HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY(ANATOMI DAN FISIOLOGI MANUSIA)

Compiled by

Sheikh Kamaruddin Sheikh Ahmad

Skeleton SystemThe human skeleton is a strong, flexible framework of 206 bones that supports the body and protects internal organs. In addition, the bones of the skeleton store calcium, a mineral essential for the activity of nerve and muscle cells. The soft core of bone, the bone marrow, is where red blood cells, certain white blood cells, and blood platelets form.Bones come in different shapes and sizes, each adapted to perform specific functions. The breastbone, for example, is a flat plate of bone that helps to protect the heart and lungs in the chest. The fused bones of the skull safely encase the brain. The short, delicate bones in the wrist and hand enhance dexterity, providing flexibility for small, precise motions. The long, heavy femur bone in the leg acts as a strong lever for powerful or speedy movement. Cartilage is flexible connective tissue that provides support to skeletal bones and allows joints to move without rubbing against each other.

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This illustration shows the body’s complex network of skeletal muscles. Skeletal muscles attach to bones of the skeleton and control all voluntary movements. A skeletal muscle crosses a joint between two bones and is attached to each bone either directly or by means of a tendon or a fibrous sheet or band called a fascia. Bones move when muscles contract, or shorten, across the joint.The size of a muscle depends on the function it performs. Where dexterity is required, as in the fingers, the muscles are typically very small. Where strength is needed, as in the thigh, the muscles are large

Muscle System (Front)

Muscle System (Back)This illustration shows the body’s complex network of skeletal muscles. Skeletal muscles attach to bones of the skeleton and control all voluntary movements. A skeletal muscle crosses a joint between two bones and is attached to each bone either directly or by means of a tendon or a fibrous sheet or band called a fascia. Bones move when muscles contract, or shorten, across the joint.

The size of a muscle depends on the function it performs. Where dexterity is required, as in the fingers, the muscles are typically very small. Where strength is needed, as in the thigh, the muscles are large.

Circulatory System

The circulatory system uses blood to deliver oxygen and nutrients to body tissues and remove waste products from tissue cells. This illustration shows the heart and the different types of blood vessels in the body’s circulatory system.

Red vessels indicate oxygenated blood, usually carried by the arteries. Blue vessels show oxygen- poor blood carried by veins. Tiny vessels called capillaries connect veins and arteries and permit the exchange of substances between the blood and body tissues.

Respiratory SystemThe respiratory system consists of the lungs, a pair of elastic organs housed in the chest cavity, and the air passages leading to them. The air inhaled into the lungs provides oxygen to cells throughout the body. Air forced out of the lungs removes carbon dioxide from the body.Air enters the respiratory system through the nose or mouth. It then travels through the larynx (voice box) and into the trachea (windpipe). At about the middle of the chest, the trachea divides into two tubes, the right and left bronchi. The right bronchus carries air to the three lobes of the right lung. The left bronchus supplies air to the two lobes of the left lung.

Nervous System

The human nervous system oversees the activity of all other body systems. The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is made up of a network of nerves connecting the brain and spinal cord with the rest of the body. Together, the central and peripheral nervous systems control both voluntary and involuntary functions in the body.

Endocrine System

The endocrine system is made of many glands—groups of cells that release chemical substances called hormones into the bloodstream. Hormones influence and regulate diverse activities such as metabolism, growth, mental development, and emotional behavior.

Urinary System

The urinary system eliminates waste products from the body and helps regulate the body’s water and chemical balance. The organs of the urinary system include two oval-shaped kidneys, each with a long, slender tube, called the ureter, that connects to the bladder. Another tubular vessel, the urethra, extends from the bladder to an opening out of the body.

Digestive System

The organs of the digestive system break down food into simpler substances for absorption into the bloodstream. These organs also remove indigestible matter and waste products from the body through excretion.

Immune System

The immune system defends the body from invading organisms that may cause disease. One part of the immune system uses barriers to protect the body from foreign substances. These barriers include the skin and the mucous membranes, which line all body cavities; and protective chemicals, such as enzymes in saliva and tears that destroy bacteria.Another part of the immune system uses lymphocytes, specialized white blood cells that respond to specific types of foreign invaders. B lymphocytes produce proteins called antibodies, which circulate in the blood and attack specific disease-causing organisms. T lymphocytes attack invading organisms directly.

Reproductive System (Male)

The primary function of the male reproductive system is to form sperm, the male reproductive cells, and deliver them to the female. Unlike the reproductive structures of females, the male reproductive structures are located outside of the pelvis. This external location keeps the temperature of sperm slightly below body temperature, which is necessary for their healthy development and survival.

Reproductive System

(Female)The female reproductive system is more complex than that of the male reproductive system. In addition to producing female sex cells, known as ova (eggs), the female body also protects and nurtures a developing baby for about nine months while it grows within the woman’s uterus (womb). A woman’s breasts can provide nourishment for newborns.