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1Analyzing and Selection ofQuestions

2 Selection of operating System

3Research about Virtual Memoryof Linux

4 Research About Paging5 Research about Algorithm6 Research about Swapping

7Analyzing information andPutting them in Order

8 Witting Introduction of Linux9 Virtual Memory10 Paging and Its Algorithm11 Demand Paging12 Swapping In Linux

13Problems & solutions InvolvingLinux Memory Management

14 Conclusion15 Research About Microprocessors16 Introduction of Microprocessors

17Research about design ofmicroprocessors

18 Parts of Microprocessor

19Trend affecting microprocessordesign and Performance

20

Differences of Microprocessordesign and goals inlaptops,desktop,embedded andservers.

21Problems & Solutions involvingmicroprocessor

22 Conclusion

23Frequently asked question forLinux

24Frequently asked Question forMicroprocessor

25 Appendix26 Abstract and Last Editing..

Buy SmartDraw!- purchased copies print this document without a watermark .

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Abstract1 | P a g e


In this report, the first part consists of the memory management of Linux. The memory

management was mostly concentrated on the Virtual memory throughout the whole

documentation of the first part. Explanation of several techniques and Mechanisms that Linux

uses can be seen in this report. Specific techniques include paging, demand paging and

swapping. Some algorithms like the Least Recently Used and clock Algorithm have been

mentioned. Limitations and Extensions that Linux have when managing memory are also there.

Problems concerning memory management of Linux have also been included with along its

given solutions.

The second part consists about microprocessors. Some parts and functions of the microprocessor

can be seen attached in the appendix. The second part of this report is mainly concentrated on

major trends that are affecting the microprocessor performance and design and the major

differences in terms of design and goals of microprocessor in laptops, servers and desktops.

Some problems involving microprocessor have also been included with its attached solutions.

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INTRODUCTION OF MEMORY MANAGEMENT

Linux is a relatively new operating system that has begun to enjoy a lot of attention from the business, academic and free software worldwide. As the operating system matures, its feature set, capabilities and performance grow, but so, out of necessity does its size and complexity.

The Linux memory management unit ensures that the system functions in the appropriate way and at a high efficiency. Memory management is the controlling, coordination and management of computer memory.

Memory needs to be managed as well as possible:

1. To increase the utility of the CPU

2. To make Data and instructions accessible quickly by the CPU.

3. Achieved efficiency in the use of limited memory.

4. Transfer data from / to main memory to / from the CPU can be more efficient.

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The Linux Virtual Memory:Virtual memory as the name itself doesn’t physically exist on a memory chip. It is an

optimization technique and is applied by the operating system in order to give an application

program the impression that it is has more memory that it actually has. The Linux makes the

system appear as if it has a larger amount of memory than it actually has. The virtual memory

can be much larger than the physical memory in the system. In the 32 bit system, we have 232

bytes of virtual address space or 4GB likewise for the 64 bit system it’s approximately 18

Exabyte’s.

A file is created on the hard disk by the virtual memory manager that holds the extras memory

needed by the Linux. This file is called the paging file, and it plays a critical role in Virtual

memory. All the memory is accountable with the combination of the paging file and the RAM.

When the Linux needs a ‘Block’ of memory that is not in the real RAM memory, the VMM

takes a block from the real memory which hasn’t been used and writes it to the paging file, and

then reads another block of memory that the Linux needs from the paging file. The block of

memory from the paging file is then transferred to the real memory to replace the old block. This

process is known as swapping and then the blocks that are swapped are called swap pages. The

pages that already exist in the Ram that is for specific process is known as the working set for

that process.

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PAGING:

Most of the virtual memory system uses a technique called paging. On the Linux computer, there

exist a set of memory addresses that the programs can produce. Addresses can be generated

using indexing, base registers, segment registers and much more. These program generated

addresses are called virtual address and form the virtual address space. When virtual memory is

used, the virtual addresses do not go directly to the memory bus. Instead, it goes to the MMU

(Memory Management Unit), a collection of chips that maps the virtual addresses onto the

physical memory addresses as shown below.

The memory manger divides up the virtual address into equally sized chunks called pages which

are all of the same size and usually to the same integer power of 2. The scheme works quite

efficiently when the pages, sectors, and page frames are all of the same size. They are usually to

the power of 2 to ease calculation. Each page in the virtual memory has corresponding page

frame in the physical memory the same size as the pages. If there is a failure from the

transmission of the logical address to the physical address, a page fault is detected.

