Human Resource Management Notes 15

7/28/2019 Human Resource Management Notes 15

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Unit 15: Leadership

Structure:

15.1 Introduction

Objectives

15.2 Concept of Leadership

SAQs

15.3 Theories of Leadership

SAQs

15.4 Classification of Leadership

SAQs

15.5 Functions of a Leader

15.6 Managerial Grid

SAQs

15.7 Differences between Managers and Leaders

15.8 Summary

15.9 TQs

15.10 Answers to SAQs and TQs

15.1 IntroductionThere are certain born leaders like Alexander/Julius Caesar. A good leader displays great

ability, creativity, initiative and confidence. He adds and gets co-operation, willingness,

and builds employees' morale and motivation. There is a classic debatable question: Leaders

are Born and Not Made. Whatever be the outcome of this debate, the fact remains that

leaders are of a different breed and class apart. They are ordinary people who do extra-

ordinary things. This chapter focuses on leadership, type of leadership, styles, qualities and

functions of leaders. It also shows what makes a manager and a leader different.

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

Understand leadership

Theoretical framework of leadership.


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Distinguish between different types of leaders.

How Managers and different from Leaders.

15.2 Concept of Leadership

Leadership is defined as "the relationship in which one person influences others to work

together willingly on related tasks to attain that level which he desires." That is to say, if

there is no follower, there is no leader.

Haiman defined Leadership as "the process by which an executive or a manager

imaginatively directs, guides and influences the work of others in choosing and attaining

specified goals by mediation between the individual and organisation in such a manner that

both will obtain the maximum satisfaction.

A good leader:1. Has foresight.

2. Has influence.

3. Has representative role playing.

4. Communicates properly.

5. Commands attention and respect.

6. Helps to achieve task objectives.

7. Commands trust and confidence.

8. Has 'concern' regarding needs of his group.

9. Is sensitive to the task, people and environment.

10. Builds team and becomes a model.

11. Has the ability and skill to manage the team.

12. Has the ability to take decisions and many more.

However, some of them are self-oriented, some of them are people-oriented and some of

them are task-oriented. Basically a leader should have the skills of inspiring confidence in

his followers and to manage differences. Sometimes he should be a good follower of group

decisions. A leader is concerned both with the task (also goals of the organization) as well

as the people with whom he is working.

According to Douglas McGregor, the major variables of leadership are:

a) The characteristics of the leader.

b) The att itudes, needs and personal characteristics of followers.


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c) The culture of the organisation

d) The environment Socio-economic - political set up both Micro and Macro.

Self Assessment Questions I

15.3 Theories of Leadership

Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership

theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while

subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill level. While

many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major

types:

1. Great Man Theories: Great Man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is

inherent that great leaders are born not made. These theories often portray great leaders

as heroic, mythical, and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term Great

Man was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male

quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

2. Trait Theories: Similar in some ways to Great Man theories, trait theory assumes that

people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait

theories often identify particular personality or behavioural characteristics shared by

leaders. But if particular traits are key features of leadership, how do we explain people

who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in

using trait theories to explain leadership.

3. Contingency Theories: Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables

related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is

best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all

situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style,

qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.

1. A leader is concerned both with the task / goals of the organization, as well as the__________ _______________

2. A leader should have the skills of _________________in his followers and to

manage differences.3. Some managers are self-oriented, some of them are people-oriented and some of

them are__________________.


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4. Situational Theories: Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of

action based upon situational variable. Different styles of leadership may be more

appropriate for certain types of decision-making.

5. Behavioural Theories: Behavioural theories of leadership are based upon the belief that

great leaders are made, not born. Rooted in behaviourism, this leadership theory focuses

on the actions of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this

theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.

6. Participative Theories: Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership

style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage

participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more

relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories,

however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.

7. Management Theories: Management theories (also known as Transactional theories)

focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories

base leadership on a system of reward and punishment. Managerial theories are often

used in business when employees are successful, they are rewarded when they fail, they

are reprimanded or punished.

8. Relationship Theories: Relationship theories (also known as Transformational

theories) focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. These

leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and

higher good of the task. Transformational leaders are focused on the performance of

group members, but also want each person to fulfil his or her potential. These leaders

often have high ethical and moral standards.

Self Assessment Questions II

1. Early leadership theories focused on what __________distinguished between leaders

and followers

2. _______________assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent that greatleaders are born not made.

3. Trait theories often identify ____________________________________shared by

leaders.

4. Contingency theories states that.................................

5. Situational theories propose that different styles of leadership may be more

appropriate for certain___________________________________.


