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£...H A ? T E R - Il
H~YlEW OJ? HE.Lli.VANT LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Dependent variable: Studies on Teacher Effectiveness
2 .3 Independent variables:
2.31 studies on SchOol Ol"g&nizational climate
2.32 Studies on Teaching Competency
2.4 Resume
43
CHAP'l'ER-Il
d!Y!EW OF RELEVANT LITgHATURh
2.1 ~ntroduction:
A brief' account o! rele·vant studies conducted
by other investigators, and a scientific analysis
there of, are necessary, for the investigator to
plan, proceed and operate the research under study,
systematically. Keeping this in view, the investi
gator tried to review the available relevant literature
on the dependent and independent variables. Such an
approach bridges the gulf between the existing
literature and makes a systematic and regular advance
ment in tlle body of the knowledge of the subject.
First and second surveys ot research in
education in India, upto 1978, Indian educational
reviews, upto 1985 (edited) by NCERT, Journal or
psychological researches upto 1985 published by
!V"adras psychological society, British journals of
educational psychology, American journals of psychology
and American psychol,,gical abstracts were the primary
source, for the relevant literature. The relevant
literature which sets the direction and magnitude
tv this research is based upon past twenty years
reseercr, recorded in the .t: ield under study,
The resume of available literature has been
put under the following heads, !or clarity in
presentation -
( 1) gtud1 es on teacher effectiveneas
(2) ~tudies on school organizational climate
(3) studies on teaching competency.
2.2 !fepen<lent variable:
§.!:!:ldhs on Teacher Hfec;.t;,ivenes§.:
44
ner (1948), Domu and Tide~~~an (1950), Walter
(1954), Morsh and lvilder (1954), Casletter et al.(1954)
have presented a munber of reviews, on different
factors involving teacher effectiveness. Rabinowitz
nne 1'rawers (1953), Mitul and Gross (1956), Rammer
( 1952, pp 1-30, 1949 pp 90--99, 1957) have sumn11arized
the cher£•cteristics of teacher eft'ectiveness involving
primarily either (a) teacher behaviour in process or
(b) product o£ teacher behaviour or (e) concomitants
of teacher behaviour.
The, process dimension of teacher effectiveness
takes into cor~sideration observation and assessment of
teacher behaviour. Various assessment tecnniques have
been developed, among which the more reliable appear
to be (a) graphic scales with operationally defined
poles and for units {f.iorsh and Wilder, 1954; rt.yans,
1954, 1960) (b) observation check lists (l•orsh, 1956)
and forced choice scales (Goodenough, 1957), ctyans
{1960) presents the ease for systematic observation,
and assessment and describes operational procedures.
Chaster w. Harris (1960, p. 1487) claims that only
time sampling involving replicated systematic obaer
vation by trained observers produces autr!ciently
reliable data.
Product measurements tl"loush widely acclaimed
as de6irable criterion data, measured either by
(a) the direct observation and assessment ot student
behaviour during tUtposure to 1:tte teacher • or (b) measure
ment of student cnan1e from before to after exposure to
the teacher producer have been relatively less frequently
used in the study of teacher e!fectiveness (Chaster w. Harris, 1969, p. 1487), l"'itzel and Groas (1956) hue
dealt c:ritic<:"lly with the development and use ot the
student change criterion of teacher effectiveness.
Measures of teacher effectiveness either
(a) concomi ta.nts such as inventory responses, biogra
phical data, and the like or (b) concom1 tants such as
professional education courses, photographed appearance
and test and inventory scores reflecting presumably
'desirable' knowledge and personal traits frequently
have been employed (Chaster w. Harris, 1960, p. 1483).
The application of process and product measures
of teacher effectiveness have been rather evaluated as
more dependent tools in comparison to the concomitant
criterion (..::haster ll. Harris, 1950, p. 1488). These
effectiveness dimensions o:f the present study have
been elaborately pre,:;ented in Chapter l, under 'Conceptual
frame work'.
