Human Resource Mgt. Lecture Notes - William Allan Kritsonis, PhD

8/20/2019 Human Resource Mgt. Lecture Notes - William Allan Kritsonis, PhD

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Educational Leadership

Lecture Notes: Professor William Allan Kritsonis

William Allan Kritsonis, PhD

Professor of Educational Leadership

The University of Teas of the Permian !asin

"olle#e of E$ducation

%ersion "opyri#ht & '()* William Allan Kritsonis

ALL $+-T. $E.E$%ED/01$E%E$

1



Learnin# 2odule )

01$"E. +N0LUENT+AL +N DE"+.+1N 2AK+N

a) Administrative behavior influenced by assumptions they hold for themselves,

subordinates, and for human nature.

b) Beliefs held about schools and society, educational goals, school management, authority,

and organizational arrangements are modifiers of behavior.

c) A value system which arranges beliefs and preferences in some systematic way affects

his or her decision-making behavior.

d) ersonality idiosyncrasies which are developed as a result of socialization as a child,

adult, educator, and school administrator affect decision-making behavior.

!



0orces in the -uman .ystem

a) "he importance of linking administration and ethics is evidenced by the fact that schools

are basically human organizations.

b) #orces in the human system- needs, wants, aspirations, hopes and beliefs of teachers,

students and administrators are modifiers of administrative behavior and educational

decision-making.

0orces in the 1r#ani3ation

a) #orces in the organization are potential influences of educational decision-making.

$ncludes structural characteristics that contribute to it%s mode of operation.

b) &chools develop organizational personalities, conceptually similar to human personality-

organ styles, authority styles, and organ dynamics.

c) Although schools are similar- no two schools are alike.

'



0orces in the Environment

a) "hese are the broader political and cultural components of the school as e(emplifies in

the schools interaction with its community historically and presently.

b) onsiders the schools legal entity in a broader matri( of regional, state, and federal

government, and its vulnerability as a public organization responsive to public demands

from a variety of pressure groups.

*



Learnin# 2odule '

"1N0L+"T !ETWEEN !U$EAU"$AT+" AND P$10E..+1NAL %ALUE.

1) Bureaucratic stress uniformity of students% problems and needs+ standardized inputs.

rofessional e(pectations stress uniueness of students% problems and needs+ variable inputs.

!) Bureaucratic e(pectations stress universal application of rules fairness. rofessionale(pectations stress is on achievement of goals.

') Bureaucratic e(pectations stress skill based on practice e(perience differentials in status

and rank. rofessional e(pectations stress skill based on knowledge merit differentials in

status and rank.

*) Bureaucratic e(pectations emphasize decisions focus on application of rules to

routine problems. rofessional e(pectations emphasize decisions focus on

application of policy and knowledge to uniue problems.

) Bureaucratic e(pectations stress hierarchal legal authority. rofessional e(pectations

stress ability- professional authority.

/) Bureaucratic e(pectations stress loyalty to the school, its administration and trustees.

rofessional e(pectations stress loyalty to the profession and students.



A Philosophy for .chool Administrators

1) 0nderstanding of the web of tension which heshe is a part.

!) onsciousness of responsibility to the public interest.

') 0nwarranted optimism about the future.

Administration and the We4 of Tension

a) 2(treme differences in teaching, talent, and power trends keep tension constant.

b) #ather-knows-best is out in today%s world.

c) $ncreased reliance on participatory administration.

d) $ncrease community activity, formal and informal.

/



e) 3isagreement, dialogue, controversy, negotiations all contribute to tensions.

The Pu4lic +nterest

a) 2ncompasses the needs of youth, society, community and profession.

b) 3eciding what the public interest is a decision the school administrator must make based

upon identifiable value systems.

c) 4overnmental agencies, professional organizations, scholars, philosophers, etc., help to

identify short and long term public interest.

d) ublic interest issue is very important. &chool administrators should seek input

from various sectors

itizen committees

"eacher committees

"eacher associations

&tudent Advisory 4roups

.....5ther relevant sources

6



1ptimism a4out the 0uture

a) 5ptimism allows the administrator to give direction and stimulus to the development of

meaningful educational programs which serve the public interest.

b) A faith in learning

c) A commitment to adulthood

d) A fundamental spirit of optimism.

1r#ani3ational %alues

1) 7A83 582 9A:02&

7ard core values are accepted by all but the most deviant members of the school%s

society.

!) #82235; <5=2 9A:02&

>#reedom <one 9alues? are accepted by most members of the school%s society but

the level of commitment varies for people, cliues, or groups within the society.

@



.5ill Levels of .upervisors

- "echnical skills

- 7uman skills

- onceptual skills

1) "27=$A: &$::&

"he ability to use knowledge, methods and techniues to perform specific tasks.

"he mechanics associated with writing a lesson plan, developing a study unit,

euipping a learning-resource center, purchasing, preparing a meeting agenda,

filling out reports, etc, are e(amples of technical skills.

!) 70;A= &$::&

8efer to one%s ability and udgment in working with and through people.

"his skill reuires self-understanding and acceptance as well as consideration

for others.

C



7uman skills include an understanding of, and facility for, leadership

effectiveness, adult motivation, attitudinal development, group dynamics, and

the development of human resources.

') 5=2"0A: &$::&

8efer to the supervisors% ability to view the school, the system, and the

educational program as a whole.

"his skill reuires the effective mapping of the interdependence between

components of the school as an organizational system.

onceptual skill reuires an understanding of the interdependencies that e(ist

between developing and establishing

- humane organization

- articulating a humane administrative- supervisory system

- developing a humane educational program

.ummary

"hough each of the skill levels is universally present in administrative and supervisory

positions, conceptual skills are emphasized more by administrators and technical skills

more by supervisory personnel, who are for the most part concerned with the day-to-

day work of the school.

1D



2ean $an5in#s of Po6er !ases

&ales

Bases of ower of 5ffice ollege :iberal Arts $nsurance

Agencies

:egitimate *.1 './ '.'