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15.4 Classification of Leadership

According to the Personnel Research Board of Ohio University leaders were classified

as follows:

a) THE BUREAUCRAT who sticks to routine, pleases his superiors, avoids

subordinates and he is contemptuous to them.

b) THE AUTOCRAT He is directive and expects obedience from followers. (Do as I

say Not, as I do) Hence, subordinates do not like him.

c) THE DIPLOMAT He is an opportunist who exploits subordinates. Hence, he

is not trusted by his subordinates. (He is interested Not in the Flock but in the Fleece)

d) THE EXPERT He is an over-specialised man. He is self-centred and

interested in his own narrow field. He treats his subordinates only as fellow- workers

without any feelings. He always finds himself along.

e) THE QUARTER BACK He identifies himself with his subordinates even at the

risk of incurring displeasure of his superiors and subordinates at times. However, he is

generally liked by his followers.

Another classification given by CHRIS ARGYRIS is as follows:

a) The Directive type

b) The Permissive type

c) The participative type

There are other types such as Positive and Negative.

Positive is PowerTHROUGH thepeople and Negative is PowerOVER the people.

Self Assessment Questions III: Match the following

a) Who sticks to routine, pleases his superiors,

avoids subordinates and he is contemptuous to them.

b) He is directive and exp ect s obedience from

followers. (Do as I say Not, as I do) Hence,subordinates do not like him.

c) He is an oppo rtunist who exploit s subordinates.

Hence, he is not trusted by his subordinates. (He is

interested Not in the Flock but in the Fleece)

d) Who sticks to routine, pleases his superiors,

avoids subordinates and he is contemptuous to them.

e) He is an over-specialised man. He is self-

centred and interested in his own narrow field. He

treats his subordinates only as fellow- workers

1. TH E

BUR EA UCR AT

2. THE AUTOCRAT

3. THE DIPLOMAT

4. THE EXPERT

5. THE QUARTER


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15.5. Functions of a Leader

A leader has the following functions to perform:

a) Maintenance of membership: i.e. to be close to the group.

b) Objective attainment: To achieve the targets set.

c) Group interaction: To provide the climate for effective interaction i.e. Less of

distrust amongst followers.

PETER DRUCKER says, "An effective leader is one who can make ordinary people do

extraordinary things, make common people do uncommon things. Leadership is a lifting of a

man's sights to a higher vision, the raising of a man's standard to a higher performance, the

building of a man's performance beyond its normal limitations."

KILLIANstated the functions of a leader in the following way:

a) To render a service (by multiplying the contribution of every individual who is its

beneficiary)

b) To take decision (calculated)

c) To elicit response

d) To achieve results

e) To maintain discipline, to have a standard of performance

f) To have himself a higher standard of discipline and performance also to take initiative, to

bring in team (group) spirit / activity.

Qualities of a Leader:

VISCOUNT SLIM has enumerated the following qualities.

a) Courage

b) Will-power


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c) Judgement

d) Flexibility

e) Knowledge

f) Integrity

Ten Commandments of Leadership

a) Physical and nervous energy

b) Enthusiasm

c) Sense of Purpose/Direction

d) Technical Mastery

e) Friendliness and affection

f) Decision- making

g) Integrity

h) Intelligence

i) Faith

Effective Communication - both oral & written.

Leadership also depends on the environment both Macro and Micro. All the above may be

shown in the following diagram.

SITUATIONAL

LEADERSHIP

1. Characteristics of

Followers

2.Characteristicso

f

theT

ask

3.Cha

racteristic

sof

theOrg

anis

atio

n

4. Characteristics of

the External

Environment

5.Traits

ofthe

Leader

Situational Leadership has five components:


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a) Characteristics of Followers

b) Characteristics of the Task

c) Characteristics of the Organisation

d) Characteristics of the External Environment

e) Traits of the Leader

According to Douglas McGregor, leadership is based on Valve theory. Theory X and Theory Y

are worth- remembering here.

McGregor's Theory X Theory Y Model: The first acquaintance with 'X' and 'Y' for many of us

is as learnt as in Algebra. During the decade of the sixties 'X' and Y took on some additional

meanings for readers in the behavioural sciences and contemporary management thinking.

In 1960, Douglas McGregor published his thesis Human Side of Enterprise. This was to be a

major force in the application of behavioural science to managements attempts to improve

productivity in organization. McGregor was trying to stimulate people to examine the reasons

underlying the way they tried to influence human activity, particularly at work. He saw

management thinking and activity as based on two very different sets of assumptions about

people. These sets of assumptions, called X and Y, have come to be applied to management

styles e.g., an individual is a theory X manager or a theory Y manager.

McGregor looked at the various approaches to managing people in organizations-not only

industrial organizations but others as well as services, schools, and public agencies and

concluded that the styles or approaches to management used by people in positions of authority

could be examined and understood in the light of those managers assumptions about people.

He suggested that a manager's effectiveness or ineffectiveness lay in the very subtle, frequently

unconscious effects of these assumptions on his attempts to manage or influence others.

As he looked at the behaviours, structures, system and policies set up in some organizations, he

found them contrary to information coming out of research at that time: information about

human behaviour and the behaviour of people at work. It appeared that management was based

on ways of looking at people that did not agree with what behavioural scientists knew and werelearning about people as they went about their work in some, or perhaps most organizations.