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The page fault handler stops the execution of the current code and attends the fault. This handler

looks for a free page of the physical memory, transfer the data from the disk to the RAM and

update page table. If no free pages are available, the handler has to release and existing page,

writing any modified data first to the frame on the disk. This is known as paging.

The purpose of page table is to translate virtual pages into physical pages in RAM as shown

below:

Since we have only eight physical page frames, only eight of the virtual pages are mapped onto

the physical memory. The cross represent that they are not mapped. In the actual hardware, a

present or absent bit in each entry keeps track whether the page is mapped or not.

(REFER TO APPENDIX A FOR PAGE TABLE AND MEMORY MAPPING OF LINUX)

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THE CLOCK ALGORITHM:

Clock algorithms are commonly used because they provide a possible approximation of LRU

replacement and are cheap to implement.

Linux uses a page replacement algorithm based on the clock algorithm. The clock algorithms are

commonly used because they provide an approximation for the Least Recently used replacement

and are cheap to implement.

The clock algorithm arranges all the pages in a circle with a clock hand. Each physical page has

a used bit. The use bit is set to one on each reference. If the use bit is not set to 1 it means that

the page has not been referenced for a period of time. If a fault page happens, the clock starts to

sweep in a clock wise manner. If it meets a use bit which is set to 1, it sets it to zero and move

on. But if the use bit is 0, that particular page is chosen for replacement. In some cases, all use

bits might be set and the pointer cycles through all the frames, giving each page a second chance.

A slow moving hand means either all the pages are being found quickly or there are few page

faults. On the other hand, a quick moving hand means that there are lots of fault pages or loads

of use-bits sets.

Linux make use of 8-bit variable instead of use bit. The age variable is incremented each time the

page is accessed. Periodically, Linux sweeps periodically through the page pool and decrement

the age variable as it passes through all the pages in the main memory. The page with age 0 is

most eligible for page replacement since it has not been accessed a longtime. The older the page

is means that it has been accessed lots of time.

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http://www.google.com.my/imglanding?q=clock+algorithm+of+os&um=1&hl=en&sa=N&tbm=

The memory management controls the memory hardware and receives a notification from the

hardware when a fault occurs which means that there is bi-directional flow the hardware

whenever a fault occurs. This means that data and flows are controlled in both direction between

the memory modules and the memory manager hardware.

8 | P a g e

http://www.google.com.my/imglanding?q=clock+algorithm+of+os&um=1&hl=en&sa=N&tbm


DEMAND PAGING:

As there is much less physical memory than the virtual memory, the operating system must pay

attention so that it doesn’t use the physical memory not efficiently. One way of saving physical

memory is to save physical memory is to load virtual pages that are being used currently by

executing the program. Demand paging is the technique of loading virtual pages into memory as

they are accessed.

Linux uses demand paging to load executable images into a process virtual memory. Whenever a

command is executed, the file containing it is opened and its contents are mapped into the

processes virtual memory. The data structures which describe the process memory map is

modified and is known as memory mapping. However, only a part of the image is brought into

the physical memory. The rest of the image is left on the disk. As the image executes, it

generates page faults and Linux uses the process memory map in order to determine which parts

of the image to bring into memory for execution.

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Swapping:

Swapping is the process whereby if a virtual page needs to be bought by the process into the

physical memory and there is no free physical pages which are available, the operating needs to

make space for that page by moving another page from the physical memory. . This also means

that a piece of existing data in the RAM must be moved to the hard disk in order to make room

for the data that it wants to bring in from the hard disk. If the page to be discarded from the

physical memory came from a data or image file that has not been written to then the page does

not need to be saved. Instead it can be moved and be brought back into memory from the original

image or data file if it is needed again.

.

It the job of the swap algorithm to decide which page to discard or swap is not efficient. Linux

uses a Least Recently Used (LRU) page aging technique to fairly choose pages which might be

removed from the system. This involves every page in the system to have an age which changes

as soon as the page is accessed. The more the page is accessed, the younger it is; the less it is

accesses, the older it is the more it is out-to-date. Old pages are generally good candidates for

swapping.