2(pert '. *.1 '.@

8eferent !.C '. !.8eward !.6 !.' !.@

oercive 1.C 1./ 1.@

=5"2 .D highest 1.D lowest

11



Learnin# 2odule 7

T-E1$8 9 and T-E1$8 8

Theory 9

1) eople inherently dislike work and will avoid it if they can.

!) eople must be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened in order to make them work.

') "he average human being prefers to be directed, wished to avoid responsibility and hasrelatively little ambition.

Theory 8

1) "he e(penditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest.

1!



!) eople can e(ercise self-direction and self-control in the service of obectives to which

they are committed.

') "he average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek

responsibility.

E;c4regor%s "heory F and G)

Theory 9 Decision 2a5in#

1) lose supervision

!) 5ne-way communication

') &trategy planning by top leaders only

*) 3ecision-making at the top level only

) A handing down of decisions to be implemented by middle management

1'



/) A handing down of instructions to be carried out by the workers.

6) =othing goes up e(cept reports

Theory 8 ; Decision 2a5in#

1) "wo-way communication

!) $nvolvement in goal setting, planning, and decision-making at each level

') :arger spans of control

*) 4reater decentralization

1*



) 4reater use of team management.

Eupsychian 2ana#ement Assumptions

>2upsychia? means moving toward psychological health or >healthward.? 2upsychian

management is a manifest effort to bring optimum growth and development to all who are in

contact with the school.

1. Assume everyone is to be trusted.

!. Assume everyone is to be informed as completely as possible of as many facts and truthsas possible.

'. Assume in all your people they impulse to achieve.

*. Assume that there is no dominance H subordination hierarchy in the ungle sense or

authoritarian sense.

1



. Assume that everyone will have the same ultimate managerial obectives and will identify

with them no matter where they are in the organization or in the hierarchy.

/. 2upsychian economics must assume good will among all the members of the organization

rather than rivalry or ealousy.

6. Assume the >Ability to Admire.?

@. Ie must assume that they people in the 2upsychian plants Eschools) are not fi(ated at the

safety-need level.

C. Assume an active trend to self-actualization.

1D. Assume that everyone can enoy good team work, friendship, good group spirit, good

harmony, good belongingness, and group love.

11. Assume hostility to be primarily reactive rather than character-based.

1!. Assume that people can take it.

1'. 2upsychian management assumes that people are improvable.

1*. Assume that everyone prefers to feel important, needed, useful, successful, proud,

respected, rather than unimportant, interchangeable, anonymous, wasted, unused,

e(pendable, disrespected.

1. Assume that everyone prefers or perhaps even needs to love his boss Erather than to hatehim) and that everyone prefers to respect his boss Erather than to disrespect him)

1/



1/. 2upsychian management assumes everyone prefers to be a prime mover rather than a

passive helper.

16. Assume a tendency to improve things... to put things right, make things better, to dothings better.

1@. Assume that growth occurs through delight and through boredom.

1C. Assume preference for being a whole person and not a part, not a thing, or an implement,

or tool, or >hand?.

!D. Assume the preference for working rather than being idle.

!1. Assume the preference for personhood, uniueness as a person, identity Ein contrast to

being anonymous or interchangeable)

!!. Ie must assume the wisdom and the efficacy of self-choice.

!'. Ie must assume that everyone likes to be ustly and fairly appreciated, preferably in

public.

!*. Assume that everyone but especially the more developed person refers responsibility to

dependency and passivity most of the time.

!. "he general assumption is that people will get more pleasure out of loving rather than

they will out of hating.

!/. Assume that fairly well-developed people would rather be interested than destroy.

16



!6. Assume that fairly well-developed people would rather be interested than be bored.

!@. Ie must ultimately assume at the highest theoretical levels of 2upsychian theory, a

preference or a tendency to identify with more and more of the world, or peak e(perience,cosmic consciousness.

!C. Ie must assume the defense and growth dialectic for all these positive trends that have

already been listed above.

Learnin# 2odule <

D+00E$ENT+AT+N !ETWEEN PU!L+" AND P$+%ATE 2ANAE2ENT

1) ower over money, organization and personnel rests in the hands of the

legislature, school code, and local school board rather than in the hands of

management.

!) ;easures of progress toward goals are difficult to devise. Ihat are the school

measures of good citizenship, intellectual enrichment, problem-solving ability,

independent thinking, a desire to learn, economic sufficiency, and effective family

livingJ

"hese are contrasted with the reality understood and uantifiable economic obectives

of private organizations.

1@



') ublic accounting to which the school is subected is designed to control current

e(penditures as contrasted with business accounting, that tends to support future

planning, research, and development.

*) "enure laws and civil service laws tend to protect educational workers from thecontrol of administrators and supervisors.

) &chool purposes and organizational processes designed to achieve these purposes

are influenced indirectly by administrators through individuals and groups E a

political process) rather than directly by administrators Ea management process)

/) 4oals and obectives are often unclear and contradictory. "he latent custodial

functions of schools for e(ample, contradict the manifest self-actualization functions.

6) =o market e(ists to determine effectiveness. 2(pensive special educational

programs, for e(ample, are maintained for political and legal reasons, though, if

subected to a market economy, general consumer interest would not likely be

sufficient to sustain them. By comparison, product lines of firms are thinned out by amarket economy.

@) 8esources are distributed on the basis of formula and other appro(imations of

>euity? rather than on >merit?. Allocating greater resources to >high producing?

schools, for e(ample, would be considered fraudulent.

C) Administrators work with an array of people whose careers are outside ofmanagement control.

1C



1D) Administrators are e(pected to accomplish goals in less time than normally

allowed to managers of business firms.

11) A tight coupling e(ists between means and ends or products and processes.&chooling is a human activity with human ends.

1!) ;any obectives are pursued with scarce resources as contrasted with the business

firm, which allocates more resources to fewer, indeed more focused obectives.

=ote American business is inappropriate for discussing and evaluating public

management. $n the public sector, purpose, organization and people do not have the

same meaning and significance that they have in business.