THEORY X

The traditional view of man widely held, was labelled 'X' and seemed to be based on the

following set of assumptions.

a) The average human being has an inherent dislike for work, and will avoid it if he can.


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b) Because of this human characteristic of dislike for work, most people must be coerced,

controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate

effort toward the achievement of organizational objectives.

c) The average human being prefers to b e directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has

relatively little ambition and wants security above all.

Of course, these assumptions are not set out or stated, but if we examine how organizations are

structured and policies, procedures, and work rules established, we can see them operating.

Job responsibilities are closely spelled out, goals are imposed without individual employee

involvement or consideration, reward is contingent on working with the system, and

punishment falls on those who deviate from the rules as established. These factors all influence

how people respond, but the underlying assumptions or reasons for them are seldom tested or

even recognised as assumptions. The fact is that most people act as if their belief about human

nature were correct and required no study or checking.

This set of assumptions about people may result in very contrasting styles of management. We

may see 'Hard' or a 'Soft' approach to managing, but both approaches will be based on those

ideas set out above. One theory 'X' manager may drive his men as their work because he

thinks that they are lazy and that this is the only way to get things done. Another may look at

his men in the same way, but he may think the way to get lazy, people to work is to be nice to

them, to coax productive activity out of them.

This view of man was characteristic of the first half of the twentieth century, which had seen the

effects of Frederick Taylor's scientific management school of thought. His focus had been on

man as an aspect of the productive cycle much like that of a piece of machinery, and it had

allowed for advances in productivity. Yet, it was out of this managerial climate that tended to

view man as an interchangeable part of a machine-as a machine element that was set in

motion by the application of external forces-that the 'human relations' view grew and the

behavioural science school developed.

It must be hastened to add that the application of understandings of human behaviour from

the behavioural sciences is not an extension of the human relations focus of the 1940's and

1950's. These two grew up separately. One might construe that the human relations view of

handling people prevalent at that time was manipulative and merely a soft theory 'X'

approach.

THEORY Y


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Another view of man not necessarily the opposite extreme of 'X' was called Y or Theory 'Y.

This set of assumptions about the nature of man which influenced manager behaviours is set

out below.

i) The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as play or rest.

ii) External control and threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing about

effort toward organizational objectives. Man will exercise self control in the service of

objective to which he is committed.

iii) Commitment to objectives is dependent on rewards associated with their achievement.

The most important rewards are those that satisfy needs for self respect and personal

improvement.

iv) The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept, but also to

shed responsibility.

v) The capacity to exercise relatively high degree of imagination and creativity in the

solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly distributed in the population.

vi) Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the

average human being are only partially utilized.

It is important to realise that this is not a soft approach to managing human endeavour.

Examined closely it can be seen as a very demanding style it set high standards for all and

expects people to reach for them. It is not only hard on the employee who may not have hadany prior experience with the managerial behaviours resulting from these assumptions but it

also any prior experience with the managerial behaviour resulting from these assumptions,

but it also demands a very different way of acting from the supervisor or manager who has

grown up under at least some of the theory. X influences our culture. While we can

intellectually understand and agree with some of these ideas, it is for more difficult to put

them into practice. Risk-taking is necessary on the part of the manager, for he must allow

employees or subordinates to experiment with activities for which he may feel they do not

presently have the capability. The learning and growth resulting from this opportunity mayhandsomely reward the risk.

The focus of a Y manager is on man as a growing, developing learning being, while an X

manager views man as static, fully developed and capable of little change. A theory X

manager sets the parameters of his employees achievements by determining their

potentialities in the light of their uses of errors for learning better way of operating rather than


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as clubs for forcing submission to the system. He structures work so that an employee can

have a sense of accomplishment and personal growth. The motivation comes from the work

itself and provides a much more powerful incentive than the 'externals' of theory of X.

A suggestion for your consideration is to make the same assumptions about others that you

make about yourself, and then act in appropriate manner.

Leadership Styles: The opinions, attitudes and assumptions people make regarding the

accomplishment of goals through others may be considered to reflect a general leadership

philosophy. Leadership behaviour changes from individual to individual on the following

parameters - viz., philosophy, planning and goal setting, implementation, evaluation etc.

Robert Tannenbaum and Warren H.Schmidt in HBR classics discussed the issue whether a

manager (leader) should be democratic or autocratic or something in between? They have

exhibited it on a continuum as shown below:

The Leadership Continuum Model of Tannebaum and Schmidt (1973) suggests that

autocratic leaders are more likely to make their own decisions and not engage their

subordinates, whereas a more democratic leader (laissez-faire manager) gives subordinates a

greater degree of delegation in decision-making.

In 1938, Lewin and Lippitt proposed classifications of leaders based on how much

involvement leaders placed into task and relationship needs. This range of leadership


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behaviours was expressed along a continuum by Tannebaum & Schmidt in 1973, ranging

from boss-centred (task) to subordinate-centred (relationship).