Q!Ltainin&.~jJ~~s of Pr~ietors:
Hundreds of predictors of teacher effectiveness
have been proposed often with the apparent considerations
of rationale (1} Scores on tests ot verbal and other
eognitlve abilities (ii} Scores on tests o! knowledge
ancl understanding of general anc special subject matter
(Hi) Sccl"es on the tests o! professional infor:r.ation
{lv) Course marl~s or ratings representing performance
in stvdent teaching (v) amount o! genera.l and professional
education (vi) Scores derived. from inventories, projective
devices, etc. (vii) scores on attitude scales and invanto
ries as developed to measure teacher-student relationships,
and (viii) some biographical data have been used as
;redlctors of teacher effectiveness (Chaster lN. Harris,
1960 p. 1488). The predictability of teacher effect
iveness is undoubtedly affected by the arultidimension
ality of th£> criterion. Prediction can be accomplished
with better than chance results for specified dimensions
or components of the criterion. On the other iland, the
47
yrediction ot over all teacher effectiveness is possible
only tu t<le extent tnat some general agreeu1ent can be
reached reg~;rding the dimensions comprising over all
e!ff.·ctiveness; anrJ how they si,ould be combined to form
a composite (Crl:.tster w. Harris, 196o, p. 1490).
In view of the pr&ctical difficulties, prediction
of teacher effectiveness must be considered largely in
the real sense of the word; individllal prediction; as
generally is ·t;he case in attempting to predict human
behaviour is much more limi tl'ld and is accomplished with
a lesser degree of confidence (Chaster 'VI. Harris, 19~0,
p. 1490).
A summary of probable correlates of teacher
effectiveness, has been presented by Chaster w. Harris
(1960, p. 1490); however, some of the recent significant
contributions of the contemporary investigators which
set direction for research opera.tio.n, are presented by
Cbhaya (1974), Grewal (1976), .Sinhc,; (1976), Gupta {1976)
and others.
CLhaya (19/4) sti.Adiro certain psychological
ch<:.racteristics of an ei'fective school teacher by using
::..;axena' s personal! t}' adjustment inventory, the Indian
adaptation of f;:audsley personality inventory by Jalota
and Kapper, and found that: (i) effective teachers had
significantly better personality Adjustment and more
48
favourable attitudes towards teaching thBn ineffective
teachers; (11) effective teachers did not show signifi
cantly mor<: interest in teaching than ineffective
teachers; (iii) effective teachers were aignific<mtly
more emotionally stable than ineffective teachers;
(iv) effective teachers were not more extrovert than
ineffective teachers; (v) ineffective tea:ct:ers were
more authoritarian than ei'.Li!!ctive teachers; (vi) age
and sex of a teacher had a significant relationship
with the effectiveness of teaching; (vii) rurality or
urbll.ni ty and marital status of a teacher had no
significant relationship with tlle effectiveness of
teaching.
Grewal ( 1976) studied tlle intellectual and
personality correlates of teacher .:tffectiveness at the
nigher secondary school stage by using Bell's adjust
ment inventory, t11e 'lernnreuter 's personality inventory;
the rieven's standard matrices, and Jalota and Tandon
group~ test of mental ability and attitude scale,
interest inventory and rating scales developed by
t.imself. The• ebb findings of the study were: (i) the
four criterior1 measures of the teacher e!Jectiveness
were not orthogonal to each other an.! the obsE>rved !\
was very high; (11) the measures on intelligence and
personality traits clustered in specific constellations
with the criterion 11;easures of teach€r effectiveness;
49
(111) the hypothesis that similar types of measures
.f:,ll on one common !actor wea oon!irmedr (1v) the
hypothesis that the predictors correlate significantly
with th12 criterion measures ot teacher e.tfectiveneaa
was confirmed partly in a trivariate analysisr (v) main
predictors ot teacher e!feotiveneaa were home, health,
social emotional and tota.l adjustments, do11linance
sul:Mission, and verbal and non-verbal intelligence.
