicist: A person who studies the relationship between matter, energy, motion, and force.

Plumage: Characteristics of a bird’s coverings or feathers.

Eco-pedia continued

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Eco-pedia®

Pilot: Person who steers an aircraft or ship.

Region: Any area on Earth with one or more common characteristics. Regions are basic units of geography.

Rotate: To turn around a center point or axis.

Saline: Containing salt.

Similar: Alike or resembling.

Sound Wave: Wave of air pressure producing sound.

Spacecraft: A vehicle designed for travel outside Earth’s atmosphere.

Storm: Severe weather indicating a disturbed state of the atmosphere resulting from uplifted air.

Temperature: Degree of hotness or coldness measured by a thermometer with a numerical scale.

Tube Anemometer: An instrument that measures wind speed by comparing air pressure outside a tube to air pressure inside it.

Velocity: A measurement of the rate and direction of change in the position of an object.

Vertical: Up-down direction, or at a right angle to Earth and the horizon.

Watershed: The land area that drains into a common body of water.

Weather Pattern: Repeating or predictable changes in Earth’s atmosphere, such as winds, precipitation, and temperatures.

Weather Station: Area with tools and equipment for measuring changes in the atmosphere.

Windmill: An instrument that generates power from the force of wind rotating large blades.

Wind Speed: The force and velocity of wind.

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0 Notes

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Notes

0 Notes

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Documents

Iceland: Land of Fire & Ice · 2016-07-13 · Iceland: Land of Fire & Ice Discovery Journal Sometimes those classroom walls can be confining. Reading books and looking at pictures