To choose the most appropriate style and use of authority, the leader must consider:

i) Forces in the manager: Belief in team member participation and confidence in

capabilities of members.

ii) Forces in the subordinate: Subordinates who are independent, tolerant of ambiguity,

competent, identify with organizational goals.

iii) Forces in the situation: Team has requisite knowledge, team holds organizational

values and traditions, and teams work effectively.

iv) Time pressure: Need for immediate decision under pressure militates against

participation.

Advantages of the Leadership Continuum Model include:i) Gives managers a range of choices for involvement.

ii) Presents criteria for involvement and delegation.

iii) Focuses decision maker on relevant criteria (e.g., forces & time).

iv) Emphasizes employee development and empowerment.

v) Is heuristic--encourages research to see how effective delegation may be under the

model.

Some limitations of the Leadership Continuum theory:

i) Involves only the initial step of assigning a task to someone, not the following processes

that may determine the effectiveness of the outcome.

ii) Assumes the manager has sufficient information to determine disposition to self or team.

iii) Assumes "neutral" environment without social bonds or politics.

iv) Simplifies complex decisions to a two-polar dimension more simple than reality is.

The following table shows different styles of a Leader:

Aspect of

Leadership

Average Manager Time Leader

1. Responsibility Accepts it Seeks it

2. Risk Taking Avoids It Consciously accepts it when

payoff is high.

3. Status Demands respect due Gains respect due to


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to position. achievement.

4. Getting results Motivates others

with external means.

Motivates others internally.

5. Goals Follows

organisational

objectives.

Follows both personal and

corporate goals.

6. Use of Rules Conforms strictly to

established rules.

Will violate rules in certain

circumstances.

7. Relationship

with

subordinates

Protects self at all

costs.

Protects followers often at own

expense.

8. Relationship

with superiors

Accommodates

superiors in all cases

Fights if necessary especially

for subordinates.

9. Control Is controlled by the

environment

Controls the environment

Self Assessment Questions IV

1. If there is no there is no leader.

2. Basically a leader should have the skills of ..in his followers and to manage

differences.

3. assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent that great leaders are

born, not made.

4. .assumes that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them

better suited to leadership.

5. .focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine

which articular st le of leadershi is best suited for the situation.


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15.6 Managerial Grid

Robert Blake, an eminent behavioural scientist differentiated the leaders on the basis of their

concern to people and concern to task. He along with Jane Mouton conducted study on 5000

managers. He puts it on a grid called Managerial Grid as follows:

The Managerial Grid Model (1964) is a behavioural leadership model developed by Robert

Blake and Jane Mouton. This model identifies five different leadership styles based on the

concern for people and the concern for production. The optimal leadership style in this model

is based on

Theory Y.

As shown in the figure, the model is represented as a grid with concern for production as the

X-axis and concern for people as the Y-axis each axis ranges from 1 (Low) to 9 (High). The

five resulting leadership styles are as follows:

1. The impoverished style (1, 1). The indifferent Leader (Evade & Elude)

In this style, managers have low concern for both people and production. Managers use

this style to avoid getting into trouble. The main concern for the manager is not to be held

responsible for any mistakes, which results in less innovative decisions.

A leader uses a "delegate and disappear" management style. Since they are not committed

to either task accomplishment or maintenance they essentially allow their team to do


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whatever it wishes and prefer to detach themselves from the team process by allowing the

team to suffer from a series of power struggles.

Features

1. Does only enough to preserve job and job seniority.

2. Gives little and enjoys little.

3. Protects himself by not being noticed by others.

Implications

1. Tries to stay in the same post for a long time.

Examples of Leader speak:

I distance myself from taking active responsibility for results to avoid getting entangled

in problems.

If forced, I take a passive or supportive position.

2. The country club style (1, 9). The accommodating Leader (Yield & Comply)

This style has a high concern for people and a low concern for production. Managers

using this style pay much attention to the security and comfort of the employees, in hopes

that this would increase performance. The resulting atmosphere is usually friendly, but

not necessarily that productive.

This person uses predominantly reward power to maintain discipline and to encourage the

team to accomplish its goals. Conversely, they are almost incapable of employing the

more punitive coercive and legitimate powers. This inability results from fear that using

such powers could jeopardize relationships with the other team members.


I support results that establish and reinforce harmony.

I generate enthusiasm by focusing on positive and pleasing aspects of work.

3. The produce or perish style (9, 1). The Controlling Leader (Direct & Dominate)

With a high concern for production, and a low concern for people, managers using thisstyle find employee needs unimportant they provide their employees with money and

expect performance back. Managers using this style also pressure their employees

through rules and punishments to achieve the company goals. This dictatorial style is

based on Theory X of Douglas McGregor, and is commonly applied by co mpanies on the

edge of real or perceived failure. This is used in case of crisis management.


