The word ikebana is usually translated as “theJapanese art of flower arrangement,” but thematerials of ikebana can include freshly cutbranches, vines, leaves, grasses, berries, fruit,seeds, and flowers, as well as wilted anddried plants. In fact, any natural substancemay be used, and in contemporary ikebana,glass, metal, and plastic are also employed.As one of the traditional arts of Japan,ikebana has developed a symbolic languageas well as decorative concepts, and the useof natural, ephemeral flowers and branchesmakes the dimension of time an integral partof the creation. The relationship between thematerials; the style of the arrangement; thesize, shape, texture, volume, and color of thecontainer; and the place and occasion for itsdisplay are all vitally important factors. In its500-year history, there have been a widerange of forms, from modest pieces for homedecoration to vast landscapes and innovativesculptural works that can fill an entireexhibition hall. Along with the enormousvariety of contemporary work, traditionalforms continue to be studied and created. Inaddition, the practice of ikebana, also calledkado, or The Way of Flowers, has beenpursued as a form of meditation on thepassage of the seasons, time, and change. Itsreligious origins and strong connection to thenatural cycle of birth, growth, decay, andrebirth can give ikebana a deep spiritualresonance.

The diversity of Japan’s natural landscape

and ancient, agricultural way of life set thescene for the development of ikebana. Adecisive influence was the introduction ofBuddhism from China in the 6th century, andwith it, the custom of floral offerings (kuge) tothe Buddha and the souls of the dead. Theoffering took the form of a simple,symmetrical composition of three stems, butby the early 17th century it had evolved into astyle called rikka, literally “standing flowers,”

Tradition and creativity in floral art

What Is Ikebana?

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IKEBANA

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Arranging flowersFlower arranging is seen as an artistic attainment one practices in leisure time. (Photo courtesy of AFLO)

Origin and Development

own versions, but the three branches in thecomposition came to be known as ten(heaven), chi (earth), and jin (human being),respectively. Variations of this form havebecome the basis of all ikebana instruction,even in the most modern schools.

Another important development duringthis period was the emergence of literatiarrangements (bunjin-bana), which reflectedthe sensibilities of Chinese scholars andpainters. Japanese bunjin-bana arrangementshad a strong influence on the nageire stylewhich had developed from chabana. Sincebunjin-bana was practiced as a form ofpersonal expression, arrangements had anunorthodox, casual character that was quitedifferent from the austerity of the tea house,or the formality of rikka or seika. In addition,the Chinese origins added a new richness ofcolor and literary nuance.

The opening of Japan to Western influencefrom the beginning of the Meiji era (1868–1912) brought great changes to all aspects ofnational life. In ikebana, the style calledmoribana, literally “piled-up flowers,” createdby Ohara Unshin (1861–1916), founder of theOhara school, totally revolutionized the art.Whereas in all traditional styles the materialswere gathered to emerge from the containerat a single point, Ohara used various kinds ofsupports to arrange cut plants over anextended surface in wide, shallow containerscalled suiban, literally “water basin.” Thisallowed for the use of new, imported materialsthat could not be accommodated to traditionalstyles. It also permitted the creation oflandscape styles, shakei, that depictedscenes from nature in a naturalistic ratherthan symbolic fashion. Another importantinnovator was Adachi Choka (1887–1969),who adopted moribana, and described hiswork simply as “decorative.”

created by Buddhist monks of the Ikenoboschool. This elaborate art form was done intall bronze vases and required a high degreeof technical skill. The main branch,symbolizing heaven or truth, was usuallyasymmetrical, bending out to the right or leftbefore its upper tip returned to the centralvertical axis. Numerous other branches, eachwith its own symbolic meaning and decorativefunction, emerged from the central mass, thecore of an imaginary sphere. As a whole, awork of rikka was a microcosm thatrepresented the entire universe through theimage of a landscape. The chiefcharacteristics—asymmetry, symbolism, andspatial depth—were to exert a stronginfluence on later developments.

