Hunter-GatherersHunter-Gatherers

Economic StrategiesEconomic Strategies

Social StructureSocial Structure

Case Studies: Aka & Okiek Case Studies: Aka & Okiek

Hunter-GatherersHunter-Gatherers

EconomicEconomic• no direct growing of domestic plants no direct growing of domestic plants • No herding of domestic animals No herding of domestic animals

(except dogs)(except dogs) SocialSocial

• bands, small groups (20-25)bands, small groups (20-25)• EgalitarianEgalitarian

Equal access to all things necessary.Equal access to all things necessary.

Common Beliefs/MisconceptionsCommon Beliefs/Misconceptions

Comparative, evolutionary and Comparative, evolutionary and materialist explanations.materialist explanations.

• Studied because represent Studied because represent antique/extinct stage of human antique/extinct stage of human culture.culture.

Yardstick of human kindYardstick of human kind• Society at its most basic level.Society at its most basic level.• ““Noble Savage”Noble Savage”

Contribution to Studying World CulturesContribution to Studying World Cultures

Direct encounters with primitive Direct encounters with primitive people spawned field of people spawned field of Anthropology.Anthropology.

““Arm-chair” anthropology-people Arm-chair” anthropology-people would interpret what explorers would interpret what explorers described about the “primitive” described about the “primitive” people they encountered.people they encountered.

Highly VariableHighly Variable

Subsistence Subsistence • Hunting (Inuit) important in some, Hunting (Inuit) important in some, • Gathering in others (!Kung).Gathering in others (!Kung).

OrganizationOrganization• Patrilineal, Matrilineal, CompositePatrilineal, Matrilineal, Composite

Patrilineal-exogamous, 50-100, patrilocal, Patrilineal-exogamous, 50-100, patrilocal, patrilineal descent and land inheritance.patrilineal descent and land inheritance.

Matrilineal-exogamous, 50-100, matrilocal, Matrilineal-exogamous, 50-100, matrilocal, matrilineal descent and land inheritance.matrilineal descent and land inheritance.

Composite-several individual families, Composite-several individual families, endogamous, bilateral descent, no rules of endogamous, bilateral descent, no rules of residence (Algonkian and Athapaskan)residence (Algonkian and Athapaskan)

Generalized Foraging ModelGeneralized Foraging Model

Egalitarianism-mobility constrains Egalitarianism-mobility constrains property, maintains equality.property, maintains equality.

Low Pop Density-food supply keeps pop Low Pop Density-food supply keeps pop low, but also social controls such as low, but also social controls such as abstinence, abortion, and infanticide.abstinence, abortion, and infanticide.

Lack of Territoriality-resource availability, Lack of Territoriality-resource availability, mobilitymobility

Minimum of Food Storage-movement and Minimum of Food Storage-movement and visiting.visiting.

Flexible Band composition (H-G=Band). Flexible Band composition (H-G=Band).

"Original Affluent Society""Original Affluent Society"

Sahlins-hunter-gatherers spent little Sahlins-hunter-gatherers spent little time working, had all the food they time working, had all the food they needed. needed.

Leisure hours spent sleeping and Leisure hours spent sleeping and socializing.socializing.

Supported by Lee’s work with the !Supported by Lee’s work with the !KungKung

• 20-30 hours per week “working”20-30 hours per week “working”

Interdependent ModelInterdependent Model

All H-G affected by “outside” influences.All H-G affected by “outside” influences.• contact, disease, shot, traded with, etc. contact, disease, shot, traded with, etc.

“The gods must be crazy”“The gods must be crazy” H-g today rarely obtain all food from H-g today rarely obtain all food from

foraging.foraging.• Pushed to edge environments.Pushed to edge environments.• ““Professional Primitives” ModelProfessional Primitives” Model

H-G interactions with non-h-gs.H-G interactions with non-h-gs.• Some remain h-gs because it is their most Some remain h-gs because it is their most

viable option given restricted circumstances.viable option given restricted circumstances.

PygmyPygmyHunter-GatherersHunter-Gatherers

Indigenous peoples known as Pygmies live in the Indigenous peoples known as Pygmies live in the tropical rain forests of Central Africa, Southeast tropical rain forests of Central Africa, Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and the Philippines. Asia, New Guinea, and the Philippines.

They are the earliest known inhabitants of the Congo They are the earliest known inhabitants of the Congo Basin in Africa and are estimated to number 150,000 Basin in Africa and are estimated to number 150,000 to 300,000. to 300,000.

The best-known tribe, the Mbuti or Bambuti, are the The best-known tribe, the Mbuti or Bambuti, are the shortest of all human groups, averaging near 51 shortest of all human groups, averaging near 51 inches in height.inches in height.