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People who get this rating are very much task-oriented and are hard on their workers

(autocratic). There is little or no allowance for co-operation or collaboration. Heavily

task-oriented people display these characteristics: they are very strong on schedules they

expect people to do what they are told without question or debate when something goes

wrong they tend to focus on who is to blame rather than concentrate on exactly what is

wrong and how to prevent it they are intolerant of what they see as dissent (it may just be

someone's creativity), so it is difficult for their subordinates to contribute or develop.


I expect results and take control by clearly stating a course of action.

I enforce rules that sustain high results and do not permit deviation.

4. The middle-of-the-road style (5, 5). The Status Quo Leader. (Balance & Compromise)

Managers using this style try to balance between company goals and workers' needs. Bygiving some concern to both people and production, managers who use this style hope to

achieve acceptable performance.


I endorse results that are popular but caution against taking unnecessary risk.

I test my opinions with others involved to assure ongoing acceptability.

5. The team style (9, 9). The Sound / Team Leader (Contribute & Commit)

In this style, high concern is paid both to people and production. As suggested by the

propositions of Theory Y, managers choosing to use this style encourage teamwork and

commitment among employees. This method relies heavily on making employees feel as

a constructive part of the company.

This type of person leads by positive example and endeavours to foster a team

environment in which all team members can reach their highest potential, both as team

members and as people. They encourage the team to reach team goals as effectively as

possible, while also working tirelessly to strengthen the bonds among the various

members. They normally form and lead some of the most productive teams.


I initiate team action in a way that invites involvement and commitment.

I explore all facts and alternative views to reach a shared understanding of the best

solution.


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Grid Relationship Skills

The Grid theory translates into practical use through Grid style relationship skills that people

experience day in and day out when they work together. These relationship skills depict the

typical and vital behaviours for each style that make relationships effective or ineffective.

Some behaviour strengthens and motivates teams while others obstruct progress.

Critique - Learning from experience by anticipating and examining how behaviour and

actions affect results.

Initiative - Taking action to exercise shared effort, drive, and support for specific

activities.

Inquiry - Questioning, seeking information, and testing for understanding.

Advocacy - Expressing attitudes, opinions, ideas, and convictions.

Decision-making - Evaluating resources, criteria, and consequences to reach a decision.

Conflict Resolution - Confronting and working through disagreements with others

toward resolution.

Resilience - Reacting to problems, setbacks, and failure, and understanding how these

factors influence the ability to move forward.

Grid theory makes behaviours as tangible and objective as any other corporate commodity.

By studying each of the seven Leadership Grid styles and the resulting relationship skill

behaviours, teams can examine, in objective terms, how behaviours help or hurt them. They

can explore types of critique that work best for them and why. They can openly discuss howto improve decision-making and conflict resolution skills. These and other subjects usually

considered "off limits" in terms of productivity are the very subjects that usually impede

productivity. The Grid approach makes these subjects not only "discussable" but measurable

in objective terms that generate empathy, motivation to improve, and creativity.

The most desirable place for a leader to be along the two axes at most times would be a 9 on

task and a 9 on people -- the Team Leader. However, do not entirely dismiss the other three.

Certain situations might call for one of the other three to be used at times. For example, by

playing the Impoverished Leader, you allow your team to gain self-reliance. Be an

Authoritarian Leader to instil a sense of discipline in an unmotivated worker. By carefully

studying the situation and the forces affecting it, you will know at what points along the axis

you need to be in order to achieve the desired result.

Leadership Exercise:


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How to check what type of leader you are? Do the following exercise?

This is a quick self-quiz to give you some feedback on your predominant leadership style.

Instructions: Read each item carefully. Rate yourself on how frequently you engage in this

behaviour.

Scale: 4=Always 3=Often 2=Occasionally 1= Seldom 0=Never

1. Finds time to listen to group members.

4 3 2 1 0

2. Makes sure group members are working up to their fullest capacity.

4 3 2 1 0

3. Directs the activities of group members on particular tasks.

4 3 2 1 0

4. Looks out for group members' personal welfare.

4 3 2 1 0

5. Shows willingness to make changes in leadership approach (es).

4 3 2 1 0

6. Emphasizes the meeting of deadlines.

4 3 2 1 0

7. Solicits group input in important decisions.

4 3 2 1 0

8. Emphasizes the maintenance of definite standards or performance.

4 3 2 1 0

9. Supports group members in their actions.

4 3 2 1 0

10. Makes personal position clear.

4 3 2 1 0

Scoring:

Add items 1, 4, 5, 7, 9 Total Relationship Score _____

Add items 2, 3, 6, 8, 10 Total Task Score _____

Plot the intersection of your total relationship and total task scores on the grid below.

P

A

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E20


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R

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P

A

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G

19 L

L

I

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G

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

D

E

L

E

G

A

T

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10

T

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L

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G

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Relationship Dimension is the vertical rating

Task Dimension is the horizontal rating

Types of Leaders

In 1939, a group of researchers led by psychologist Kurt Lewis set out to identify different

styles of leadership. While further research has identified more specific types of leadership,

this early study was very influential and established three major leadership styles. In the

study, groups of schoolchildren were assigned to one of three groups with an authoritarian,


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democratic, or laissez-fair leader. The children were then led in an arts and crafts project.