Unha (1976) studied some personality variables ~
as relat~d to teacher effectiveness, by using thematic
appreception test and rat:tng,s scale end :found that the
needs ot superior, average and interior teachers were
clearly distinct from each other. It was pointed out
that: (i) the superior teachers were distinct from other
two in their needs, viz. cognition, dominance, autonomy
and construction; (ii) the inferior teachers were
distinguishable from other two by their need of acqui
sition; (iii) the inferior teachers were distinguished
from the average as well as the effective teachers in
not possessing the need or exhibition which was most
prominent in the average teact.ers; other most prominent
needs of the average teachers were exposition and play;
(iv) prominent needs of interior teachers were succcur
ance, defence, and play; (v) the most prominent needs
o! superior teechers were nurturance, achievement,
counter-action and aggression; (vi) the organization
pattern of superior teachers was generally logical
and that of inferior teachers was emotional; (vii) the
inter-personal relations aa rf:gards 1 social behaviour
and adjustment were of very high degree in superior
teact.et'S, but they were very low in inferior teachers;
( viiij the inferior teachers lacked self-confidence
in t~aching and solving problema; the average teachers
had aelf-conf.idefiCe anc::J. adJustment problems; (ix) the
superior teachers had more strensth of imagination
while inferior teachers were weak in their imagination;
(x) the average teachers were more entangled in family
problems and were sensitive to them, but inferior
teachers were less sensitive to such problems; the
superior teachers were leas :~~end ti V(; to such problems
or were able to eolve them quickly; (xi) the superior
teachers used more literary language than average and
inferior teachers.
Gupta ( 1975) studied prediction of teachers •
effectiveness through personality test by administering
J ai Prall:as!J' s teachtng aptitude test and Hindi adaptation
of Cattell 16 P.f'. questionnaire by Kapoor. The findings
of the study were: (i) The high effective teac.l:ers
did."ered significantly from the general population with
respect to nine personality factors out of sixteen.
They were more affecto-thymic (A+) 1 more intelligent
(b+), having more ego-strength ( ::+ J 1 more sur.;ent (r +)
51
more self-sentiment (C3+), less suspicious (L-), less
guilt prone (0-), and leas radical ((;.!\-); (11) the low
ef!ective teachers were less intelligent (B-) and were
having lower sel!-concttpt control cc,> as compared to
general adult population; (iii) in comparison to
average e!l'ective teachers, hi&h effective teachers
were signit'icantly more intelligent (B+}, emotionally
stable ( C+), asst-rt1ve (!';+), conscientious (C+),
adventurous (H+), tenderminded (1+) and had higher self
concept control (c.3
+) and they were also less-suspicious
(L-), less experimenting and rad.ical (0-), less sel!
suf.ficient (o2-) and leu t&nse and frustrated (G4-},
(iv) irl comparison to low etreotive teachers, they were
more outgoing {A-r), surgent and happy-go lucky (F+),
controlled anct socially precise (Q,•) end less-imaginative
and more practical (M-).
ln the studies reviewed above, therE' seems to
be a heavy concentration on presage-process studies.
However, only one study was found available which deals
with establishing presage-process-product relationship,
that of Sharma (1971). lt aimed at studying the
relationship between characteristics possessed by teachers
and teachers' effectiveness, with a view to predicting
teachers • success. The product criterion happened to
be the pass percent;,ge of the students taught by the
teachers, the study used ii'l AC::> to observe the class room
IIIIWII II I IIIII 1m illllllm lliiiW T 7790
interaction. It was found that the teacher-talk
seemed to have negative correlation with scores on
the Pandey's teaching aptitude teat and academic
grades. The combination of five predictors, namely
teaching aptitude, academic grades, socio-economic
status, teaching experience, and age, in order of
t!1eir arrangement appeared to be sound predictors of
teact1er e!.t'ecti veness.
2.3 !ESependent V~iables;
2.31 Studies sm School orsani2ational CUmatrp
Forehand and Gilmer (1964) perceive« organi
zational climate as a set of characteristics that
descl'ibe an organization. These characteristics
distinguish one organization from another and ;u•e
relatively enduring over a period of time. They
influence the behaviour of pi.':Ople in organi:zation.
Halpin and Croft (1964) have deVI?loped Crganizational
Climate Description Cuestionnaire (OCDQ) with a view
52
to identity organizational climate. Benjamin Schneider
and Robert A. Snyder (1975) have perceived organi:z.a
t1onal climate as a summary perception which people
c~.rry about an org<:niz.ation, and 1 ts global impression
Barber, 'liilliam L. (191'3) studied Prinoipa.!.s 1 attitude
tow.:rds student rights and student attitudes towards
school morale, and their relation to organizational
climate.