!D



Learnin# 2odule =

2A.L1WE9A2PLE. 10 -U2AN NEED .AT+.0A"T+1N

)> Physical Needs

5n the ob--K working conditions

5ff the ob--K money to purchase the necessities of life

'> .ecurity Needs

5n the ob--K Lob security - &ick leave

5ff the ob--K ;oney for economic security

7> .ocial Needs

!1



5n the ob--K &ocial interactions on ob H ompany parties

5ff the ob--K &ocial clubs -=eighborhood parties H &ports - Activities

<> E#o Needs

5n the ob--K osition, title, office size Ecarpets), parking, and so forth

5ff the ob--K ;oney for status symbol E=eighborhood ountry lub

;embership

=> .elf0ulfillment Needs

5n the ob--K &elf e(pression H &ense of achievement and growth

5n the ob--K ;oney for hobbies

>3o and be what you feel you are born to be?

2A.L1W?. -+E$A$"-8 10 -U2AN NEED.

1) hysiological =eeds Efood and shelter)

!) &afety =eeds Eprotection against danger, threat, deprivation)

') &ocial =eeds Ebelonging, association, acceptance by social groups)

!!



*) 2go =eeds Eself-esteem, recognition, status)

) &elf-#ulfillment =eeds Ecreativity, self-actualization, self- realization)

=ote A satisfied need is no longer a motivator

2A.L1W?. -E+$A$"-8 TW1 "ATE$1$+E.

Lo6erorder needs:

2steem

&ocial

&ecurity

@Deficiency oriented>

-i#herorder needs:

&elf-Actualization&elf-8ealization

Autonomy

!'



&elf $mprovement

@ro6th oriented>

Learnin# 2odule *

.AT+.0+E$. 01$ TEA"-E$.

Achievement

8ecognition

Iork itself

8esponsibility

Advancement

!*



2otivation

&atisfiers lead to increased performance as they focus on our growth-approach

needs.

;otivational potential is high for most people.

D+..AT+.0A"T+1N 01$ TEA"-E$.

1) oor interpersonal relations

!) $ncompetent, inadeuate, or unfair administrative and supervisory practices

') ;atters e(ternal to the school which comprise one%s personal life

21T+%AT+1N 01$ TEA"-E$.

1) roviding opportunities for teachers to advance within the ranks ofteaching

!



!) Altering responsibilities among the various teaching roles and keying

advancement to responsibility

') 2liminating aspects of the work itself which are sources of dissatisfaction

for teachers, thereby salvaging this factor as a motivator. 0se of

paraprofessionals would be helpful in this effort.

D+..AT+.0+E$. 01$ TEA"-E$.

&alary

ossibility for growth

$nterpersonal relations

&tatus

&upervision

olicy and administration

Iorking conditions

Lob security

!/



ersonal life

-8+ENE

3issatisfiers lead to decreased performance. $f provided for, these factors satisfyour maintenance-avoidance needs. ;otivational potential is low for most people

but hygienic potential Eavoiding dissatification) is high.

21NE8

;oney is not usually noted as a satisfier or dissatisfier.

"wo characteristics about people and money

1) eople always feel entitled to more money

!) 8egardless of what salary - satisfaction is short-lived.

"he main motivational significance is >euality?

2ffective motivation is a matter of non-financial awards.

-8+ENE .EEKE$.

luster into three groups

!6



1) "hose that have the potential for motivation seeking, but are frustrated by

insensitive and closed administrative, supervisory, and organizational policies

and practices.

!) "hose who have the potential for motivation seeking but who elect to channelthis potential into other Enonprofessional or non-school) areas of their lives.

') "hose that do not have the potential for motivation seeking on or off the ob.

-8+ENE .EEKE$. "1N"E$NED !8 -8+EN+" 0A"T1$.

1) &alary

!) Iorking conditions

') &upervision

*) &tatus

) &ecurity

/) &chool policies

!@



6) Administration

@) &ocial relationships

D+00E$ENT+AT+N -8+ENE .EEKE$. 0$12 21T+%AT+1N .EEKE$.

1) ;otivation seekers emphasize the nature of the task.

7ygiene seekers emphasize the nature of the environment.

!) ;otivation seekers are primarily committed to the goals of the school or profession

and work to pursue these goals.

7ygiene seekers are primarily committed to private goals or e(traschool goals and

work for rewards from the school which help to pursue or purchase these nonschool

or nonprofessional goals.

') ;otivation seekers show higher, but not unlimited , tolerance for poor hygiene

factors.

!C



7ygiene seekers display intermittent but chronic dissatisfaction with aspects of the

work environment such as salary, supervision, working conditions, status, security,

administrative policy, and fellow workers.

*) ;otivation seekers show less reaction to improvement of hygiene factors.

7ygiene seekers tend to overreact in satisfaction to hygiene factors.

) &atisfaction is short-lived for motivational seekers when hygiene factors are

improved.

&atisfaction is short-lived for hygiene seekers when hygiene factors are improved.

/) ;otivation seekers show milder discontent when hygiene factors need

improvement.

7ygiene seekers tend to overreact with dissatisfaction when hygiene factors are not

improved.

6) ;otivation seekers realize great satisfaction from accomplishments.

7ygiene seekers realize little satisfaction from accomplishments.

@) ;otivation seekers genuinely enoy the kind of work they do.

7ygiene seekers show little interest in the kid or uality of work they do.

'D



C) ;otivation seekers profit personally and professionally from e(perience.

7ygiene seekers do not profit personally or professionally from e(perience.

1D) ;otivation seekers have positive feelings toward work and life.

7ygiene seekers are generally cynical toward work and life.

11) ;otivation seekers show sincere belief systems.

7ygiene seekers are prone to cultural noises- i.e., take e(treme positions that are

fashionable, superficially espouse management philosophy, act more like top

management than top management does.

'1



Learnin# 2odule

PE$.1NNEL P$A"T+"E. +N ."-11L.

>"he resent #ocus on 7ygiene =eeds?

.E"U$+T8

#airness

4rievance rocedure

rotection from parentsrotection from students

&upport from administration

&eniority and tenure

0nion and association membership

21NETA$8

'!