In stark contrast to rikka, the austerechabana, literally “tea flowers,” originated aspart of the tea ceremony (chanoyu) in the16th century. Composed of one or two flowersor branches in a small container, chabanabecame the basis of a spontaneous stylecalled nageire, meaning “to throw in,” whichwas done in a tall vase with few materials,and employed subtle technical means toproduce a simple, poetic evocation of naturalbeauty. Rikka and nageire define a kind ofcounterpoint in the subsequent history ofikebana. On the one hand, there was anemphasis on elaborate technique, large scale,symbolism, and fixed styles. On the other,there was spontaneity, simplicity,suggestiveness, and respect for the naturalcharacteristics of the materials themselves.The tension between the two would lead to allfuture innovations in the art.

During the Edo period (1603–1867),Japan enjoyed internal peace and steadyeconomic growth. Ikebana, once theexclusive province of Buddhist monks andmembers of the court and aristocracy, cameto be practiced more widely by samurai,wealthy merchants, and others, includingwomen. During this period, the rikka stylebecame rigid and formalized, and a simplerstyle called seika or shoka (both written withthe same Chinese characters), meaningliterally “live flowers,” emerged and gainedincreasing popularity. While still rather formal,seika employed a three-branch compositionbased on an asymmetrical, or scalene,triangle. Many new schools promoted their

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Modern Ikebana

Ohara schoolThe work in the photograph, an example of the traditional method of landscape depiction, is arranged in a large, shallow container (suiban). Lotuses alone are used to express a distant view of a pond in summer. (Photo courtesy of Ohararyu)

Ikenobo schoolThis school of flower arranging was founded in the 15th century by Ikenobo Senkei. It is the oldest among extant schools. The photo shows an arrangement by Ikenobo Sen’ei, current master of the Ikenobo school. (Photo courtesy of Ikenobo)

material, is traditionally arranged when peoplegather to view the moon (tsukimi) inSeptember.

Plants must have enough water to remainfresh for as long as possible. A number oftechniques are used to preserve thefreshness of plants. These include crushing,boiling, or burning the base of the stems andthe application of various chemicals. However,the most common method is to cut the baseof the stems under water (mizugiri) and usethem immediately. To restore vitality to wiltedflowers and leaves, they are cut under waterand the stems left submerged for at least 30minutes.

Most contemporary ikebana are of twokinds: moribana and nageire. While moribanais arranged in a shallow container with aneedle-point holder, or kenzan, nageire iscomposed in a tall vase with a variety ofmethods used to keep the materials in place.

When using a kenzan, thick branches arecut on a diagonal, and the cut end is splitlengthwise so that it can be inserted easilyinto the needle-point holder. Flowers andother materials with soft stems are best cuthorizontally, inserted directly into the needlesin an upright position, and then slantedforward or backward to the desired angle.With materials such as grasses, which arethinner than the individual needles of thekenzan, an additional short piece of the sameor a different material can be tied to the basefor added thickness.

For arrangements in a tall vase, thebending method of stay (oridome) isemployed for a variety of materials. The stemrests on the mouth of the container, the bentportion is placed against the inside surface,and the base may extend to the bottom of the

Innovations continued with theappearance of many other modern schools.Teshigahara Sofu (1900–1979), founder ofthe Sogetsu school, promoted ikebana asmodern art that should encourage free,creative expression. In the postwar period,avant-garde works, or zen’eibana, vastlyextended ikebana’s expressive powers,incorporating abstract sculptural andsurrealistic approaches, and broadening thescale of works and range of materialsemployed. In addition, traditional schoolssuch as Ikenobo, while maintaining their ownclassical styles and creating modern versionsof rikka and seika, added more recentapproaches, including moribana to theircurricula. The contemporary scene isdominated by three large schools—Ikenobo,Ohara, and Sogetsu—each claiming over onemillion members, but there are alsothousands of other schools large and small.Major schools have established chapters andstudy groups all over the world, and IkebanaInternational, an umbrella organizationrepresenting many schools, was founded inTokyo in 1956 and promotes the art on aglobal scale.