African Pygmies may be divided into four groups: African Pygmies may be divided into four groups: the Binga along the Atlantic coast, including the the Binga along the Atlantic coast, including the Beku, Bongo, Jelli, Koa, Kola, Kuya, Rimba, and Yaga; Beku, Bongo, Jelli, Koa, Kola, Kuya, Rimba, and Yaga; the Twa in the high regions surrounding Lake Kivu; the Twa in the high regions surrounding Lake Kivu; the Gesera and Zigaba in Rwanda and Burundi; and the Gesera and Zigaba in Rwanda and Burundi; and the Mbuti, Aka, and Efe of the Ituri forest in the Mbuti, Aka, and Efe of the Ituri forest in northeastern Congo (Kinshasa).northeastern Congo (Kinshasa).

HousingHousing

Pygmies live in huts called mongulus. They are round or rectangular one-family houses made of branches and leaves and are normalt always built by women.

Collecting HoneyCollecting Honey

MarriageMarriage Pygmies live in small bands of less than fifty Pygmies live in small bands of less than fifty

members. members. • Each band has its own territory but they move on Each band has its own territory but they move on

to different territories when the food supply runs to different territories when the food supply runs low. low.

Inter-band marriages are common and Inter-band marriages are common and individuals are free to leave one and join individuals are free to leave one and join another. another. • Marriage is by sister exchange. A man must Marriage is by sister exchange. A man must

arrange the marriage of one of the female arrange the marriage of one of the female members of his band to a man in his prospective members of his band to a man in his prospective bride's band. Pygmies are normally monogamous bride's band. Pygmies are normally monogamous and have a strong family structure.and have a strong family structure.

There are no formal leaders heading a band. There are no formal leaders heading a band. Problems are solved through open Problems are solved through open discussions.discussions.

HuntingHunting

Game size and hunting techniqueGame size and hunting technique• Miseteke-net hunting camp-more blue Miseteke-net hunting camp-more blue

duiker.duiker.• Mokumbokumbo-more rodents. Mokumbokumbo-more rodents.

Net hunting is affected mostly by Net hunting is affected mostly by behavior of animals.behavior of animals.• very young blue duikers stay hidden very young blue duikers stay hidden

Okiek Hunter-GatherersOkiek Hunter-Gatherers

OkiekOkiek• Kaplelach and KipchorwonekKaplelach and Kipchorwonek• southernmost Okieksouthernmost Okiek

Mau Escarpment, Kenya, about Mau Escarpment, Kenya, about 100 miles north of Nairobi.100 miles north of Nairobi.

Highland forest dwellersHighland forest dwellers Interactions with Maasai and other Interactions with Maasai and other

pastoral, agricultural groups.pastoral, agricultural groups.

EcologyEcology

Mau EscarpmentMau Escarpment• rises in altitude from 1800-2800 m over 50 milesrises in altitude from 1800-2800 m over 50 miles• Five kinds of forestFive kinds of forest

Soyua-open bushy forest from 1800-2100.Soyua-open bushy forest from 1800-2100. Sasaontet-forest with glades and fields 2100-2400.Sasaontet-forest with glades and fields 2100-2400. Tirap-thick forest 2400-2600.Tirap-thick forest 2400-2600. Sisiyuet-tick bamboo stands 2400-2600.Sisiyuet-tick bamboo stands 2400-2600. Mau-open moorland, 2600-2800.Mau-open moorland, 2600-2800.

Lineage owned, patrilineally transmittted Lineage owned, patrilineally transmittted parcels (tracts).parcels (tracts).

• Moves primarily determined by honey availability.Moves primarily determined by honey availability. Tirap from Dec-JanTirap from Dec-Jan Soyua from May-SeptemberSoyua from May-September Aug-Nov SasanotetAug-Nov Sasanotet

Social StructureSocial Structure

Residence groups of small extended Residence groups of small extended families.families.

Patrilineal core.Patrilineal core.• Six to ten adjacent lineages constitute Six to ten adjacent lineages constitute

a group.a group. Sons inherit tracts and hives.Sons inherit tracts and hives.

• Age-set relations cross-cut lineages.Age-set relations cross-cut lineages.• Unites men of different lineages.Unites men of different lineages.• Younger age-set respects older.Younger age-set respects older.

Gender RolesGender Roles

Resources and ProductionResources and Production MenMen

• traditionally providers of meat and honey.traditionally providers of meat and honey.• Made decisions regarding householdMade decisions regarding household• Travelled farther and longer than women.Travelled farther and longer than women.

WomenWomen• very little contribution to diet.very little contribution to diet.• Child rearing main responsibility.Child rearing main responsibility.• After maize and millet, women had more After maize and millet, women had more

control over food.control over food.

Okiek Hunters & dogsOkiek Hunters & dogs