An International Journalof Ps.ycho!ogy in Africa

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,"~, Vol. 12 No. 2, 2004--

Publi shed by the Ife Centrefor Psychological Studies

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IMPACT OF COMPUTER EXPERTISE, LOCUS OF CONTROL AND, SELF-ESTEEM ON

COMPUTER-INDUCED STRESS

*CHOVWEN C.O., *ALARAPE A.I., *OLAPEGBA, P.O.*Department of Psychology

University of Ibadan,Ibadan, Nigeria.

**ABIKOYE. G.E.**Department of PsychologyOlabisi Onabanjo University

Ago-iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria.

AbstractThe present study considered the influence of self-esteem, locus of

control and computer expertise on computer-induced stress in a crosssectional survey. One hundred and fifty cyber cafe users draum from. 10cyber cafes randomly chosen from University of Ibadan and its environsparticipated in the study. Of the 150 respondents, 27 {31.3%)werefemaleswhile 103 (68.7%) were males; mean age was 25.41 with a standarddeviation of 7. 00. Result indicated that the main effect of self-esteem wassignificant, F {1, 142)=6.32, P<. as. Computer expertise also had asignificant effect on computer-induced stress F (I, 142) =28.04, P<.00 7.As hypothesized, high self-esteem persons reported lower level of computer-induced stress than low self-esteem persons. Also, people uiith higher level. .

of computer expertise reported lower computer-induced stress than peoplewith less computer expertise. The implication and results were discussedand suggestions for further studies were highlighted in the light of thefindings.

IntroductionTechnological progress taking place daily all over the world has

led to a strong impetus to produce more capable and less expensiveinformation technology to assist all human activities, thus, computershave become attractive and a key element in today's world. Computerswere viewed largely as a technological curiosity in the 1790's. However,

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Chovwen, co.; All/Tape, .-1.1. Otapegb a, P.O.; Abikoye, G.E..' ltnpnct of Computer Expertise, Locus of Cnntrol

by placing too much pressure on body joints and they vary intyPy and severities, computer-related injuries (CRI);which ranges fromeye strain, wrist or hand strain, neck problems and so on. There arcalso social problems associated with computer use. Noteworthy areisolation, alienation and depersonalization. Craig (1984) referred tothese computer-induced problems as "techno stress" and feels thattechno stress is a modern disease of adaptation caused by inability tocope with the new computer technology in a healthy manner.

Studies have shown that a number of factors can exacerbateor attenuate computer-induced stress. For instance, low self-esteemand externally oriented computer irritability, headache, nightmares,resistance to learning about the computer or outright rejection of thetechnology than high esteem and internal locus of control users (Fredinand Davi.d, 1998). Cyberphrenia is a term that is used to describeaddiction to new computer technology when it totally dominates anindividual's life. Cyberphobia, an excessive fear of new computertechnology have been reported to be more common among low selfesteem computer users than high self-esteem users. Hatlie andFitzgerald (1983), in a quest for a better understanding of computer-related stress, identified several correlates, including mathematicsanxiety, trait anxiety, gender, age, knowledge of computer, self-esteem,and cogni.ti.ve thinking style. Bozionelo (1996) found that computerphobia prevalence rate for women doubled that for men. Women alsoseem to be more negative in their attitudes to computer than men.Even as early as kindergarten, boys and girls view video games asmore appropriate to boys than girls (Igbaria & Chakrabrati, 1990; Igbaria& Parasuramen, 1991). With regards to age, Rosen, Sears and Weil(1987) found that older student were more computer anxious but theydid not have more negative attitudes towards computer use than youngstudents. Rosen et a1. (1987) also reported that feminine identitystudents showed more anxiety and negative attitudes than did.

masculine .Identity students, regardless of gender.In a computer phobia reduction program, Rosen, Sears and

Weil (1989) established that computer anxiety was related to computerphobia and that frequent exposure to computing systems dramaticallyreduced both computer phobia and anxiety. Rosen, Sears and Weil(1987) had earlier found that computer anxious student exhibited lowercomputer aptitudes, literacy and interests than their less anxiouscounterparts, implying that computer expertise influences computer-induced stress, other researches have also reported a significantnegative relationship between computer expertise and computer

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Ire Psycholog lArelated stress (Igbaria &Chakrabati, 1990; O'Brien, 1993; Delveccio,1995; Balance & Balance, 1996);i .'