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Problems when managing memory of Linux:

Swapping has some drawbacks. Compared to memory, disks are very slow. Memory speeds can

be measured in nanoseconds, while disks are measured in milliseconds, so accessing the disk is

much faster than the physical memory. The more there is swapping; the lower will be the system.

Memory Thrashing is a degraded case of swapping. The term "Thrashing" means that every time

a process wants to use memory it has to swap some data out and some more in, meaning that

your machine runs very slowly. Technically it means that your "Working Set" is larger than your

"Physical" memory.

Sometimes excessive swapping or thrashing occurs where a page is swapped out and then very

soon swapped in and then swapped out again and so on. In such situations the system is

struggling to find free memory and keep applications running at the same time.

Adding some more RAM will help in both cases. It is the most effective and cheaper way

to solve this problem even though there are some other ways like improving on the

memory usage etc.

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Conclusion:

To conclude, I can say that Linux has a very good technique of managing virtual memory. Linux

is considered one of the best operating system in managing its memory since it makes use of the

best strategies like the swapping and paging. Owing to the restricted amount of space to write

this report, I have only been able to talk about the virtual memory under which there are the

following subtitles: demand paging, swapping and paging.

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INTRODUCTION OF MICROPROCESSOR:

Microprocessors are one of the many types of integrated circuits. It is used to process

information by keeping all the parts of the computer working together to complete a given task.

The microprocessor is the most complex and expensive of the chips needed to make a computer

work. A microprocessor can be thought of as the brain of your computer. It may also be referred

to as a CPU (central processing unit).

Microprocessors have been described in many ways. They have been compared with the heart

and brain of humans. Their operation has been similar to a switch board and the nervous system

in an animal. The original purpose of the microprocessor was to control memory. That is what

they were originally designed do and this is what they do today.

For parts of the microprocessors and its functions refer to Appendix B

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http://www.visualphotos.com/photo/2x4139111/microprocessor_chip_in_a_circuit_board_f0010181.jpg

MAJOR TRENDS AFFECTING MICROPROCESSOR PERFORMANCE AND DESIGN

Design of Microprocessor Today:

Microprocessor development has always been encouraged for the need of faster computers. The

faster a processor runs; the better will be its place in the market place. The task of the

microprocessor designer is not easy as they are often confronted by marketing concerns such as

price and necessity for backward compatibility with previous CPU design and current

technology. Therefore current-day chip designers are hard pressed to use more and more exotic

architectural tricks to get more speed. All this makes the field of processor architecture a very

fascinating one to study.

• Adding more cores:

The name given to microprocessors of more than one core is Multicore processor. The multicore

processor is often described as having two processors in one system. A multi-core processor

allows more multitasking experience rather than the single-core processors by allowing each core

to run certain application or task. As the number of cores in the processor is increased, also the

speed ratio of the hardware should increase.

Multicore processor thus delivers high performance and with a much more efficient way without

heat being a problem unlike single core which runs at a higher frequency to get more

performance. Multiplying the number of cores can increase the number of computer resources,

higher multithreaded throughput and the benefits of parallel computing.

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EXAMPLE OF MULTICORE PROCESSORS:

The dual core processors have two CPU integrated into one circuits. Dual core processors can

handle twice as much data without making the processors themselves any faster. You can have

two processors running at the same speed, each performing half the work of a single-core CPU,

without being bogged down by single application threading

Read more: How Dual Core Processors Work | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how-does_5003789_how-dual-core-processors-work.html#ixzz1HLxRD1l1

EXAMPLE OF RECENT MULTICORE:

• Power Efficiency:

Conserving and using energy more efficiently means protecting the world. Power consumption is

one of the most important roles of conserving energy. Manufacturers are taking into account of

power efficiency when designing microprocessors nowadays. The microprocessors are designed

in such a way so that they can be powerful and being able to consume less power.

Example:

The Intel Core 2 family has a very intelligent power management features such as:

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Ability to deactivate unused cores which means when the core is unused it will not use

energy and hence save power.

New Microarchitecture to save energy which means it is designed in a more sophisticated

way so that it doesn’t use too much power.

Power Dissipation

Power dissipation increasingly limits microprocessor performance. Lower power rate can’t

match with the increase in transistor count and clock frequency. Future microprocessors are

using on die power management and circuit methods such as clock gating to control the increase

in power.