Researchers then observed the behaviour of children in response to the different styles of

leadership.

Authoritarian Leadership (Autocratic)

Authoritarian leaders provide clear expectations for what needs to be done, when it should be

done, and how it should be done. There is also a clear division between the leader and the

followers. Authoritarian leaders make decisions independently with little or no input from the

rest of the group.

Researchers found that decision-making was less creative under authoritarian leadership.

Lewis also found that it is more difficult to move from an authoritarian style to a democratic

style than vice versa. Abuse of this style is usually viewed as controlling, bossy, and

dictatorial.

Authoritarian leadership is best applied to situations where there is little time for group

decision-making or where the leader is the most knowledgeable member of the group.

Participative Leadership (Democratic)

Lewins study found that participative (democratic) leadership is generally the most effective

leadership style. Democratic leaders offer guidance to group members, but they also

participate in the group and allow input from other group members. In Lewins study,

children in this group were less productive than the members of the authoritarian group, but

their contributions were of a much higher quality.

Participative leaders encourage group members to participate, but retain the final say over the

decision-making process. Group members feel engaged in the process and are more

motivated and creative.

Delegative (Laissez-Fair)

Researchers found that children under delegative (laissez-fair) leadership were the least

productive of all three groups. The children in this group also made more demands on the

leader, showed little cooperation, and were unable to work independently.

Delegative leaders offer little or no guidance to group members and leave decision-making

up to group members. While this style can be effective in situations where group members

are highly qualified in an area of expertise, it often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack of

motivation.


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Transformational Leader or Leadership

The term transformational leadership was first coined by J.V. Downton in 1973.

James MacGregor Burns (1978) first introduced the concepts of transformational and

transactional leadership in his treatment of political leadership, but this term is now used in

organizational psychology as well. According to Burns, the difference between

transformational and transactional leadership is what leaders and followers offer one another.

Transformational leaders offer a purpose that transcends short-term goals and focuses on

higher order intrinsic needs. This results in followers identifying with the needs of the leader.

The four dimensions of transformational leadership are:

Charisma or Idealized influence: The degree to which the leader behaves in admirable ways

that cause followers to identify with the leader. Charismatic leaders display convictions, take

stands and appeal to followers on an emotional level. This is about the leader having a clear

set of values and demonstrating them in every action, providing a role model for their

followers.

Inspirational motivation: the degree to which the leader articulates a vision that is appealing

and inspiring to followers. Leaders with inspirational motivation challenge followers with

high standards, communicate optimism about future goals, and provide meaning for the task

at hand. Followers need to have a strong sense of purpose if they are to be motivated to act.

Purpose and meaning provides the energy that drives a group forward. It is also important

that this visionary aspect of leadership be supported by communication skills that allow the

leader to articulate his or her vision with precision and power in a compelling and persuasive

way.

Intellectual stimulation: The degree, to which the leader challenges assumptions, takes risks

and solicits followers' ideas. Leaders with this trait stimulate and encourage creativity in their

followers.

Individualized consideration or Individualized attention: The degree to which the leader

attends to each follower's needs, acts as a mentor or coach to the follower, and listens to the

follower's concerns and needs. This also encompasses the need to respect and celebrate the

individual contribution that each follower can make to the team (It is the diversity of the team

that gives it its true strength).

Transformational leadership and charismatic leadership theories have much in common and

complement each other in important ways.


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Charismatic Leadership

Charismatic Leaders exhibit charismatic authority. Defined as "resting on devotion to the

exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the

normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him." Charismatic authority is one of

three forms of authority laid out in Weber's tripartite classification of authority, the other two

being traditional authority and rational-legal authority. The concept has acquired wide usage

among sociologists.

Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders

The term charisma means "a certain quality of an individual personality, by virtue of which

he is set apart from ordinary men and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or

at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities. These are such as are not accessible to

the ordinary person, but are regarded as of divine origin or as exemplary, and on the basis ofthem the individual concerned is treated as a leader. How the quality in question would be

ultimately judged from an ethical, aesthetic, or other such point of view is naturally

indifferent for the purpose of definition."

Charismatic authority is power legitimized on the basis of a leader's exceptional personal

qualities or the demonstration of extraordinary insight and accomplishment, which inspire

loyalty and obedience from followers. As such, it rests almost entirely on the leader the

absence of that leader for any reason can lead to the authority's power dissolving. However,

due to its idiosyncratic nature and lack of formal organization, charismatic authority depends

much more strongly on the perceived legitimacy of the authority than other forms of

authority. For instance, a charismatic leader in a religious context might require an

unchallenged belief that the leader has been touched by God, in the sense of a Guru or

Prophet. Should the strength of this belief fade, the power of the charismatic leader can fade

quickly, which is one of the ways in which this form of authority shows itself to be unstable.

