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An Axiomatic Basis for

Com puter Programming

C. A . R . HOARE

The Queen's Universi ty o f Bel fast,* Northern Irela nd

I n t his p a p e r a n a t t e m p t is m a d e t o e x p l o r e t h e l o g i c a l f o u n d a -

t io n s o f c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g b y u s e o f t e c h n i q u e s w h i ch

w e r e f ir s t a p p l i e d i n t h e st u d y o f g e o m e t r y a n d h a v e l a t e r

b e e n e x t e n d e d t o o t h e r b r a n c h e s o f m a t h em a t ic s . T h i s i n -

v o l v e s th e e l u c i d a t i o n o f s e ts o f a x i o m s a n d r u le s o f i n f e r e n c e

w h i c h c a n b e u s e d i n p r o o f s o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f c o m p u t e r

p r o g r a m s . E x a m p l e s a r e g i v e n o f s u c h a x i o m s a n d r u le s , a n d

a f o r m a l p r o o f o f a s i m p l e th e o r e m i s d i s p l a y e d . F i n a l l y , i t i s

a r g u e d t h a t i m p o r t a n t a d v a n t a g e s , b o t h t h e o r e ti c a l a n d p r a c -

t i c a l , m a y f o l l o w f r o m a p u r s u a n c e o f these topics .

KEY WOR DS AND PHRASES: axiom atic method, theory of programming'proofs of programs, form al langu age definition, programming language

design, machine-independentprogramming, program documentationCR CATEGORY: 4 .0 , 4 .2 1 ,4 .2 2 , 5 .2 0 , 5 .2 1 ,5 .2 3 , 5 .2 4

1 . I n t r o d u c t i o n

C o m p u t e r p r o g r a m m i n g i s a n e x a c t s c ie n c e i n t h a t a l l

t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f a p r o g r a m a n d a l l t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f

e x e c u t i n g i t i n a n y g i v e n e n v i r o n m e n t c a n , i n p r in c i p le ,

b e f o u n d o u t f r o m t h e t e x t o f th e p r o g r a m i ts e l f b y m e a n so f p u r e l y d e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g . D e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g i n -

v o l v e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f v a l i d r u l e s o f i n f e r e n c e t o s e t s o f

v a l i d a x i o m s . I t i s t h e r e f o r e d e s ir a b l e a n d i n t e r e s t i n g t o

e l u c i d a t e t h e a x i o m s a n d r u l e s o f i n f e r e n c e w h i c h u n d e r l i e

o u r re a s o n i n g a b o u t c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s . T h e e x a c t c h o ic e

o f a x io m s w i l l t o s o m e e x t e n t d e p e n d o n t h e c h o i c e o f

p r o g r a m m i n g l a n g ua g e . F o r i l l u s t ra t i v e p u r p o s e s, t h i s

p a p e r i s c o n f i n e d to a v e r y s i m p l e l a n g u a g e , w h i c h i s e f fe c -

t i v e l y a s u b s e t o f al l e u r r e n t p r o c e d u r e - o r i e n t e d l a n g u a g e s .

2 . C o m p u t e r A r i t h m e t i c

T h e f i rs t r e q u i r e m e n t i n v a l i d r e a s o n in g a b o u t a p r o -

g r a m i s t o k n o w t h e p r o p e r t ie s o f t h e e l e m e n t a r y o p e r a t i o n sw h i c h i t i n v o k e s, f o r e x a m p l e , a d d i t i o n a n d m u l t i p l i c a ti o n

o f i n t eg e r s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i n s e v e r a l r e sp e c t s c o m p u t e r

a r i t h m e t i c i s n o t t h e s a m e a s t h e a r i t h m e t i c f a m i l i a r t o

m a t h e m a t i c i a n s , a n d i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e x e rc i se so m e c a r e

i n s e l e c t i n g a n a p p r o p r i a t e s e t o f a x i o m s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e

a x i o m s d i s p l a y e d i n T a b l e I a r e r a t h e r a s m a l l s e l e c t i o n

o f a x i o m s r e l e v a n t t o in t e g e r s. F r o m t h is i n c o m p l e t e s e t

* Dep ur tme nt o f Com puter Science

o f a x io m s i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e d u c e s u c h s i m p l e t h e o r e m s a s :

x = x + y X O

y < r ~ r + y X q = ( r - y ) + y X ( 1 + q )

T h e p r o o f o f t h e s e c o n d o f t h e s e i s :