• High Speed cache and buses:

Microprocessor performance demands have increased over the years. Unfortunately, this

widening processor-to-memory gap has led to increased cache sizes and increased number of

cache levels between the processing core(s) and main memory. As aggregate cache sizes increase

in symmetric multiprocessor systems (SMP), the ratio of conflict, capacity, and coherency

misses, or cache-to-cache transfers, will change. Set associative caches will see reduction in

conflict and capacity misses relative to cache size increases. However, these increases will have

smaller impact on coherency misses in large SMP systems.

In Past year Microprocessor Manufactures like Intel has introduced new cache technologies to

their processors which can gain more efficiency improvements and reduce latency.

The increase in performance has led to a higher demand for supportable bandwidth between the

microprocessor and external main memory and I/O’s. Therefore wider external buses are needed.

In the recent years, high speed point-point interconnects replaces the shared buses to satisfy

increasing requirements. Distributed interconnects will provide a more scalable path to increase

external bandwidth when practical limit of a pin is reached.

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• SIZE AND PACKAGING OF THE PROCESSOR:

When the size of the processor is reduced there will be more benefits like more cores can be

included into it, it will increase the speed and more energy will be saved.

The microprocessor package is changing from its traditional role of protective mechanical

enclosure to a more advanced thermal and electrical management platform. Recent technologies

introduced the Bumpless-build-up layer (BBUL) packages, which are built around the silicon.

BBUL package provides:

Small electrical loop inductance

Reduces mechanical stress on the die

Using low die electric constant.

The packaging technology allows for high pin and easy integration of multiple electronic and

optical components.

Disadvantages:

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If the size of the processor is decreased then there is no need to allocate more space to it

according to Moore’s law. If the processor size is half than the normal size, double transistors

can be included. If the processor is too small, there may be risk of short circuit.

• Virtualization:

Virtualization allows the CPU to act that many CPU are working together in parallel. In

virtualization, each Operating system runs on a “Virtual CPU” or the “virtual machine”. Virtual

machine can fool applications into detecting hardware that is actually not present. It enables

several operating systems to run at the same time in the same machine.

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Major differences between microprocessor design goals for Desktop, Server, Laptops and embedded Systems:

When we look at the different platforms available, we can take a look at four different systems, the desktop, laptop, server based and finally the embedded systems. Each of them is different from each other.

Desktop Microprocessor:

When we consider the desktop microprocessor, it mostly concerned about the usability,

reliability and ease of use. The desktop microprocessor is different from its architecture as well

as its functions. The main goal of the desktop microprocessor is to produce fewer resources for

system cache of the operating system but a processor which works efficiently within the limit of

time. Its goal is to provide as much performance as possible without power consumption being a

major concern. Most programs that are designed in desktop machines are processor scheduling

jobs that take longtime like high definition images and compiling source file. So the processors

are designed to adopt those kinds of processing.

Embedded Systems:

Embedded means they are built to act in a single purpose manner. Embedded system is making

use of the microcontrollers instead of separate microprocessors; they are like a whole computer

inside the small thumb size chip called the microcontroller. Microprocessors are varying its

performance because of the instruction length issues and battery consumption. Reducing set of

computing (RISC) architecture is being used to minimize the complication of the mobile

processor and to reduce set of instructions for the processor. Manufacturers can exceed the

speeds which have been a trend today but the only difficulty is they are having high power

consumption and heating.

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Server Systems:

In server system, manufacturers are mostly concerned with the server uptime and stability issues.

When talking about a microprocessor for a server system, it should be one with low power

consumption and less resources for the system cache of the OS.

Example:

In Linux server based system, less amount of hardware resources are used and they being used

effectively so that the heat which comes from the processor would be less therefore heating is

less.

LAPTOP SYSTEMS:

Designers of microprocessors of laptop are often constricted to the size of the microprocessor

and to have a circuitry method that uses less power and to be available at a cheaper price. Since

the size of the microprocessor is reduced, therefore it means that there will be less transistors and

therefore less power is being consumed.

In laptop microprocessor doesn’t run fast and they have a lower clock speed. This therefore helps

the laptop from overheating and helps to reduce the power that is being used. This therefore

slows down the processor and also the laptop.

The laptop microprocessor also has another microprocessors called the graphic micro processing

unit (GPU).This components creates lots of heat and manufacturers have designed graphic cards

that uses the GPU specially for laptops.