In India the movement of identification of
organizational climate caae at the beginning of the
seventies, and it used the ideology, techniques and
testa developed in the west. The new path carver in
this field o! administrative reaearcn was Sharma
( 1969, 1974) •
Pillai (1974) studied Organhational Climate,
teacher rnorale and school quality, by using (i) the
organizational climate description questionnaire of
Halpin and Croft; (ii) the Bentley and Rampell'a
purdue teacher opinionnaire, (1ii)-selt developed
inventory scale to assess the innovative ability of
the school, and (iv) a self developed questionnaire
53
tor demographic data and pupil perf'orance data. The
major findings of the study reveal that: (1) perfor
mance of pupils was signi!icsntly better in open and
autonomous climate schools than in other climate types,
(ii) performance of pupils in high morale schools was
superior to t,_at oi the average morale schools which in
turn was better than the low morale schools, (iii) both
climate and morale ware positively and highly related
to both the criteria namely, pupil performance and
innovative ability of the schools (111) e$pirit, thurst,
disen,;agement and hindrance were found 1~luenc1ng the
level of performance of pupils in schools, (iv) the
innovative ability o! the school was significantly
54
related to the three sub-teats namely eapirit, thrust
and disengagement; and (v) there was a high correlation
between climate and 1110rale.
Patel (1974) worked on the study o! leadership
for improving instructions in high schools of selected
districts in Gujarat by using (i) organizational climate
description questi.onnaire by Halpin and Crotts and
( 11) selt developed rating scales. The maJor findings
were that: {1) leadership, organizational climate,
teacher morale, supervisory practices, and innovation
and change were significantly rela,ed to the progressive
characteristics of l:igh schools; (ii) inatructional
leadership in high schools 'Was highly correlated with •
organiza.tronal climate; (iii) leadership and organi-
zational climate of the schools ini'luenoed the morale
o! their teachers; and ( 1 v) waere the leadership,
organizational climate, and teacher morale were ot high
quality, the supervisory practices !or the improvement
of instruction were found to be effective and the
teacr:ers were more innovative.
Shelat (1975) studied the organizational climate,
teacher morale and pupil motivation towards institutions
in secondary schocls of Baroda district, using the
Gujarati versions o! (i) organizational climate descri
ption questionnaire by Halpin and Crofts (OCDG:);
(11) the le~dership behaviour description questionnaire
55
by Halpin and Winner; (iii) the school survey by
l{obert Coughalan; (iv) the junior index of motivation
by Jack ~'rymier. 'fhe results revealed that (i) the
organizational climate in rural schools was autonomous
and paternal, whereas in urban schools, closed and
open types were predominent; (ii) greater percentage
of small size schools had open and autonomous climate
;u1 ageinst greater percent,,ge ot large size schools
having controlled and familiar climate (iv) schools
having closed climate had lower morale ·~hereas schools
with open climate of teachers had higher 1norale ot
teachers (v) open and autonomous climate contributed
to boys 1 academic achievement, whereas controlled and
!&mil1ar climate contributed to girls • acadei!!io achieve
ment, and paternal climate contributed to the academic
achievement of both boys and girls; (vi) no relationship
existed bE" tween the age of the teachers and school
climate; and (vii} leadership behaviour did not
influence pu;:>ils academic achievement.
Pandya (1975) studied effectiveness of super
vision as a function of organis111ic variables and
proressional equipment o£ high school supervisors,
using (1) organizational climate description question
naire {OGD<.) by llalpin and Crofts, (11) the leadership
be~1aviour description questionnaire> by Halpin and
kiner and (iii) self developed rating scales and found
56
that advanced dist~ct schools stood high in the open
ness of organizational climate than the backward
district schools.
Franklin (1975) studied organizational climate
and teacher morale in colleges of education in Gu;jarat,
with the help o! three instruments, namely: (i) organi
zational climate description questionnaire (OCIJQ) by
Halpin and Crofts, (11) leadership behaviour desc:rlption
questionnaire by Halpin and Winer (iii) purdue teaeher
opinionndre by Henley and (tv) sel.t'•devieed quel!ltion
nairt, as • e-i-'fectiveness o£ teacher education•. findings
reveal that the openness o.f clillllil.te in contrast to
closednesa of the climate did not lead to 'high} or
'low• effectiveness of the teacher-effectiveness.
However, the dimension 'espirit' indicated a significant
effect on the low side.