Ikebana continues to be practiced bymany ordinary people not affiliated withspecific schools and is an intimate part ofeveryday life in Japan. Arrangementsdecorate homes throughout the year, andspecific materials are associated with specialoccasions and festivals. Evergreen pine,symbolizing eternity, is the preferred materialfor the New Year, and is traditionallyaccompanied by bamboo, for youthfulflexibility, and blossoming apricot branches,for venerable old age. On March 3, for theDoll Festival (Hina Matsuri), also known asthe Girls’ Festival, blossoming peachbranches are displayed with traditional dolls.Japanese irises, symbolizing male strength,are arranged on May 5, Children’s Day, andbamboo is part of the decorations forTanabata, the Star Festival, on July 7.Japanese pampas grass, a typical autumn

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Basic Approaches and Techniques

Sogetsu schoolSogetsu arrangements make free use of a wide range of shaped materials. This large-scale work, titled "乾坤春" ("Kankonshun"), was created by Teshigahara Sofu, founder of the Sogetsu school. Approximately 10 meters wide, it includes driftwood and wisteria vines. (Photo courtesy of Sogetsu Foundation / Fujimori Takeshi)

vase. The self-supporting method (kiridome)is used for flowers with thick stems. The baseis cut on an angle and placed directly againstthe inside surface of the vase. In thecrosspiece method (yoko-waridome), thebase of the branch is split horizontally, and astay is inserted at a right angle. Thecrosspiece should fit securely against theinside surface of the container. To use avertical prop (tate-waridome), the base of thestem is split vertically, and a prop is securedwithin the split end. The base of the proppedstem touches the inside surface or the bottomof the container.

Choosing an Appropriate ContainerIn principle, anything can serve as a container.Traditionally, bronze and ceramic vases,lacquerware, sections of bamboo, and evendried gourds have been widely used.However, the container does not merelycontain, but is considered an integral part ofthe work.

When using a wide, shallow bowl (suiban),the subtle use of the surface of the water—itsreflectivity and the cool impression it gives insummer—plays a major role in the success ofthe work. Containers made of stainless steel,glass, and various synthetic substances arecommon in modern ikebana, but whenmaking an arrangement in a transparent glassvase, special care should be taken with the

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portion of the work visible within the container.Whatever kind of container one uses, thebase of the arrangement should be neat andconcentrated. When using a tall vase, avoidfilling the entire mouth with materials.

Highlighting Natural BeautyWhile the mastery of any art requires longpractice with a trained teacher, there are anumber of basic points on which teachers ofall schools are in agreement. First, one mustrealize that what plants look like in theirnatural state is the starting point for any work.Once they are cut and removed from nature(or a greenhouse), they become the materialsfor a composition with its own uniquecharacter. When examining materials, look atthe whole form rather than the captivatingdetails. With camellias, for example, it is theentire branch, and especially the leaves, thatare most important, not the flowers, which canbe removed from their natural position andreattached at a place where they will be moreeffective in the overall design. Bending cangive branches a pleasing curve, but can alsoserve to straighten curved branches. Theremoval of unnecessary details is an essentialskill, and trimming branches should aim atemphasizing the beauty of the line. Theremoval of some blossoms from cherry, plum,or peach branches serves not only to revealthe line, but also to highlight the beauty ofthose blossoms that remain.

All natural materials can be used as line,surface, color, or mass. A large leaf, forexample, has a powerful surface, but can alsobe shown in profile to function as a line. Allflowers have a “face” that is oriented in aspecific direction. In placing the flower, onemust consider whether to show it facingforward, in profile, or turning away from theviewer. Flowers are usually used with theirleaves, but the leaves of an iris or narcissusare often separated from the stalk,reassembled into more pleasing groups, andthen reunited with the flower to give anappearance that is both “natural” and effectiveas an element in the composition.