A 5 ( r - - y ) + y X ( l + q )

= ( r - - y ) + ( y X l + y X q )

A 9 = ( r - - y ) + ( y + y X q )

A 3 = ( ( r - - y ) + y ) + y X q

A 6 = r + y X q p r o v i d e d y < r

T h e a x i o m s A 1 t o A 9 a r e , o f c o u r se , t r u e o f t h e t r a d i -

t i o n a l in f i ni t e s e t of i n t e g e rs i n m a t h e m a t i c s . H o w e v e r ,

t h e y a r e a l s o t r u e o f t h e f i ni t e s e t s o f " i n t e g e r s " w h i c h a r e

m a n i p u l a t e d b y c o m p u t e r s p r o v id e d t h a t t h e y a r e c o n -

f i n ed t o nonnegative n u m b e r s . T h e i r t r u t h i s i n d e p e n d e n t

o f t h e s i ze o f t h e s e t ; f u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s l a r ge l y i n d e p e n d e n t

o f t h e c h o i ce o f t e c h n i q u e a p p l i e d in t h e e v e n t o f " o v e r -

f l o w " ; f o r e x a m p l e :

( 1 ) S t r i c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : t h e r e s u l t o f a n o v e r f lo w i n g

o p e r a t i o n d o e s n o t e x i s t ; w h e n o v e r f l o w o c c u rs , t h e o f f e n d -

i n g p r o g r a m n e v e r c o m p l e t e s i t s o p e r a t i o n . N o t e t h a t i n

t h i s c a s e , t h e e q u a l i t i e s o f A 1 t o A 9 a r e s t r i c t , i n t h e s e n s e

t h a t b o t h s i d e s e x i s t o r f a i l t o e x i s t t o g e t h e r .

( 2 ) F i r m b o u n d a r y : t h e r e s u l t of a n o ve r f lo w i n g o p e r a -

t i o n i s t a k e n a s t h e m a x i m u m v a l u e r e p r e s e n t e d .

( 3 ) M o d u l o a r i t h m e t i c : t h e r e s u l t o f a n o v e r f l o w i n g

o p e r a t i o n i s c o m p u t e d m o d u l o t h e s iz e o f t h e s e t o f i n t e g e rs

r e p r e s e n t e d .

T h e s e t h r e e t e c h n i q u e s a r e i l lu s t r a t e d i n T a b l e I I b y

a d d i t i o n a n d m u l t i p l i c a t io n t a b l e s f o r a t r i v i a l l y s m a l l

m o d e l i n w h i c h 0 , 1 , 2 , a n d 3 a r e t h e o n l y i n t e g e r s r e p r e -

s e n t e d .

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e d i f f e re n t s y s t e m s s a t i s f y -

i n g a x i o m s A 1 t o A 9 m a y b e r i g o r o us l y d is t i n g u is h e d f r o m

e a c h o t h e r b y c h o o s i n g a p a r t i c u l a r o n e o f a s e t o f m u t u a l l y

e x c l u si v e s u p p l e m e n t a r y a x i om s . F o r e x a m p l e , i n f in i t e

a r i t h m e t i c s a t i s f i e s t h e a x i o m :

A 1 0 z ~ 3 x V y ( y < x ) ,

w h e r e a l l f i n i t e a r i t h m e t i c s s a t i s f y :

A 1 0 ~ V x ( x < m a x )

w h e r e " m a x " d e n o t e s t h e l a r g e s t i n t e g e r r e p r e s e n t e d .

S i m i l a rl y , t h e t h r e e t r e a t m e n t s o f o v e r f lo w m a y b ed i s t i n g u i s h e d b y a c h o i c e o f o n e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g a M o m s

r e l a t i n g t o t h e v a l u e o f m a x + 1 :

A l l s ~ 3 x ( x = m a x + 1 ) ( s t r ic t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n )

A l l , m a x + 1 = m a x ( fi rm b o u n d a r y )

A l l M m a x + 1 = 0 ( m o d u l o a r i t h m e t i c )

H a v i n g s e l e c t e d o n e o f t h e s e a x i o m s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o

u s e i t in d e d u c i n g t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f p r o g r a m s ; h o w e v e r ,

5 7 6 C o m m u n i c a t i o n s o f t h e A C M V o l u m e 12 / N u m b e r 10 / O c t o b e r , 1 96 9

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TABLE I

A1 x + y = y + x

A2 x X y = y X x

A3 (x + y ) + z = x+ (y + z )

A4 (xX y) X z = x X (y X z)

A5 x X ( y + z ) = x X y + x X z

A6 y < x D ( x - - y ) + y = x

A7 x+ 0 = xA8 xX0=0A9 x X l = x

addition is commutativemultiplication is commut-

ativeaddition is associativemultiplication is associa-

tive

multiplication distrib-utes through addition

addition cancels subtrac-tion

TABLE II

1.