&alary schedules

8etirement

&abbatical

&ick leave7ospitalization

$nsurance

redit union

&ocial security

Annuity

;utual fund

W1$K+N "1ND+T+1N.

ondition of the school

5ffice and room space

:ounge space

:ength of workday

=umber of students

7all duty

&tudy hall assignmentsarking facilities

:unch and rest periods

2uipment

"eaching schedule

.1"+AL

''



Iork groups

offee groups

&ocial contacts

#eelings of belonging and acceptance

rofessional groups

.TATU.

Lob definition

Lob title

lassroom size and location

2uipment

&tudent type

lass load4rade level

rivileges

.UPE$%+.+1N

8ecruitment

'*



&election

Assignment

5rientation

$n-service programs

2valuation programsIork rules

ommunication channels

ommittee work

A"-+E%E2ENT AND $E.P1N.+!+L+T8

>"he =eed #ocus $s 5n ;otivation =eeds?

3elegation of authority

articipation

$nvolvementlanning

4oal &etting

#reedom to act

9isibility

Accountability

reative e(pression

romotion

'





8efers to tasks involving information processing and cognitive stimulation.

"eaching tasks are viewed as problems to be solved rather than

details to be conveyed to students.

"asks arranged in a mechanical way may not be very satisfying to many

teachers.

') &5$A: $="28A"$5=

8ecognizes that individuals at work generally derive satisfaction from

interacting with others.

"his interaction can be a source of satisfaction and a stimulus to building

commitment and loyalty to the work group and school. "eaching is still a

relatively private activity.

*) "A& &$4=$#$A=2

8efers to the perceived importance by teachers of the work to be done.

"ask significance reuires an understanding and appreciation of what the

educational program as a whole tries to accomplish and how one%s individual

efforts fit into the large view.

) "A& $32="$"G

'6



8euires that one have a larger view of what the school is about, and that one

sees how his or her part contributes to the larger purpose.

#ragmented curriculum formats, narrow departmentalization, and detailed

teaching assignments tend to work against task identity.

/) 82&5=&$B$:$"G #58 82&0:"&

8euires that teachers be given a great deal of discretion over task activities but

held accountable for obtaining results.

"eachers should be responsible for the classroom learning climate, patterns ofverbal interactions, reading achievement, and so forth.

6) =5I:2342 5# 82&0:"&

nowledge of results refers to feedback as to the uality of one%s performance.

learly, without feedback it is difficult to derive satisfaction from

accomplishment.

'@





Locals: The True !ureaucrats

-5ppose =2A-A#"

-ommunity and its people are more important than the school itself.

-&alaries not too low

-"eachers should not have more influence-"eachers should not have reduced teaching loads.

-Iant formal regulations

Locals: The -ome uard

- :east amount of professional specialization.

- :ittle or no advanced study

- Attend few meetings- =o curricular work

- redominantly female. 7usbands are >prominent? contributors to the

school district.

- 4enerally have personal reasons for e(pressing loyalty to the school.

Locals: The Elders

- :argest share of tenure in the school.

- >&enior itizens? of the school

- $nformal peer group+ those who came to the organization at about the sametime

- 2valuate the present in terms of the past.

"osmopolitans: The 1utsiders

- :ittle loyalty to the school.

- 3o not intend to stay with the school.

- Iilling to leave the school for more money, better position, or more prestige.

*D



- =o particularly close to students.

- :ikely to identify with an outside reference group.

- :ook outside the school for intellectual stimulation.

"osmopolitans: The Empire !uilders - 2noy high visibility outside the school.

- :ess dependent upon the school for economic reasons.

- "he empire builder remains on the lookout for a better position.

-:ike the outsider, he or she is committed to specialized areas and professional

skills. 5ften complains that e(tracurricular activities are too heavy and

distract his work.

-#eel power is too concentrated in the hands of the administrators.

ADAPT+N T1 T-E ."-11L !U$EAU"$A"8

Up6ard 2o4iles

1) &trongly identifies with the school, its goals, its value system, its authority

system, its tradition, or simply its way of doing things.

!) "hey need to be a part of the system--- to e(press loyalty, to provide support

--- "hey receive generous rewards for e(pressing loyalty.

*1





place of work is virtually ignored e(cept as a source of security, salary to buy

e(tra-ob satisfactions they need.

') $ndifferents reect status, success, and power.

*) $ndifferents seek security from the school and are attracted to circumstances

which reuire them to contribute minimally to gain the security.

) $ndifferents are usually uiet, stay-out-of-the-way types who avoid calling

attention to themselves. "hey hope to avoid high performance standards.

Am4ivalents

1) Ambivalent cannot reect the rewards of power and success their organization

offers them, nor can they perform the necessary roles--- in particular, adopt the

perspective of upward mobiles--- in order to attain power and success.

*'



!) Ambivalents are introverts, have deep intellectual interest, specialized

knowledge, high aspirations, skilled professional know-how, idealistic

perspectives, and a high tolerance for ambiguity.

') Ambivalents are doubtful and fearful of authority systems other than merit.

*) Ambivalents lose sight of practical realism and >pet? solutions.

) Ambivalents are self-conscious and an(ious.

/) Ambivalents are critical of the establishment.

6) "hey are demanding of others and themselves.

@) Ambivalents have much to offer the school in terms of professional talent and

intellectual commitment, yet they freuently have difficulty with their

organization as they work to make their commitment.

C) A maor problem facing school administration is allowing and encouraging

ambivalents to function adeuately within organizational structures. Ambivalentsmust function if schools are to meet their e(panded commitments.

1D) &chool administrators must legalize the e(pert authority ambivalents

typically posses and backing it up with appropriate resources.

ADBU.T2ENT: W1$K P.8"-1PAT-1L18 "ATE$1$+E.

**



1) $ndividuals who have serious deficiencies in all aspects of work motivation.

!) $ndividuals whose predominate response to the ob is manifested as fear and

an(iety.

') $ndividuals who are openly hostile and continuously aggressive.

*) $ndividuals who show symptoms of marked dependency.

) $ndividuals who display a marked degree of social naMvetN.

Learnin# 2odule

"he &chool%s 5rganizational &tructure

According to Ieber%s formulations, characteristics of bureaucracy are

1) A well-defined hierarchy of offices.