The present study examined the.influence of self-esteem, locusof control and computer expertise on self reported experience of counter-ind uced stress in underdeveloped .cou ntry. Based On empiricalevidence, the researchers .hypothesized that there will be significant(main and interaction) effect of self-esteem, locus of control andcomputer expertise on computer-induced stress among computer user.More specially, we hypothesized that internals with high self-esteemand high level of computer expertise will report a (comparatively) lowerlevel of computer-induced stress,

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MethodDesign and Participants

The present study considered the influence of self-esteem,locus of control and computer expertise on computer-induced strepsin a cross sectional survey, Participants consisted of 150 cyber cafeusers drawn from 10 cyber cafes randomly chosen from University ofIbadan and its environs, Of the 150 respondents, 27 (31.3%) werefemales while 103 (68.7%) were males, mean age was 25.41 with astandard deviation of 7.00. Duration of computer use was one monthto eight years. In terms of formal education, 88 (58.7%) of the.respondents were school certificate holders, 47 (31.3%) were in tertiaryinstitutions, while 15 (10.0%) had already completed their graduatestudy.Instrument

Computer-induced stress was measured with Computerinformation Problems and Internet Hassles from Hudiburg, 1989.computer Hassle Scale-revised (CHS-R). The scale is scored along a 4-point format, 0 (not at all), 1 (somewhat severe), 2 (moderately severe),3 (extremely severe), with higher scores denoting high computer-induced stress. In this study the coefficient alpha is 0.88 and theSpearman Brown of the split-half reliability was 0.78.

Self-esteem was assessed with the Adanijo and Oyefeso (1986)15 items general self-esteem scale. Response to the scale is along a5-point Likert format ranging from I (strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly

Iagree)" with high score denoting low self-esteem, The author reporteda split half reliability coefficient of 0.79 among bank officials and areliability coefficient of 0.74 and 0.92 between undergraduate and highschool students 0.90, while the Spearman brown of the split halfreliability was 0.77.

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Chovwen. Co. ..All/rape, A.I. Olapegbo, po. .,-4b·ikoye, G.F..'-tmpuct of Computer Expertise, I.OCIIS of CO/l{l III

Craig, Franklin and Andrews (1984) 17 items locus of controlscale was used to assess locus of control in the present study. Thewidely used instrument is scored along a five point Likert formatranging froni 1(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) with high scoresindicating 'a tendency towards externality. The authors reported acoefficient alpha of 0.79 for the scale. In the present study, a coefficienlalpha of 0.74 and a Spearman Brown of the split half reliability of 0.71were obtained.

Computer expertise was assessed with the computer ExpertiseScale (Ajayi, Olatokun & Tiamiyu, 2001). The scale consists of itemsasking respondent to indicate the computer related education andtraining they have had as well as the computing activities that theyhad performed or could perform. Weighting and summing the scoreson indicated knowledge and proficiency yielded an index of computerexpertise for each respondent.

Socia-demographic variables such as age, sex educationalstatus and marital status were tapped in the first of the questionnaireby single items.

ProcedureThree trained research assistants collected data for the study.

Using cluster-sampling technique, Ibadan metropolis was clusteredinto three zones based on availability of cyber cafe/ computer-relatedservice providers. The University of Ibadari and environs was chosenfor the study being the busiest in terms of cyber cafes/ computer-relatedservice providers and preponderance of computer users. Ten popularcyber-cafes were used in this study. Two hundred questionnaires (200)were administered (20 at each center). Out of the 200 questionnairesdistributed, only 163 were returned, and 150 contained usable data.The 15p questionnaires were scored and analyzed with the SPSS software (version 10) for data analysis.

ResultA 2X2X2 ANOVA was performed to examine the main and

interaction effects of self-esteem, locus of control and expertise oncomputer induced stress. Result indicated that the main effect of sel f-esteem was significant, F (1, 142)=6.32,P<. 05. The influence 'of locusof control was not significant, F (1, 142)=2.04, P n.s. computer expertisealso had a significant effect on computer-induced stress F (1,142)=28.04, P<. 001 (see Table 1). As hypothesized, high self-esteem

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persons reported lower level of computer-induced stress (X=71.25t thanlow self-esteem persons (X=85.,I 1). Also, people with higher level ofcomputer expertise reportedl0v.:er computer-induced stress (X=60.081.than people with less computerexpertise (X=87.62): .

Table 1: 2x2x2 ANOVAshowing influence of self-esteem, locus ofcontrol and computer expertise on computer-induced stress.