+ 0 1

0 0 1 21 1232 2 3 *3 3 * *

• nonexistent

StrictInterpretation

23 x 012

3 0 00 0* 1 0 1 2* 2 0 2 *

* 3 0 3 *

+

2. FirmBoundary

123 × 0123

123 0 0000233 1 0123333 2 0233333 3 0333

3.

+ 012

0 0 1 21 1 2 32 2303 3 0 1

Modulo Arithmetic

3 X 0 1 2

3 0 00 00 1 0 1 21 2 02 02 3 0 3 2

these properties will not necessarily obtMn, unless the

program is executed on an implementation which satisfies

the chosen axiom.

3 . Prog r am Execu t ion

As mentioned above, the purpose of this study is to

provide a logical basis for proofs of the properties of a

program. One of the most important properties of a pro-

gram is whether or not it carries out its intended function.

The intended function of a program, or part of a program,

can be specified by making general assertions about the

values which the r elevant variables will take a f t e r execution

of the program. These assertions will usually not ascribe

particular values to each variable, but will rather specify

certain general properties of the values and the relation-

ships holding between them. We use the normal notations

of mathematical logic to express these assertions, and t

familiar rules of operator precedence have been us

wherever possible to improve legibility.

In many cases, the validity of the results of a progra

(or part of a program) will depend on the values take

by the variables before that program is initiated. Thes

initial preconditions of successful use can be specified b

the same type of general assertion as is used to describthe results obtained on termination. To state the require

connection between a preconditio n ( P), a progr am (Q

and a description of the result of its execution (R), w

introduce a new notation:

P { Q } R .

This may be interpreted " I f the assertion P is true befo

initiation of a program Q, then the assertion R will b

true on its completion." If there are no preconditions im

posed, we write true { Q } R )

The treatment given below is essentially due to Floy

[8] but is applied to texts rather than flowcharts.

3.1. Axiom OF ASSIGNMENTAssignment is undoubtedly the most characteristic fe

ture of programming a digital computer, and one th

most clearly distinguishes it from other branches of math

matics. It is surprising therefore that the axiom governi

our reasoning about assignment is quite as simple as an

to be found in elementary logic.

Consider the assignment statement:

x : = f

where

x is an identifier for a simple variable;

f is an expression of a programming language witho

side effects, but possibly containing x.Now an y assertion P (x) which is to be true of (the val

of ) x a f t e r the assignment is made must also have bee

true of (the value of) the expression f, take n be f o re th

assignment is made, i.e. with the old value of x. Thu

if P (x) is to be true after the assignment, then P (f) mu

be true before the assignment. This fact may be expresse

more formally:

DO Axiom of Assignmen t

-P0 {x := f} Pwhere

x is a vari able identifier;

f is an expression;

P0 is obtained fr om P by subs tituting f for all occurences of x.

It may be noticed that DO is not really an axiom at al

but rather an axiom schema, describing an infinite set

axioms which share a common pattern. This pattern

described in purely syntactic terms, and it is easy

cheek whether any finite text conforms to the patter

thereby qualifying as an axiom, which may validly appe

in any line of a proof.

1 If this can be proved in our formal system, we use the famillogical symbol for theoremhood: [-P {Q} R

Volume 12 / Numb er 10 / October, 1969 Com mun ica tio ns of the ACM 5

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3.2. RULES OF CONSEQUENCE

I n a d d i t i o n t o a x i o m s , a d e d u c t i v e s c i e nc e r e q u i r e s a t

l e a s t o n e r u l e o f i n f e re n c e , w h i c h p e r m i t s t h e d e d u c t i o n o f

n e w t h e o r e m s f r o m o n e o r m o r e a x i o m s o r t h e o r e m s a l -

r e a d y p r o v e d . A ru l e o f i n f e r e n c e t a k e s t h e f o r m " I f ~ -X

an d ~- Y th en ~ -Z", i . e . i f a s se r t i o n s o f t h e fo rm X an d Y

h a v e b e e n p r o v e d a s t h e o r e m s , t h e n Z a l s o i s t h e r e b y

p r o v e d a s a t h e o r e m . T h e s i m p l e s t e x a m p l e o f a n i n f e r e n c e

r u l e s t a t e s t h a t i f t h e e x e c u t i o n o f a p r o g r a m Q e n -

s u r e s th e t r u t h o f t h e a s s e r t io n R, t h e n i t a l s o e n s u r e s t h e

t r u t h o f e v e r y a s s e r t i o n l o g ic a l ly im p l i e d b y R . A l s o, i f