Dorji (1975) studied leadership behaviour and
its correlates in the secondary schools of Panchmahals
district, using (1) OCDG (Ealpin and Croft) • (ii) Ll.lD<,:
{Halpin and 'il'iner), (iii) teacher morale (Robert
Coughlan) J he concluded that the leadership behaviour
dime~sions and patterns were critical indicators or organizational clim<ite, staff morale, acaded:c motiva
tion, school innovativeness and status •
.Samrong fengnu ( 19'16) studied organizational
climate and teacher morale in seconcary schools in
57
central zone of l'hailand, by using self developed tools
on organizational climate, teacher morale and le<•der
ship behaviour. The results revealed that (i) majority
ot schools (55%) belonged to the intermediate cl:t.mate
type in the central zone o.r Thailand, and the leut
{ 15'1t>) belonged to the closed climate type; and open
climtc,te scl"lO>O.l!l c~msti tuted 3cJ" of the total number
of scl1ools. .All tbe thrt>e categories oJ.' c.lim<1te
l>'er·e distributed over four regions. Further, open
climate schooh were highest in the West reiJiion and
lowest in tlle east region; in open climate category
33.33i\l wef'e boys' schools, 11.11)1; were girls' sehools,
while 55.56% were mixed schools. The open olimate
schools !lave displayed higher mean s$ores on the
dimensions ot e-spirit (69.50), intimacy (56.50),
thurst (56.17) end communication (':>5.44). He .t'urther
pointed out that 36.6% had high teacher morale, 33.3~
had average teacher ~orale, and 30.1~ schools had low
teact;er morale.
Gandhi (1977) studied school climate, as a
function of personal! ty o£ school personnel and pupil
control ideology, using (1) organizational climate
description questionnaire (OCDC-Baroda version),
(11) tr•e 16 P:· questionnaire by Cattell (1956),
(iii) the dog1~atism seale by Rokeach ( 1960) and
(iv) the pupil control ide;logy from PCli-Baroda
58
version), The major findings wert>1 (i) 3691\ of schools
belonged to closed type, 35% to intermediate type and
t!~ to open clilnate type in Gujarat state, (11) small
sized schools tended to be of open climate type,
(iii) t:,e category of schools did not bear any relation
ship with the organizational climate, (iv) age had
significant relationship with teacher perception of
climtite but not sex, ( v) experience had s1t,niticant
relationship witll teacher perceptiorl of climate; whereas
quali.t'ication and !our SES categories did not, (vi) aigni
ticant differences wert> found to exist among open,
interm.ediate, and closed climate schools on nine out
o! the sixteen personality factors. {vli) teachers
serving in relatively open schools were significliU'ltly
more human is tic in the control ideology of their pupils
than their counter p<.~rts; and they viewed tbe dimension
o! climate in the ,,ame way; (viii) female teachers,
young teacl•tH's, liU'ld less experienced teachers were
found to be more humanistic than their counterparts in
t~1e control id.eology o! their pupils, whereas qualifi
cation was unrelated witi1 tbe same, (ix) belief system
of teachers in ope:1 and closed climate schools ar diii'ered signi!lcantly.
Tripathi ( 1978) studied orl',>mizational climate
and teact.er attitudes using ( i) OCDL by Halpin and
Crofts and { 11) ;.hluwalia teacher a ttl tude inventory
( 1'1\l) , .lome t> !'" the main 1'1nd1ngs were: ( i) under
rural-urban di c::botomy o! intelllgcmce, the difference
was hJghly sigdficant only on autonomous climate;
(11) the difference on open climate wes significant
under ~~overntnent-private dichotomy; {iii) whereas the
main differences between teachers of :rural and urban
colleges, governmen·t and private collef,ea and girls and
boys colleges, were not significant on professional
attitudes, (iv) there existed a moderate eil!f!i.ficsnt
positive relationship between 'thrust' and 'attitude'
tow&rd child-centred practices whereas (v) 'disengage
ment• showed sif,nif!cant negathte relationship with
attitude towards classroom t~aohing and te~aehers.