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Variable SS DF MS F P

Self-esteem (A) 985.98 1 985.98 6.31 <.05LOCUS OJ con trot '='J.J~ 1 ';:IJ.J~ "2.U't n.s ,

- (B)Computerexpertise (C) 9351.29 1 9351.2c 28.93 <.001

Ax8 148.46 1 148.46 0.46 n.s.AxC 4783.79 1 4783.79 14~83 <.001BxC 1011.22 1 10 11.2~ 6.83 <.05Ax8xC 236.60 1 236.60 1.79 n.s.Error 2351.94 142 144.22Total 45800.34 149 322.54

.,,

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Table 2: Mean table group differences on computer-induced stress.

Variables' Levels N MeanSelf esteem High 62 7l.25

Low 88 85,1

Locus of control Internal 64 80.15External 86 82.66

Computer High 71 60.08Low 79 87,62

The result in Table 1 reveal that there was a significant interactioneffect of self-esteem and computer expertise on computer-inducedstress F (1,142)=14.83, P<OOl. High self-esteem persons who scoredhigh in computer were lower in computer-induced stress than othercategories of respondents (See Table 3). The self-esteem/locus ofcontrol interaction was not significant, F (1, 142) =0.46, P n .a. Thelocus of control/ computer expertise interaction, however wassignificant F (1, 1 42) =6.83, P<.05. Respondents with internalorientation who scored, high in computer expertise were lower in '::computer-induced stress than other groups. The three-way interactioneffect did not indicate a significant effect F (1, 142) =1.79, P n.s.

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Table3: Mean table showing. group difference [mteraction effects)of self-esteem, locus of control and computer expertise on computer-induced stress.

Group N XLSEXLCE 42 ! 70.85LSEXHCE 53 75.66HSEXLCE 24 67.43HSEXHCE 31 60.11LSEXILC 44 66.41LSEXELC 18 67.03HSE XILC 39 69.11HSEXELC 49 70.81ILC XLCE 61 68.19ILC XHCE 30 62.05ELCXLCE 21 69.83ELCXHCE - 38 67.33

NOTE:LSE=low self-esteem HSE=high self-esteemLCE=low computer expertise HCE=high computer expertiseILC=internallocus of control ELC=externallocus of control

These results suggest that computer expertise and self-esteemexert influence on computer-induced stress. More specifically, highexpertise/high self-esteem persons (x=60.11) were lower in computer-induced stress than low expertise/high self-esteem (x=67.4), lowexpertise/low self esteem (x= 73.85) and high expertise/ self-esteem(x=87.66) individuals. In a like manner, internal with high computerexpertise persons (x=62:05) reported lower level of stress thaninternals with low computer expertise (x=68.19), externals with high Icomputer expertise (x=67.33) and external with low computer expertise •(x=69.83) ..

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9080706050

(70.85)(67.43)

(75.66) low self-esteem

(60.11) high self-esteem

ILow High

ExpertiseI

Fig. 1 Interaction of computer expertise and self-esteem on computerinduced stress

DiscussionThe present study examined the influence of self-esteem,

locus of control and computer expertise on computer-induced stress.I

Although, more Nigerian are daily accepting and using computertechnology, there is a dearth· of empirical research examining thepsychosocial impact of computer technology on Nigerians. As a result,most people are oblivious of the fact that computer use can bedeleterious in its effect.

The result of the present study has further lent credence tothe assertion. that there is a need for more awareness creation amongthe populace regarding personality factors and computer use. Forexample, the findings revealed that high self-esteem persons reportedrelatively lower levels of computer-induced stress than their low esteemcounterpart. This is consistent with empirical evidence linking self-esteem to .some goal directed behaviour such as clarity of purpose,ability to cope better under frustration and persistence in goal directedbehaviour (Adebayo, 1990). Also, the result is in congruence with pastresearch findings that have found significant relationship betweenself-esteem and effort to performance outcome (motivation). In otherwords, the present study does not suggest that high self-esteem personsdo not experience computer-induced stress, but they do not readilyperceive a situation as stressful because of their somewhat high levelof mdtivatiori and tolerance (Bandura, 1977). This result furtheremphasized the importance of self-esteem, which relates to theevaluation individuals make of the self and their situation (Judge

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III! P~Jcf/lllllgld

1997). For example, people who consider themselves to be good andcompetent would adjust and cope with computer-induced stress betterthan those who see themselves as being unworthy and incompetent.