*





5fficeholders are e(pected to perform their functions uite independently of

their personal selves.

"-E.TE$ !A$NA$D

$dentifies the beneficial and disruptive effects of differentiating rewards

and status between and among individuals as follows

1) 8ecognizes differential abilities - “Beneficial”

:eads to distorted evaluation of individuals - “Disruptive”

!) 8ecognizes differential difficulty of various kinds of work - “Beneficial”

8estricts the circulation of the elite - >3isruptive?

') 8ecognizes differential importance of various kinds of work - “Beneficial”

3istorts the system of distributive ustice - “Disruptive”

') 8ecognizes the value of formal status as a social or organizational tool.

“Beneficial”

*6



2(aggerates administration to the detriment of leadership and morale.

“Disruptive”

) rotects the integrity of the individual - “Beneficial”

2(alts the symbolic functions beyond the level of sustainment EAttitudes and

behavior come to be e(pected which status incumbents cannot fulfill.)

“Disruptive”

:imits the adaptability of an organization. “Disruptive”

-AE?. A9+12AT+" T-E1$8

584A=$<A"$5=A: ;2A=& E1-*)

1) omple(ity Especialization)

*@



-=umber of occupational specialties.

-:evel of trainings reuired.

!) entralization

E7ierarchy of authority)

-roportion of obs that participate in decision-making.

-=umber of areas in which decisions are made by decision-makers.

') #ormalization Estandardization)

- roportion of obs that are codified.

- 8ange of variation allowed within obs.

*) &tratification Estatus system)

- 3ifferences in income and prestige among obs.

- 8ate of mobility between low and high ranking obs or status levels.

584A=$<A"$5=A: 2=3& E-@)

) Adaptiveness Efle(ibility)

- =umber of new programs in a year.

- =umber of new techniues in a year.

*C



/) roduction Eeffectiveness)

- =umber of units produced per year.

- 8ate of increase in units per year.

6) 2fficiency Ecost)

-ost per unit of output per year.

-Amount of idle resources per year.

@) Lob &atisfaction Emorale)

-&atisfaction with working conditions.

-8ate of turnover in ob occupants per year.

P$+N"+PLE. 01$ .T$U"TU$AL A$$ANE2ENT.

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&chool administrators have functional responsibilities which come from legal

reuirements and from the work group which they are members. "he following

are guidelines for the organization

1) $nitial decisions about employment of staff, allocation of resources,development and modification of programs, and evaluation of staff and program

should be made by the work group most directly affected.

!) 5perational and evaluative procedures should focus on goal achievement

Ebehaviors, tasks, functions to be performed) rather than control.

') #unctional responsibilities should be assigned on the basis of competence

rather than position. "his reuires that more attention be given to what

constitutes competence, given a certain function.

*) 8ewards should be based on ob performance rather than on location in the

school%s structure.

Learnin# 2odule )(

1



0$EN"- AND $A%EN 0+%E T8PE. 10 P1WE$ A%A+LA!LE T1 ."-

AD2+N+.T$AT1$.

1) 82IA83&ubordinates perceive that the administrator can withhold, permit, or

increase rewards.

!) 528$92

&ubordinates perceive that the administrator can distribute punishment Ee.g.

dismissal, undesirable assignments). oercion could involve physical force.

') :24$"$;A"2

&ubordinates perceive that the school administrator, by virtue of position

and status within a duly constitutional hierarchy, has the right to e(pect what is

e(pected.

*) 82#282="

&ubordinates perceive the school administrator as a desirable and

appropriate human model and want to be perceived reciprocally- thus demandsare accepted.

) 2F28"

&ubordinates perceive the administrator to possess relevant e(pertise.

!



*



85:2 28#58;A=2 A=3 "72 2F20"$92& #0="$5=

A:"28=A"$92 &"G:2&

"he three following stereotypes focus attention on the school administrator in the

performance of the characteristic super-ordinate sub role.

o "72 "A&;A&"28

o "72 &G;A"7$<28

o "72 A:0:A"58

)> T-E TA.K2A.TE$

a) "his is the school administrator who is all business? and if necessary at the

e(pense of need satisfaction.

b) &trict adherence to e(pectations characterize ob behavior.

c) ;inimum hours, due dates for reports, attendance at meetings, following

curriculum guides are the minimum that should be performed by teachers.

d) 3istrict personnel policies and other procedures clearly outline the behavior of

the taskmaster principle.

e) onflict between organizational demands against personal needs are easy for

the taskmaster to resolve.

f) 3istrict personnel policy relating to leaves+ the selection, adoption, and use ofte(tbooks and other materials+ graduation reuirements+ student behavior+

*



administrator, teacher and student leaving school+ the use of facilities+ and

teacher-student rations clearly outline the behavior for the principle, teacher,

student and parent according to the taskmaster superintendent, supervisor of

instruction, etc.

g) onflicts in e(pectations are resolved by looking to the ob demand or

description.

h) "endency of the taskmaster administrator to search for answers in the direction

of established patterns.

i) As long as e(pectations are met relations may be uite pleasant.

) "he taskmaster is predictable in terms of role behavior.

'> T-E .82PAT-+GE$

a) "he sympathizer refuses to permit organizational demands to obstruct

attention to personal needs, interests, and aspirations.

b) 8ules, procedures, patterns of performing are for suspending if they conflict

with an individual%s desires.

c) ;eetings called for the purpose of identifying problems are likely to be

devoted to e(traneous matters or to the e(pressions of personal or ego

gratification.

/



d) "he sympathizer%s zealous concern for people gives the appearance of

indecisiveness.

e) &ympathizer relates well to virtually anyone, especially initially. "hus the

colleague, subordinate, and community liaison sub roles are easier to performwhereas the super ordinate sub role is most difficult.

f) 2fforts are made to accomplish organizational demands, but not at the e(pense

of individual concerns.

g) 4oal conflicts affecting e(pectations are resolved by finding alternatives least

disruptive to individual or group needs.

h) &ympathizers may or may not be handshaking, >don%t you worry? type. Ouiet,

dignified people may also be sympathizers.

i) &ympathizer is predictable in terms of role behavior.