Chopra (1902) studied oro:.nizationa,l climate
in relation to teachers' job :iw t1s1'aetion and students •
achiever~ent using (i) school ors;anizational climate
description questionnaire {h.L. ShaM'!~&), (ii) teacner
job satis:t.'action inventory (!<l.N. Wall), (iii) Raven's
:o.tandard progressive matrices, (iv) socio-economic
st~otus questionmlire (Jalota et al.} and (v) self
devPloped student achievement proforma. The main
fir.dings were: (i} Among tte six climates, the open
climate schools show the highest overall teacher job
s<:.tisfaction, which <'re followed by autonomous, controlled,
closed and paternal climate schools, respectively;
(11) over all job satisfaction of teachers in open
cl1mute 1.1chools w.;s r.ign1f1cantly dH':'erent !rom closed
and peternal climate schools at .05 level; (iii) the
schools having other t:'ive types ot:' climates dld not
show any significant difference among themselves in
respect or overall jcb satisfaction of the teschers;
(1v) students' ~Chievement did not observe any signi
ficant d!t'ft>rence under different types or organiza
tional climates. F1.1rther ( v) no significant relation
ship was found between teacher•' job satisfaction and
student achievement.
2 .32 Studies on Teachine Comuetmuw:
tf:i tra { 1972) has r1 gh tly said '' 'l'he aims, process
and evolution of education are primarily associated witt>
teaching and reasonably therefore, the vi tal problem in
education cannot be solved unless we look into the
problems arid process of teaching.
Domas and Tideman (1950) and Ackerman (1954)
conducted their studies in teachers competence, whereas
Evan (1951) studied the teaching ability. Goldman,
;··orton, Reek Jonathan and O'Leary, Charles ('1960)
conducted a study on hostility reduction and per:f'or
mc.nce in teaching. Wasselllan, Selma and .l:.g~ert, "elly
( 19'78) conducted a study on the profiles of teaching
competen-cy, w!Jich was a way of looking at a class-room
teaching perfor~ance.
Nair ( 19"/4) studied the impact of certeln
!lociological f~>ctore on teaching ability in the class
room, by us1ng eel! adminiatf'red (i) evaluation sheet
61
by head ~~sters and (ii) pupils rating scale by pupils
in terms of their teachers concerned. The main findings
revealed that (1) teachers' parental socio-economic
conditions had a negative influence on teacdng ability;
( 11) the private schools' teachers in gt!rteral were
found to have better teaching ability than government
school teachers; (iii) sex was not found to be at'fecting
tea.ching ability; ( i v) the locality of the schools had
no significant intlu~mce on teaching ability. (v) a
positive rE'lationship existt'd between age and teaching
ability; and (vi) caste and religion were not found to
b& af.'ecting teaching ability,
ii&sih ( 19'16) studied some teacher variables
and tesct,irw mE>thods associe ted with learning outcomes
in biology, using (1) non-verbal test of intelligence.
(ii) r;elson biology trost, (iii) Edwards personal
performance scl'ledule, and (iv) self developed teacher
inventory. She concluded that (1) objectives were
most effectively attained when teaching was plan!:led
for specific purpose. Relationship of pl&nned teaching
to the realization ot objectives was evident in case of
first two objectives, (11) successful teachin6 methods
and patterns of student activity were related to student
62
learning out comes; (iii) teachers with higher means
on .se-versl learning ou tee-mea emphasized mP.thoda which
were pupil centres~ ut!lizE•d t1 e laboratory, unci
project end laboratory combination methods for solving
new problelllS. They also planned to accomplish specific
t ad1na (1976) aimed at studying teaching pa~tterns
and pupils attainment us;i:ng ( 1) Shetb 1 s non-verbal group
test of intelligence. and (!i) sel!-~eveloped teat !or
measuring pre-achievement in science. She demonstrated
that: (1) 'l'l:le :four teaching patterns (?1 , P2 , P3 & P4)
were having equal ef!ects on th€ development o! appli
c~'ltional ;obili ty when llllH;sured under surprie<' testing
conditions, (11) the four teaching patte.MlS U•1, P2 ,
<'3
& P4) wex·~ h;win& equal e!fects on the development
of li\pplic<>tionel ability when measured under planned
teactlir.g condi t.ion, (iii) in tile .first experlment which
inv()lved the Gracio-Latin .:>quare Design, it wa.s .found
tr.at the four teaching patterns had dif.ferential effects
OH ti:,e retention of ap;;licational ability. On !urt.her
an lysi::>, it wE,s found tr.at tbe mean tor pattern P3
... as significantly smaller tttan thE means of Pattern P2 •
,:·uttern i? 4 und .· attern P 1
• Thf.re ~.as rLJ evidence of
significant variability >~itbin the set patterns P2 , P4
and ? 1
•
G3
Hoka ( 1976) conceptualized to cor.duct e compa
rative study of verbal teaching behaviour patterns ro.nd