As hypothesized, result confirmed that high expertisecomputer users reported less computer-induced stress, a finding thatcorroborates Igbaria and Charkrabarti (1990)'s findings that computer

",._...,."...,:"~...,.,,.e;x:pert,is..~..•.~!::9.experience correlated with positive attitude to compu ter,and that' h Ighei' le,r'ds"O'f'Computer'traiiiing'wa:s "associated -withdoweFF,\~1$<>level of computer induced anxiety.

The finding is also in agreement with that of Rosen et al(1987) that computer training and expertise dramatically reduced bothcomputer phobia and anxiety. This result sugges ts that C'OIllPl.Il\.:/

expertise resulting from education and training is essential. It meansthat knowledge obtained through training could reduce stress relatedto lack of clarity or ambiguity in computer use. Although Kay [I 9BOifound that locus of control was not an effective predictor of commitmentto the use of computers and does not contribute, in one way or theother, to computer stress; finding corroborated by the present study. !

Other researchers have however reported that the degreeof perceived control (locus of control) affects the level of stressexperienced on the computer (Kraut & Dumais, 1990). One would haveexpected that intcrnals would report lower levels of computer-inducedstress relative to external, but the present study showed otherwise.However, locus of control became relevant when interacted withcomputer expertise. More specifically, internals with high level ofcomputer expertise have computer-induced stress while such 'impactwas not noticed among internals with low computer expertise. The:plausible explanation .for. the interaction effect of internal locus ofcontrol with high computer expertise is that the belief that theindividuals know what the task entails and the perception that theyare in control of the situation and outcomes could also be stressful.This result implies that although computer expertise is essential, itsinteraction with internal locus of control may be detrimental.

The findirigs generally indicated that computer-inducedtress results from correspondence between expertise and internalizedstandards. Self-assessment and formal training were found to impacton the stress experienced by users. It is thus important for would-beusers to engage in self-development and computer training programsin order to derive maximum satisfaction from computer use. This isparticularly important in a country like Nigeria where vast majorities

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of the people do not have personal computers, but must go to businesscenters and cyber cafes to use one.

. As user friendly as these computers are, most users Canonly g~t acquainted with necessary aspect of the computer if he orshe has access to one, but because of the economic situation of thecountry, a great number of users patronize the business centers. Inthis situation, they meet with countless hassles and frustrationswithout adequate knowledge. So it is imperative that users get familiarwith the computer as much as they can before using it.

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lIe Psych olog lA

R~f~re.nces

Adariijo, I.Band Oyefeso, A.O. (1986). Development self report scale ofs:elf-esteem. Paper pr e s en ted at the 3rd AnnualConference of Nigeria Psychological Association. Nzukka

. Nigeria. '. . IAjayi, A., Olatokun, W.M., and Tiamiyu, M.A. (2001). Computer anxiety

Phobia,' Obsession and work stress at the University ofIbadan: Part 2 -Evaluation of a model.

Azad, A., Erdem, A., and Saleem. N. (1999). A framework for realizingthe potential of information technology in developingcountries. International Journal of commerce andmanagement, 6(2), 121-133. .

Balance, C.l., and Balance, W.W. (1990). Psychology of computer use.Psychological Report, 78.

Bozionelo, N. (1996). Psychology of computer use xxxiv, prevalence fcomputer anxiety in British Managers and Professionals.Psychological Report, 78, 995-1002.

Craig, A. R., Franklin, J. A., and Andrews, G. G. (1984). Locus of controlbehaviour. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 57, 180-183.

Craig, J. S. (1994). Managing computer-related anxiety and stresswithin organization. Journal of Education Technologysystem, 22(4), 309-325.

Delveccio, J. (1995). Phobia affects all Ages. Sydney: morning Gerald.Fredin, E.S., and David, P. (1998). Browsing and hypermedia interaction

cycle: A model of self-efficacy and goal dynamic.Journalism and mass communication quarterly, 75, (1),35-54

Hatlie, J, and Fitzgerald, D. (1983). Sex differences in attitudes, andachievement and use of computer, Australian Journal ofEducation ...

Igbaria, M. and Chakrabarti, A. (1990). Computer anxiety and attitudes. toward microcom pu ters use. Behaviour and Information

Technology, 1Y. 229-241.Igbaria, M. and Parasuraman, S. (1991). Attitudes toward

microcomputers: development and construct validationof a measure. International journal of Man-machinestudies, 35, 553-573.

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