7> T-E "AL"ULAT1$

/

6



a) "he calculator calculates potential conflicts between organizational demands

and individual needs, interests, and aspirations and systematically moves

between the two roles.

b) $n unyielding situations, conflict issues and decisions are willingly negotiated.

c) "he calculator conforms to the commonly role description of the successful

politician.

d) alculator tends to emphasize organizational demands when performing the

subordinate sub role, and individual needs, interests, and aspirations when

performing the super ordinate sub role. alculator changes when one moves to

satisfaction of individual needs.

Learnin# 2odule )'

6

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#ive assumptions about conflict, interest group, and decision processes which are

central in viewing school as political systems

1) onflict is natural, and is to be e(pected in a dynamic organization. onflict is

not abnormal, nor is it necessarily a symptom of a breakdown in theorganization%s community.

!) "he organization is fragmented into many power blocs and interest groups,

and it is natural that they will try to influence policy so that their values and

goals are given primary consideration.

') $n all organizations small groups of political elites govern most of the maor

decisions.

7owever this does not mean that one elite group governs everything+ the

decisions may be divided up, with different elite groups controlling different

decisions.

*) #ormal authority, as prescribed by the bureaucratic system, is severely limited

by the political pressure and bargaining tactics that groups can e(ert againstauthorities.

3ecisions are not simply orders. 5fficials are not free simply to order decisions+

instead they have to ockey between interest groups, hoping to build viable

compromises among powerful blocs.

) 2(ternal interest groups have a great deal of influence over the organization,

and internal groups do not have the power to make policies in a vacuum.

@

C



"1N0L+"T +N 1$AN+GAT+1N. $E.EA$"-

1. :atent conflict

$s concerned with the conditions which are underlying sources of conflict.

Eompetition for scarce resources and contradictory goals ripen possibility of

conflict.)

!) erceived conflict

rincipal parties Eindividuals or groups) cognitively are aware of conflict

conditions. E"hat is, some misunderstanding or muddle communication channel

leads the primary teachers to believe that they may lose importance to the special

education teachers when such is not the case.)

') #elt conflict

onflict condition becomes translated into feeling Ehatred, ealousy,

withdrawn, an(iety, self-pity, rivalry)

$n this stage, conflict becomes personalized.

$n administration ethics reuire tension reduction and with depersonalizing

the nature of the conflict.

*) ;anifest conflict

C

/D



$ncludes actual display of conflict behavior. At one e(treme the behavior is

very obvious Ephysical or verbal violence) and at the other end very subtle

Eimplicit bargaining during a group decision-making activity).

) onflict aftermath

$f the conflict is genuinely resolved to the satisfaction of all participants,

the basis for a more cooperative relationship may be laid.

$f conflict is suppressed but not resolved, the latent conflict may e(plode in

a more serious form until rectified or until relationship dissolves.

Three Types of "onflict +nternal to the 1r#ani3ation

1) BA84A$=$=4 5=#:$"

onflict among individuals and groups with specific interests who are

competing for scarce resources.

!) B082A08A"$ 5=#:$"onflict between individuals and groups at different levels of the hierarchy

who are competing for scarce resources.

') &G&"2;& 5=#:$"

onflict between individuals and groups at the same level of the hierarchy.

/D

/1



T-E P1L+T+"AL 21DEL

"he following in summarizing the play of the game of politics

1) Actions - ;erge neither as the calculated choice of a unified group or as aformal summary of leaders% preferences.

Action is shared power and separate udgments concerning important choices.

!) 2nvironment H Ihere the game is played+ uncertainty about what must be

done+ the necessity that something be done and crucial conseuences of whatever

is done.

') ace of the game - 7undreds of issues, numerous games, and multiple

channels H compels players to fight >to get other attention? to make them >see

the facts? and >take time? to think about broader issue.

*) &tructure of the game - ower shared by individuals with separate

responsibilities- validates each player%s feeling that >others don%t see my

problem? and >others must be persuaded to look at the issue from a different perspective.

) 8ules of the game H 7e who hesitates loses his chance to play at that point,

and he who is uncertain about his recommendation is overpowered by others

/1

/!



who are surePpressures players to come down on one side of a 1-*C issue and

play.

/) 8ewards of the game - 2ffectiveness, i.e., impact on outcomes as the

immediate measure of performancePencourages hard play.

2odule )7

/!

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"122UN+T8 P1WE$ .T$U"TU$E.

&ummary of four community power structures

- G8A;$3A:- #A"$5=A: 58 A00&

- 5A:$"$5=A: 58 5:G:$"7$

- A;58750&

1) yramidal structure

haracterized by a single group of individuals who make decisions

!) #actional or aucus structure

haracterized by at least two relatively durable groups+ vie for decision-

making power.

') oalitional or olylithic

"he nature of issues to be decided determines the interested individuals and

groups who form coalitions that shift andor disappear over time.

*) Amorphous

"erm used to describe the absence of any persistent pattern of individuals

or groups who makecontrol decisions.

.A"$ED H .E"ULA$ "122UN+T+E.

/'

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1) A sacred society is one that elicits from or imparts to its members, by means of

sociation, unwillingness andor inability to respond to the culturally new as the

new is defined by those member in terns of the society%s e(isting culture. Ea high

degree of resistance to change)

!) A secular society is one that elicits from or imparts to its members, by means

of sociation, willingness and ability to respond to the culturally new as the new is

defined by those members in terns of the society%s e(isting culture. Ea high

degree of readiness and capacity to change)

PLA"+D H TU$!ULENT EN%+$1N2ENT.

1) :A$3 2=9$85=;2="&

8elatively stable and fundamentally predictable.

haracterized by individuals who interact about and with the school

organization on specific issues and in a disorganized fashion. =o attempt to

include broad support.

!) :A$3, :0&"2823 2=9$85=;2="

8elatively stable and predictable. characterized by individuals who share, in

some generally recognized patterns, interests, goals, and concerns for the

schools. Ehamber of ommerce, "A, "a(payer groups, ethnic groups, are

e(amples of organizations the sch. administrator interacts.