CONCLUSION:

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Microprocessor is one of the most vital parts of the computer without which the computer can’t

function. In other word, it is considered as the heart of the computer. Microprocessors are faced

with the major challenges that keep on changing on changing its design and its performance.

Manufactures of microprocessors are confronted with the market demand that is to produce

faster computers. However, microprocessor from different platforms is different from each other

in terms of designation goals. Each of them has their own goal. Microprocessor will continue to

improve on its performance and design in the near future also due to highly demanded computer

performance.

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Limitations & Extensions about Microprocessor:

A problem concerning microprocessor is that whenever the performance is increased in a single

core microprocessor. The number of transistors should be increases in the microprocessor; this

therefore has led to an increase in power consumption and a minimal increase in heat generation.

Increasing the number of cores rather than the number of transistors on single core can

solve this problem as less heat will be dissipated and it will consume less power.

As microprocessors become small, it becomes more difficult to produce them efficiently and

cheaply. One of the major problems is once a certain size barrier is reached; quantum mechanics

are involved in the process. In the tiny world of transistors that are normally in nanometers, the

laws of physics behave in an unpredictable way making it difficult to develop reliable

technologies.

Let the size of the microprocessor be the same so that reliable technology can be

obtained, instead try to increase performance using more than one core or increasing the

number of transistors in the processor.

TOTAL WORD COUNTS OF MAIN BODY EXCLUDING LIMITATIONS AND EXTENSIONS: 3116 words

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FAQ about Microprocessor:

1) What is the ALU? ALU is part of the microprocessor which performs simple mathematics instructions.

2) What is the multicore microprocessor? A multicore is a microprocessor which has more than one core.

3) Why power consumption should be reduced?

To be able to save energy as energy is a major concern in the environment today.

4) What is the advantage of multicore?

It allows more multitasking

5) Is Multicore compatible with all operating system?

6) What is the main goal of desktop microprocessor?

To provide a useable, reliable and ease of use system without power consumption being a major concern

7) What is virtualization? Help CPU to act as if many CPU working in parallel.

8) Advantages of using large cache?

Faster access to the active portion of the program

9) What happens when the memory bus is too small when compared with the cores?

The system slows down.

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Frequently Asked Question about Linux Memory Management:

1) What is virtual memory? Virtual memory is an imaginary memory area supported by some operating systems

2) What does swapping means? Swapping is a simple memory/process management technique used by the operating

system (OS) to increase the utilization of the processor by moving some blocked process from the main memory to the secondary memory.

3) What is the difference between swapping and paging? Swapping occurs when whole process is transferred to disk, while paging is when some

part of process is transferred to disk while rest is still in physical memory.

4) What is trashing? Trashing means excessive page input output in swapping which reduces the degree of

multiprogramming.

5) What is kswapd?

It is the kernel swap daemon. It manages your memory, and swaps out memory pages to disk if need be (and the reverse).

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(APPENDIX A)

Linux assumes there are three page tables. Each individual page tables contains the frame number of the next level of the page table. The figure below shows how virtual address can be broken into a number of fields and each field providing an offset into a particular page table.

The processor must take the contents of each level of the field, then convert it into an offset into the physical page containing the page table and read the page frame number of the next level of page table to translate virtual addresses into physical one. The process is looped three times till

the page frame number of the physical page containing the virtual address in found. To find data inside the page, the final field in the virtual address and the byte offset is being used.

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Each platform that Linux runs on must provide translation macros that allow the kernel to traverse the page tables for a particular process. This way, the kernel does not need to know the

format of the page table entries or how they are arranged.

This is so successful that Linux uses the same page table manipulation code for the Alpha processor, which has three levels of page tables, and for Intel x86 processors, which have two

levels of page tables.

Memory Mapping In Linux:

The memory manager uses the hardware memory manager to map virtual addresses to physical addresses. The memory uses a daemon (kswapd) for paging. The Linux uses the term Daemon to refer to kernel threads. The Kswapd periodically check if there are any physical memories that haven’t been referenced recently and swapped them out.