In contrast to the current popular use of the term charismatic leader, charismatic authority is

not so much as character traits of the charismatic leader but as a relationship between the

leader and his followers much in the same way that Freud would transform Gustave Le

Bon's crowd psychology through the notion of identification and of an Ideal of the Ego. The

validity of charisma is founded on its "recognition" by the leader's followers. This recognition

"is not (in authentic charisma) the grounds of legitimacy, but a duty, for those who are

chosen, in virtue of this call and of its confirmation, to recognize this quality.Recognition" is

psychologically, a completely personal abandon, full of faith, born either from enthusiasm or


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from necessity and hope. No prophet has seen his quality as depending from the crowd's

opinion towards himself", although his charisma risks disappearing if he is "abandoned by

God" or if "his government doesn't provide any prosperity to those whom he dominates."

Routinizing Charisma

Charismatic authority almost always evolves in the context of boundaries set by traditional or

rational (legal) authority, but by its nature tends to challenge this authority and is thus often

seen as revolutionary. However, the constant challenge that charismatic authority presents to

a particular society will eventually subside as it is incorporated into that society. The way in

which this happens is called routinization.

Reutilization is the process by which charismatic authority is succeeded by a bureaucracy

controlled by a rationally established authority or by a combination of traditional and

bureaucratic authority.

Some leaders may employ various tools to create and extend their charismatic authority for

example utilizing the science of public relations.

In politics, charismatic rule is often found in various authoritarian states, autocracies,

dictatorships and theocracies. In order to help to maintain their charismatic authority, such

regimes will often establish a vast personality cult, which can be seen as an attempt to gain

legitimacy by an appeal to other forms of authority. When the leader of such a State dies or

leaves office and a new charismatic leader does not appear, such a regime is likely to fall

shortly thereafter unless it has become fully reutilized.

Note that, a charismatic leader does not have to be a positive force thus, Benito Mussolini and

Adolf Hitler could be reasonably considered charismatic leaders. Furthermore, Sociology is

axiological neutral towards various forms of charismatic domination: it does not make

difference between the charismas of a Berserker, of a shaman, of the founder of Mormonism

or of the one displayed by Kurt Eisner. Sociology considers these types of charismatic

domination in "an identical manner than the charisma of heroes, prophets, the "greatest"

saviours according to common appreciation."

Whenever problems seem intractable, there comes a call for MORE LEADERSHIP. This

usually means a call for better leadership and for many, it is a call for charismatic leadership,

something that we think we know when we see it but is very hard to define. We can't seem to

get enough of movies like Rocky, Patton, or Godfather that centre on charismatic leadership

we seem to think that if only we had better leaders, we could solve our problems.


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Yet it isn't that simple. While on the one hand we call for more charismatic leadership, we

also have a distrust of charismatic leadership. Charismatic leaders can lead us astray and into

disaster.

Does Charisma Matter?

It seems so - sometimes. Charismatic leaders can inspire and create excitement. Yet there are

times or situations where it probably doesn't matter at all. Do you want a banker to have

charisma? Some companies do fine without charismatic leaders and some companies do

poorly with charismatic leaders. Research on the topic concluded that "when conditions are

uncertain, charismatic bosses spur subordinates to work above and beyond the call of duty."

What do Charismatic Leaders do"?

1. Charismatic people have a remarkable ability to distil complex ideas into simple

messages ("I have a dream") they communicate by using symbols, analogies, metaphors

and stories. Anyone can understand them.

2. They relish risk and feel empty without it they are great optimists.

3. They are rebels who fight convention they may seem idiosyncratic.

An "Objective way at looking at what charismatic leaders do:

There appear to be four stages in the development of charismatic leadership:

1. Sensing opportunity and formulating a vision: These leaders seem to sense their

constituent needs as well as see the deficiencies of the existing situation and untapped

opportunities. The combination of these leads to an idealized vision of the future. These

visions at least in organizations seem to fall along one of four major types: an innovative

product or service a contribution to society a transformation of the organization or a

contribution to the workforce.

2. Articulating the Vision: These leaders seem to have a great sense of strategic vision and

a capacity to convey the essence and viability of that to a broad group of people.

3. Building Trust in the Vision:

4. Subordinates must desire and support the goals of the leader and this is likely to beaccomplished by more than coercion rather the leader builds trust in the leader and the

viability of the goals this is likely to be done through personal risk taking,

unconventional expertise, and self-sacrifice.


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5. Achieving the Vision: These leaders use personal example and role modelling, reliance

on unconventional tactics and their use of empowerment practices to demonstrate how the

vision can be achieved and how motivation can be sustained.