') 3$&"08B23 H 82A"$92 2=9$85=;2="

/



//



1. Assumptions about the interests and capabilities of individuals and groups in

the community

a) ;ost parents and citizens have legitimate interests in the effective

functioning of schools.

b) A maority of the individuals and groups are capable of increased

understanding of and contribution to policy making for schools.

!. Assumptions about school administrator behavior

a) Administrator%s task is to help the board of education create and

environment that facilitates the involvement of individuals and groups in thedefinition of education in schools and means to obtain resources to operate

schools that appro(imate that definition.

b) "he administrators should lead in the development of structures to

mediate conflicts in the definition of education and ways in which that definition

can be implemented.

c) "he school administrator could attempt to e(pand the opportunities for

individuals and groups to increase their knowledge of schools and to engage in

reciprocal influence e(changes with educators in the schools.

'. Assumptions about e(pectations for processes and ends



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LEADE$.-+P "1N"E$N. 01$ T-E ."-11L AD2+N+.T$AT1$

- Administrator%s behavior

- 3evelopment of others

- 4roup leadership functions

a> Administrator?s 4ehavior

- "he administrator must enoy the limelight.

- #ailure to direct or coordinate group activities necessary to change andor

achieve goals is an abdication of leadership responsibility.

- Administrator%s failure to direct and coordinate is a sign of incompetence as a

leader.

- "here are activities within the immediate work conte(t of the schooladministrator which demand action. "he school administrator who forever

fails personally to suggest >structures? for these activities is abdicating the

leader role.

4> Development of others

/C



"he leadership potential in others in the school system in important for three

different reasons

1) 2ffective movement toward goal achievement reuires the efforts of numerous

groups. E2nergetic leadership by the superintendent is thwarted by failures of principals to behave in a similar manner.)

!) "he school%s manifest function is the development of human resources---its

pupils. "he schools professional employees should obviously enoy the same

attention.

rofessionally oriented individuals should suggest that they are prepared to

groups. E2nergetic leadership by the superintendent is thwarted by failures of principals to behave in a similar manner.)

') "he school%s manifest function is the development of human resources---its

pupils. "he schools professional employees should obviously enoy the same

attention.

rofessionally oriented individuals should suggest that they are prepared toe(ercise leadership in selected areas of activities.

*) ertain individuals are able to perform one kind of function better than other

individuals.

&ince the total organizational performance is related to the e(tent in witch all of

the functions are performed, the administrator, as leader, must be concerned with

the development of leadership potential in others in the school.

6D



c roup leadership functions

1) "wo essential sets of conditions which must e(ist in any formalized school

group for e(istence

a) 4oal achievement activities.

b) 4roup maintenance activities.

!) :eader is concerned with identifying and defining the problem+ defining

criteria for acceptable solutions+ and providing information, seeking opinions,

and so forth.

LEADE$.-+P: A .8NT-E.+.

"he primary components of leadership consist of four sets of variables

61



- :2A328 B27A9$58

- 4850 "A&&

- &2$#$ :2A328&7$ #0="$5=& 82:A"23 "5 4850 "A&&

- 9A8$AB:2& 5# $="2892="$5=

a> Leader 4ehavior

- &pecific behavioral acts which call attention to the accomplishment of

whatever task the group is working toward --- task behavior.

- Behavior recognizes the presence of the human element and defers to the

basic human considerations of security, respect, dignity, autonomy and

worth-person behavior.

b) roup tas5s

- 4oal achievement refers to those tasks for which the group was formed and

continues to e(ist.

&chools e(ist to further the education of their students --- through the teaching of reading, preparation for life, the learning of occupational skills, and so forth.

4roup maintenance refers to those tasks which keep the work group reasonably

cohesive, thus enabling goal achievement.

6!



=ote ;aor difficulty with goal achievement and group maintenance dichotomy

is the tendency to consider the former more important and the latter unimportant.

c> .pecific leadership functions related to #roup tas5s

-;aking the group aware of the need for new or different action --- awareness

- larifying alternative ends and strategies--- settling on action

- Accepting and initiating a preferred end approach--- implementing

- ;onitoring of progress toward the preferred end approach--- processing

- $ntroducing evaluative data---evaluating

- oncluding group activity on particular end or approach--- concluding

- ;aking the group aware of its results--- feedback

d> %aria4les of intervention

-:eader-member relations Epsychological togetherness)

-"ask structure

-osition power of the leader. Eontrol of the leader by virtue of being designated

leader)

DANE$. 10 $EA"T+%E PLANN+N

6'



) .ta4ility is pri3ed

- eriods of inaction are welcome, for they resemble euilibrium and satisfy the

need to eliminate uncertainty.

-&tress is kept to a minimum. "his is ;anagement by Appeasement geared to

bring about semblance of calm and stability with costs in uality and principals.

' Defensive mana#ement is encoura#ed

-8eactive strategies often result in administrators evaluating decision alternatives

in terms of their own safety, security, and status.

-8esponding to stress which is beyond control soon makes the administratorobsessed with hisher own survival.

7 Paternalism is encoura#ed

- 3efensive management leads to the establishment of alliances. 3ecisions are

often made on the basis of favoritism and protective trade-offs.

- ingdoms are encouraged, and special-interest groups emerge as protective

lobbies.

- &ince little attention is given to future planning, uncertainty is actually

increased.

- $nformation is scarce and prized.

6*



- "he communications network becomes a control mechanism and reward

granting device, with school administrators buying loyalty from subordinates.

- Buying loyalty from subordinates by permitting the some access to the

communications network. -eople feel safer when they have some notion of what is going on and will pay

for this safety with loyalty.

< Lon# ran#e plannin# forfeited

-8eactive strategies are short-term survival --- and maintenance-oriented.

-:ittle attention is given to long-term goals and directions.

-Although the elimination of uncertainty is important for today, tomorrow%s

problems are guaranteed because no deliberate attention is given to the future.

= Educational #oals assume the lo6est status

-$n each case educational goals and the welfare of students are displaced by

organizational and administrative needs, goals, and demands.