students' achievement in terms o! ina truotional object
ives by using (i) observational category system (OC5)
by employing & modified version of flAC.S, (11) self
develope·d previous knowledge test and. (111) self deve
lopt<d achieveu.c,nt test in general science. l t wa111
point' d out that ( 1) the limited training as was
impa.rte1i to E1 did not result in signi!ic.ant difference
when a numbei' of verbal teaching behaviours were to be
changed, (11) signi.t'icant differences were not obl!lerved
in favour of additional training as was 81ven to !:2 •
with respect to a siting cognitive memory and convergent
questions, giv.i.ng direction and co111111and, end student
initiation. However, (111) comparison between E1 and
~ groups o£ teachers indicated signH'icant difference
at 0,05 level in favour of additional training in such
interactive behaviours as asking divergent questioni.ng,
lecturing and student response. (iv) occurrence ot
such teaching ber.aviour as accepting st~dents 1 .feelings,
and criticising and justifying authority were generally
nre in all the three groups of teachers; (v) the study
gave an indication that a~King significantly more o!
divergent and evaluative questions did not result in
significant dL't'erence in n:ean achievement at knowledge
level but resulted in significant difference at 0.05
level in mean achievement 11t understanding and appli
cation level.
64
Lalitharnma (19'17) conducted a study and identi
fied three major skills. They were (A) skills of
,elanninc; wch as, skill of ide>nti!ying learner's entry
bebaviour, skill o! wri Ung instructional objectives,
£>tc. (B) skils of instrt"ctlon, namely, questionn1ng
underste.ndlnf', E>valua tion, participation, 111ttent.1on
and classroom managuent. (G) skills o.r !(e!t1n~:; ~uch
as skHls of writing a variety or test items, making
?lausible interpretations ;tbout the peri'orl!<atnce o£
~upils on the teet, etc. Th~ st~dy revealed that the
exp~::r·imental group I {whlch was given training in t!le
skill of increasing pupil participation using t.he
instructional materia-ls through micre-teaching approach)
and the controlled group II I (which received crmven
tional approach to st dent teoching) dif.f'ered sig.n.i
!icantly ;n !nvour or the former group in the develop..
ment of skills. Fxperiment:"l group ll (which was given
trdning in tt;e skills of t:xplaining, using bh,ck board
and writing instructional objectives, in the same way
as group I, but one skill pre;cented after another) was
si;;;nifica.ntly better than the controlled group.
{oy ( 1'J77) studied tLe classroom questioning
anrl pupil achievement, The study revealed that the
tl",ree tl"act:in<; styles (lee turin!~• questioning and
response wi tl.out teed-back, <:nd questior.l.ng-response
feedback-sN~UE:ncr) had equa 1 effl cts on the develoP
ment of knowlc'dr,e and application abilities and total
aci:";ievement of pupils. However w1 th regard to oompre
hensiort abllity, there were dlfferent effects.
G5
Lecturlnc~ di!'fered significantly from question-response
feE'dback sequence, Question-response w1 thout feedback
and ouest.ion-response wl th feedback did not differ
signH icantly.
Cbakruborty (1978) made an inquiry into the
strate~ies of clussrooru teaching. For this purpo111e,
t•e divided the students o! each school into three
groups and these groups were m;Jl.tched on the bash ot
tr,e ir intelligence and pre-r.•cnievement in geography.
The three groups o:t' each school were taught through
different s trategiea viz. question-1mswering by using
be!,avioural objectives, end discussion by using instru
ction&l rna terials. The acllieveml!'nt was measured on the
criterion tests developed bj' the investigator. Some o£
the main findint;s were: (i) lecturing end question
answering by using behavioural objE·ctives was found to
be more ef feet~ ve than lecturing and question-answering
for knowledge, comprehension, application and total
acbievement at post test level, and for knowledge,
application and totel achievement &t retention level,
( ii) lecturing an:: qu<-stion-an:"wering w.i th be:•avioural
objective than discussion by using instructional
materials for knowledge, comprehension, application
6£
and total achievement at post teat level and for appli
cation at retention level, {iii} discussion by using
instructional materials had shown more effectiveness,
~1an lecturing and question-answering for application
at the post-test level ami for knowledge col!lprehension,
application and total achievement at retention level;
(iv) lecturing and quution-answel'ing with behavioural
objectives and discussion by using instructional
materials werE found lliore e.fi'ective than lecturing and.
ques t.ioning-answtwing positively and conolusi vely.