P i s k n o w n t o b e a p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r a p r o g r a m Q t o p r o -

d u c e r e s u l t R, t h e n s o is a n y o t h e r a s s e r t i o n w h i c h l o g i c a ll y

i m p l i e s P . T h e s e r u l e s m a y b e e x p r e s s e d m o r e f o r m a l l y :

D 1 R u l e s o f C o n s e q u e n c e

I f ~-P{Q}Rand ~-R D S t h e n ~-P{Q}SI f ~-P{Q}Ran d ~ -S ~ P t h e n ~-S{Q}R

3 .3 . RULE OF COMPOSITION

A p r o g r a m g e n e r a l l y c o ns i s ts o f a s e q u e n c e o f s t a t e m e n t s

w h i c h a r e e x e c u te d o n e a f te r a n o t h e r. T h e s t a t e m e n t s m a y

b e s e p a r a t e d b y a s e m i c o l o n o r e q u i v a l e n t s y m b o l d e n o t i n g

p ro ce d u r a l c o m p o s i t i o n : (Q1 ; Q2 ; " ' " ; Q~) . I n o rd er t o

a v o i d t h e a w k w a r d n e s s o f d o t s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e a l i n i -

t i a l l y w i t h o n l y t w o s t a t e m e n t s (Q1 ; Q 2) , s i n c e l o n g e r s e-

q u e n c e s c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d b y n e s t i n g , t h u s (Q~ ; ( Q2 ;

( " " ( Q ,- 1 ; Q . ) - ' " ) ) ) . T h e r e m o v a l o f t h e b r a c k e t s o f

t h i s n e s t m a y b e r e g a r d e d a s c o n v e n t i o n b a se d o n t h e

a s s o c i a t i v i ty o f t h e " ; - o p e r a t o r " , i n t h e s a m e w a y a s b r a c k -

e t s a r e r e m o v e d f r o m a n a r i t h m e t i c e x p r e s s i o n ( 6 + (t2 +

( . . - (t,_~ + t , ) - - . ) ) ) .

T h e i n f e r e n c e ru l e a s s o c i a te d w i t h c o m p o s i t i o n s t a t e s

t h a t i f t h e p r o v e n r e s u l t o f t h e f i r s t p a r t o f a p r o g r a m i s

i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n u n d e r w h i c h t h e s e c o n d p a r t

o f t h e p r o g r a m p r o d u c e s i ts i n t e n d e d r e s u lt , t h e n t h e w h o l ep r o g r a m w i l l p r o d u c e t h e i n t e n d e d r e s u lt , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e

p r e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e f i r s t p a r t i s s a t i sf i e d .

I n m o r e f o r m a l te r m s :

D 2 R u l e o f C o m p o s i t i o n

I f ~-P{QdR1a n d ~-R~{Q2}R he n ~-P{ (Q~ ; Q2)}R

3 .4 . R v L~ OF ITERATION

T h e e s s e n t i al f e a t u r e o f a s t o r e d p r o g r a m c o m p u t e r i s

t h e a b i l i t y t o e x e c u t e s o m e p o r t i o n o f p r o g r a m ( S ) r e -

p e a t e d l y u n t i l a c o n d i t i o n ( B ) g o e s f a ls e . A s i m p l e w a y o f

e x p r e s s i n g s u c h a n i t e r a t i o n i s t o a d a p t t h e A L G O L 6 0

w h i l e n o t a t i o n :

w h i l e B d o S

I n e x e c u t i n g t h i s s t a t e m e n t , a c o m p u t e r f i rs t t e s t s t h e c o n -

d i t i o n B . I f t h i s i s f a l se , S i s o m i t t e d , a n d e x e c u t i o n o f t h e

l o o p i s c o m p l e t e . O t h e r w i s e , S i s e x e c u t e d a n d B i s t e s t e d

a g a i n . T h i s a c t i o n i s r e p e a t e d u n t i l B i s f o u n d t o b e f a l s e .