The kernel Swap Daemon (KSWAPD):

• Periodically frees page frames by flushing dirty pages to disk

• Swaps pages from the tail of the inactive list

• First determines if the page has a valid entry in the swap cache

• Enables clean pages to be freed immediately

Cannot free a page frame if:

Page is shared

kswapd must unmap multiple references to the page

Reverse mapping improves efficiency

Page is dirty(which have been modified by the operating system and must be kept)

kswapd must flush it to disk

Page is locked (e.g., currently under I/O)

kswapd must wait until page is unlocked.

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(APPENDIX B)

PARTS OF THE MICROPROCESSOR:

Parts Functions Address Bus It directs an address to the computer’s memory. The address would be the

same thing as a file saves and the storage page is the same thing as a folder

in the hard drive.

Data bus It transfers data from or to the memory. A write and a read line instruct the

memory to get the address location and set it in place.

Clock Line It is a clock that controls the timing of the pulse sequence in the processor,

which informs the microprocessor when to run a command.

Reset Line As the name describes, reset the counter for a program to zero and restart

the executable for the program.

ROM & RAM in the microprocessor

ROM (Read-Only Memory) is pre-programmed with a set of bytes. The

address bus instructs the ROM which bytes to send and where to send it on

the data bus. When the read line is changed, the ROM chip sends the

selected byte to the data bus. The ROM is important for the function of the

microprocessor because it stores information needed to start the computer

each time it is turned on.

RAM (Random-Access Memory) contains bytes of information that can be

written over by the microprocessor. The microprocessor reads or writes

those bytes and that is determined by whether the read line or the write

line is accessed. The RAM is important because it gives the microprocessor

room to make decisions and temporarily save important application data.

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References for memory management of Linux:

• INFORMATION ABOUT THE LINUX SYSTEM:

Available online at:

http://my.safaribooksonline.com/book/operating-systems-and-server-administration/linux/0131453483/swap-management/ch11#X2ludGVybmFsX0ZsYXNoUmVhZGVyP3htbGlkPTAxMzE0NTM0ODMvdmlpaQ

Last accessed: 24 February

• How virtual Memory Works


http://www.programmerinterview.com/index.php/operating-systems/how-virtual-memory-works/

Last accessed: 26 February

• Information about swapping and demand paging:


http://www.linux-tutorial.info/modules.php?name=MContent&pageid=89


http://www1bpt.bridgeport.edu/sed/projects/cs503/Spring_2001/kode/os/memory.htm#swapping

Last accessed: 3 March

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http://www.linux-tutorial.info/modules.php?name=MContent&pageid=89






http://tldp.org/LDP/tlk/mm/memory.html


• Purpose of swapping


http://www.programmerinterview.com/index.php/operating-systems/purpose-of-swapping/


• Clock Algorithm


https://www.seas.upenn.edu/~cit595/cit595s10/handouts/LRUreplacementpolicy.pdf


• Place Replacements and problems involving it:


http://frankdrews.com/public_filetree/cs458_558_SQ03/studentpapers/yanglin.pdf


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http://frankdrews.com/public_filetree/cs458_558_SQ03/studentpapers/yanglin.pdf

https://www.seas.upenn.edu/~cit595/cit595s10/handouts/LRUreplacementpolicy.pdf

http://www.programmerinterview.com/index.php/operating-systems/purpose-of-swapping/

http://tldp.org/LDP/tlk/mm/memory.html


Operating System

Internal and design principles

William Stallings

Available online: www.find-doc.com

Last accessed 18 march

Understanding operating system

IDA M.Flynn Ann mlver M’hoes

Available in Ucti Library

Modern Operating System

Andrew s Tanenbaum

Available in Apiit Library

REFERENCES FOR MICROPROCESSOR:

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Microprocessors of laptop system:


http://thelongestlistofthelongeststuffatthelongestdomainnameatlonglast.com/how45.html


Increasing the number of cores:


http://www.mbipr.com/whitepaper5.pdf


Trend affecting microprocessor design and performance:


http://www.scribd.com/doc/20096966/Computer-Systems-Architecture

Last accessed: 3 April

Future Trend of Microprocessor Design

Robert Yung, Stefan Rusu, Ken Shoemaker

Intel Corporation, Santa Clara, California USA

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http://www.scribd.com/doc/20096966/Computer-Systems-Architecture

http://www.mbipr.com/whitepaper5.pdf

http://thelongestlistofthelongeststuffatthelongestdomainnameatlonglast.com/how45.html

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