-&chool administrators and teachers become defense bound and react to stimuli

primarily in terms of promoting their own safety, security and status.

6



-&elf-actualization of students and commitment to other educational goals are

indeed lu(uries under such conditions.

N1$2AT+%E AND DE."$+PT+%E %+EW. 10 PLANN+N

;ost authorities agree that educational leadership reuires proactive postures

from school administrators.

"his proactive view with its emphasis on planning is a normative theory of

administration--- one which specifies or prescribes what school administrators

should do.

3escriptive theories attempt to provide a more accurate picture of what school

administrators actually do.

8eactive planning is more familiar to administrators because it is a more realistic

portrayal or description of their world.

"ontrastin# 5ey elements of normative and descriptive vie6s of plannin# are as

follo6s:

6/



=58;A"$92 Eroactive)

32&8$"9$2 E8eactive)

1) &etting of optimum obectives. E=ormative or roactive)

&etting of satisfying obectives. E3escriptive or 8eactive)

!) 3ecisions geared to ma(imizing organizational performance. E=ormative or roactive)

3ecisions geared to protecting one%s self-interest.

') Ouantitative techniues used to make uality decisions. E=ormative or roactive)

3ecisions made subectively. E3escriptive or 8eactive)

*) 3ecisions are socially responsible. E=ormative or 8eactive)

3ecisions made in the best interest of administrator%s and organizations.

) &trategies developed in response to forecasts and needs. E=ormative or 8eactive)

66



&trategies developed in response to changes in the environment.

E3escriptive or 8eactive)

omment roactive administration is clearly far superior to reactive administration.

.ELE"T+N AN APP$1P$+ATE 2ANAE2ENT APP$1A"-

a) #or administrative and management functions.

b) #or instructional and curricular functions.

b) Ihen dealing with things and people.

d) Ihen control of activities in pursuit of goals is needed.

e) Ihen the focus is on problem solving and creative solutions.

f) Ihen problems are simple and readily specified.

g) Ihen goals are ambiguous and comple(.

h) Ihen problems are easily uantified.

i) Ihen problems are difficult to uantify.

) Ihen you want the plan to take control H automatic pilot.

6@



k) Ihen you want people to take control H liveQ

l) Ihen the conseuences of error are small and not serious.

l) Ihen the conseuences of error are large and very serious.

m) Ihen you need a plan that is enduring.

n) Ihen you need a plan that is responsive to change.

o) Ihen ability and knowledge are high in the organization.

p) Ihen ability and knowledge are low in the organization.

) Ihen ability and knowledge are high in the organization.

r) Ihen ability and knowledge are low in the organization.

s) Ihen programmed decision-making is needed.

t) Ihen fle(ible decision-making is needed.

6C



Learnin# 2odule )*

AD2+N.T$AT+%E E00E"T+%ENE.. 01$ ."-11L AD2+N+.T$AT1$.

)> T-E !EL+E0 .8.TE2

a) 9alues and beliefs form a crucial part of educational planning, decision-making, and

implementation.

b) All educational activity needs to be guided by a value system uniue to educational

youngsters in a free society.

c) &chool administrators must e(amine carefully and evaluate their values and beliefs about

people, education, and administration.

d) &chool administrators must develop and awareness for the beliefs of others--- including

students, parents, teachers, and the community.

e) $t is through the belief system that administrative and educational goals are generated.

'> T-E -U2AN .8.TE2

a) "he growth and development of the human organization of the human organization

receives primary attention by school administrators interested in administrative

effectiveness.

b) $ndeed, if growth is valued in youngsters, the school will need to become a growing

organization for all.

c) Administrators need to support the development of human resources.

7> T-E 1$AN+GAT+1NAL .8.TE2

@D



a) &chools are formal organizations.

b) :ike other formal organizations, schools have >needs? over and above those given to

them by people.

c) &chools achieve their purposes through people who are differentiated by task, role andfunction.

d) eople and schools are put into motion by power and authority--- both internal, such as

motivation, and e(ternal, such as coercion.

e) ertain organizational personalities emerge based on how the school is organized, how

power is distributed and used, and what goals enoy a privileged position --- which help

identify one school from another.

f) "he interface Ecommon boundary) between person and organization varies from school to

school and from person to person, depending on a number of factors.

-g)3imensions of organization power distribution and use, and the character of interaction

between human being and organization have critical effects on the nature and uality of

organizational effort, educational decision-making, and administrative effectiveness.

@1



<> T-E P1L+T+"AL .8.TE2

a) &chools operate in a political environment and are themselves political organizations.

-b) 5f concern to school administrators is the school%s vulnerability to outside political

forces.

c) $nternal politics are greatly magnified these days. "hey forces the school administrator

into the role of bargainer and negotiator rather than leader "he problem is not one of

eitherbut one of balance.

-d) olitical behavior within schools can be managed by building and nurturing

organizational patriotism.

omment "his reuires closer matching of individual goals and aspirations with those of

the school - a leadership, not bargaining task.

=> T-E A"T+1N .8.TE2

a) lanning, deciding, and leading are the main components of the action system.

-b) "he action system provides insights into developing action strategies which are directed

toward the achievement of people%s goals, educational goals, and school goals.

-c) Administrative effectiveness depends upon one%s leadership functions are performed, that

leadership emerges from a variety of sources and is not held to be the e(clusive province of

school administrators.

d) :eaders bring to their obs a sense of vision and purpose which adds rich meaning to

their lives, the lives of others, and the activities of the school.

@!



omment

a) A critical uality of any leader is that he is profoundly convinced that his vision of what

ought to be or could be has a dramatic significance for the lives of those for and with whom

he works.

b) 7e is caught up with the drama and e(citement of what he and his subordinates are doing,

and he communicates and shares them with subordinates.

c) Ihen speaking of educational leaders, we must add the uality of a continuous, lived

e(perience of learning, in which the educational leader shares with his subordinates his zest

for e(panding his own understanding and appreciation of the human epic.

"opyri#ht & '((C 4y William Allan Kritsonis

All $i#hts $eserved/0orever

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Documents

Human Resource Mgt. Lecture Notes - William Allan Kritsonis, PhD