A Trip to the Dark Side: Charisma doesn't guarantee success:

Charismatic leaders are visualised as organizational heroes or "magic" leaders, who can

orchestrate turnarounds, launch new enterprises, inspire organizational renewal, and obtain

extraordinary performance from organizational members. These leaders inspire trust, faith

and belief in them. Of course, none of this is a guarantee that the mission will be correct,

ethical, or successful. These leaders can be agents of destruction and can lead to disastrous

outcomes. Some even question whether charismatic leadership is good for an organization

rather than people being able to lead them. By believing in the leader as hero, we may ignore

that many of the key solutions to today's organization are in ourselves and we should not

depend on a "hero" to rescue us.

Where do we find these Charismatic leaders?

Despite a stated need for major transformation and charismatic leadership, a number of

organizational practices may make it difficult for charismatic leadership to emerge and for

charismatic leaders to be effective. Charismatic leadership can be very risky and in most

cases organizations are not willing to take the risk-often for good reason. The cost of

following the wrong vision can be worse than having no vision at all.

Self Assessment Questions V

15.7 Differences between Managers and Leaders

1. The Managerial Grid Model (1964) is a behavioural leadership model developed by

________________________________

2. A leader uses a "________________________" management style, when they are not

committed to either task accomplishment or maintenance they essentially allow their

team to do whatever it wishes and prefer to detach themselves from the team process

3. With a high concern for production, and a low concern for people, managers using

this style find employee needs unimportant they provide their

employees_____________________________________________.

4. The_______________________, use this style to try to balance between companygoals and workers' needs.

5. Grid theory makes behaviors as tangible and objective as any

other_______________.


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There is a clear distinction between management and leadership and this may nevertheless

prove useful. This would allow for a reciprocal relationship between leadership and

management, implying that an effective manager should possess leadership skills, and an

effective leader should demonstrate management skills. One clear distinction could provide

the following definition:

Management involves power by position.

Leadership involves power by influence.

Abraham Zaleznik (1977), delineated differences between leadership and management. He

saw leaders as inspiring visionaries, concerned about substance while managers are viewed

as planners who have concerns with process. Warren Bennis (1989) further explained a

dichotomy between managers and leaders. He drew twelve distinctions between the two

groups:

Managers administer, leaders innovate.

Managers ask how and when, leaders ask what and why.

Managers focus on systems, leaders focus on people.

Managers do things right, leaders do the right things.

Managers maintain, leaders develop.

Managers rely on control, leaders inspire trust.

Managers have a short-term perspective, leaders have a longer-term perspective.

Managers accept the status-quo leaders challenge the status-quo.

Managers have an eye on the bottom line, leaders have an eye on the horizon

Managers imitate, leaders originate.

Managers emulate the classic good soldier, leaders are their own person.

Managers copy, leaders show originality.

15.8. Summary

Leadership behaviour changes from individual to individual on the following parameters -

viz., philosophy, planning and goal setting, implementation, evaluation etc.

A leader is concerned both with the task (also goals of the organization) as well as the

people with whom he is working.

The Leadership Continuum Model of Tannebaum and Schmidt (1973) suggests that

autocratic leaders are more likely to make their own decisions and not engage their


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subordinates, whereas a more democratic leader (laissez-faire manager) gives

subordinates a greater degree of delegation in decision-making.

The Managerial Grid Model (1964) is a behavioural leadership model developed by

Robert Blake and Jane Mouton. This model identifies five different leadership styles

based on the concern for people and the concern for production.

Grid theory makes behaviours as tangible and objective as any other corporate

commodity.

Authoritarian leaders provide clear expectations for what needs to be done, when it

should be done, and how it should be done.

Democratic leaders offer guidance to group members, but they also participate in the

group and allow input from other group members.

Delegative leaders offer little or no guidance to group members and leave decision-

making up to group members.

The term transformational leadership was first coined by J.V. Downton in 1973.

Transformational leaders offer a purpose that transcends short-term goals and focuses on

higher order intrinsic needs.

15.9 Terminal Questions

1. What is leadership? List the characteristics of a good leader.

2. Briefly explain the different theories of Leadership.

3. Explain the functions of a leader.

4. What are the essential differences between Leaders and managers?

5. Differentiate between Transformational Leaders and Charismatic Leaders.

15.10. Answers to SAQs and TQs

Self Assessment Questions I

1- People with whom he is working, 2- inspiring confidence, 3- task-oriented

Self Assessment Questions II

1- qualities, 2- Great Man theories, 3- particular personality or behavioural characteristics, 4-

no leadership style is best in all situations, 5- types of decision-making

Self Assessment Questions III

1-d, 2-a, 3-b, 4-c, 5-e


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Self Assessment Questions IV

1-Follower, 2-Inspiring confidence, 3-Great Man theories, 4-Trait theory, 5-Contingency

theories of leadership

Self Assessment Questions V

1- Robert Blake and Jane Mouton, 2- delegate and disappear, 3- with money and expect

performance back, 4- Status Quo Leader, 5- corporate commodity

Answers to TQs:

1. Refer to 15.2

2. Refer to 15.3

3. Refer to 15.5

4. Refer to 15.7

5. Refer to 15.6

Documents

Human Resource Management Notes 15