2.4 ~ R~sume of RevieW§%
The relevant literature available on teacher
effectiveness, school organizational climate and teaching
competency reviewed was observed to be lllainly descriptive
and rather slow upto sixties. It has gained momentum
since 1962, attaining_ sharper increase after 1972.
Moreover, earlier studies were isolated i.e. non
relational. During seventies, a shift was noticed in
the trend Which was characterized by exoerimental and
correlational studies.
T Thereafter appeared numerous studies on teacher
ef!ecti veness and teachint; COlli;Jetency. Studies in both
these c;,n-as are based on teacher behaviours and teacher
skills. They have been inter-changeably used aa
dependent as well as ind•pendent variable. These . ·-· - ----. '
studies are bahed either on presage or process or
presage-process variables. Some studies are also
67
based on process-product, presage-process-product
variable. Thus some relational studies are available
on teacher efiectiveness and teaching competency.
Gut as teacher effectiveness is a wider term in
comparison to teaching competency, the later being
the process criteria of the former. It means 'competency
in teaching in class room situations'. Very insignifi
cant work is done as such on •competency in teaching'.
Though work is done on specified areas; such as various
teaching methods, teaching strategies, various teaching
skills, language teechi.ng, science teaching, ete •• as
well as micro-teaching and 1'eedbacil: pro~rrammes, general
teaching competency has been relatively less attended
to, whereas majority o! sc.ilools in India follow general
teaching patterns only.
Studies on school organizational climate reveal
that most of them deal with identification of climates
of schools. However, relational work is done on school
organizational climate and teacher morale, teacher
attitude, teacher adjustment, teacher job-satisfaction,
leader behaviour of tr'e principal, etc. Keeping in view
the effects o! these Bhorteomings in the development of
68
educational researches on teacher ef!ectiveneaa,
school organizational climate, and teaching competency,
they have been pin-pointedly put aa underz
1. That, though numerous studies have been conducted
on teacher effectiveness, they are either
descriptive and clustured around teachers'
personality traits, or predictors of teacher
e!.fectiveness.
2. That, though much work has been conducted on
teaching methods, teaching sldllr3, mieroteaching
i>eeehing etc., very insignificant work is avail
able on genera:l teaching competency.
3. 'I'hat, perhaps, in the present day scientifically
analytical ai tuation, where every study requires
deep specialization and intensive pin-pointedness,
teaching competency has got a wider relevance
in the evaluation oJ: teaching-potential! ties that
the teacher possesses and. the amount of teaching
potentiality that he translates into action
potentio.lity through actual teaching performance.
4. That, though much work is done on school organi
zational climate, ~ut very insignificant, scattered
and scanty work is available on organizational
climate afl'ecting teacher effectiveness. From
the points of view of the gaps existing in
6B
current literature, and the direction of research
indicated by the recent dev~lopment in educa
tional researches, analytical and relational
study ot school organizational climate specially
its impacts on teacher effectiveness is a much
needed topic for study in which the future
potential development of the society as well
as of the nation depends.
Keeping in view, these short-comings that
existed in the relevant lit~rature on teacher effective
ness, school organizational climate and teaching
comp~'tency, it is evident that a great scope exists for
some kind of correlational and differential studies on
the above three variables particularly in the eduQational
managements located in a developing region of Chhattiagarh
which is rela t.i vely being indus triali:l:ed every day. In
fact, work on climatic et'.t"ects of schools and general
teachin~ competency and their impacts on ef!ectiveness,
constitute very si~~ificant problems ot great educational
significance. It bridges the gap between the scattered
and isolated available literE;ture thereby setting a
direction tor educational research. 2rom this point
of view, the present st~dy is undoubtedly a significant
addition in the exhtinr: literature on teacher effective
ness and school organizational climate and teaching
competency, which could be considered to be a research
with wider scope and application, as well as of greater
social relevance and wider educotional application.