T h e r e a s o n i n g w h i c h l e a d s t o a f o r m u l a t i o n o f a n i n f e r e n c e

r u l e f o r i t e r a t i o n i s a s f o l lo w s . S u p p o s e P t o b e a n a s s e r t i o n

w h i c h i s a lw a y s t r u e o n c o m p l e t i o n o f S , p r o v i d e d t h a t i t is

a l s o t r u e o n i n i t ia t i o n . T h e n o b v i o u s l y P w i l l s t il l b e t r u e

a f t e r a n y n u m b e r o f i t e r a t i o n s of t h e s t a t e m e n t S ( e v e n

n o i t e r a t i o n s ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t is k n o w n t h a t t h e c o n -

t r o l l i n g c o n d i t i o n B i s f a l s e w h e n t h e i t e r a t i o n f i n a l l y

t e r m i n a t e s . A s l i g h t l y m o r e p o w e r f u l f o r m u l a t i o n is p o s -

s i bl e i n l ig h t o f t h e f a c t t h a t B m a y b e a s s u m e d t o b e t r u e

o n i n i t i a t i o n o f S :

D 3 R u l e o f I t e r a t i o n

I f ~P A B{S}P t h e n ~ - P { w h il e B d o S } ~ B A P

3 .5 . EXAMPLE

T h e a x i o m s q u o t e d a b o v e a r e s u f fi c ie n t t o c o n s t r u c t t h e

p r o o f o f p r o p e r t i e s o f s i m p l e p r o g r a m s , f o r e x a m p l e , a

r o u t i n e i n t e n d e d t o f i n d t h e q u o t i e n t q a n d r e m a i n d e r r

o b t a i n e d o n d i v i d in g x b y y . A l l v a r i a b l e s a r e a s s u m e d t o

r a n g e o v e r a s e t o f n o n n e g a t i v e i n t e g e r s c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e

a x i o m s l i s t e d i n T a b l e I . F o r s i m p l i c i t y w e u s e t h e t r i v i a l

b u t i n e ff i c ie n t m e t h o d o f su c c e s s iv e s u b t r a c t i o n . T h e p r o -

p o s e d p r o g r a m i s :

( ( r : = x ; q : = 0 ) ; w h i l e

y<rdo ( r : = r - - y ; q : = l + q ) )

A n i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t y o f t h is p r o g r a m i s t h a t w h e n i t

t e r m i n a t e s , w e c a n re c o v e r th e n u m e r a t o r x b y a d d i n g t o

t h e r e m a i n d e r r t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e d i v i s o r y a n d t h e q u o -t i e n t q (i .e . x = r + y X q ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e m a i n d e r

i s l es s t h a n t h e d i v is o r . T h e s e p r o p e r t i e s m a y b e e x p r e s s e d

f o r m a l l y :

t r u e { Q } ~ y ~< r A x = r + y X q

w h e r e Q s ta n d s f o r t h e p r o g r a m d i s p l a y e d a b o v e . T h i s

e x p r e s s e s a n e c e s s a r y ( b u t n o t s u f f i c i e n t ) c o n d i t i o n f o r

t h e " c o r r e c t n e s s " o f th e p r o g ra m .

A f o r m a l p r o o f o f t h i s t h e o r e m i s g i v e n i n T a b l e I I I .

L i k e a l l f o r m a l p r o o f s , i t i s e x c e s s i v e l y t e d i o u s , a n d i t

w o u l d b e f a i r l y e a s y t o i n t r o d u c e n o t a t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n s

w h i c h w o u l d s i g n if i c a n tl y s h o r t e n it . A n e v e n m o r e p o w e r -

f u l m e t h o d o f r e d u c i n g t h e t e d i u m o f f o r m a l p r o o f s is t od e r i v e g e n e r a l r ul e s f o r p r o o f c o n s t r u c t i o n o u t o f t h e s i m p l e

r u l es a c c e p t e d a s p o s t u l a t e s . T h e s e g e n e r a l r u le s w o u l d b e

s h o w n t o b e v a l id b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g h o w e v e r y t h e o r e m

p r o v e d w i t h t h e i r a s s i st a n c e c o u l d e q u a l l y w e l l ( i f m o r e

t e d i o u s l y ) h a v e b e e n p r o v e d w i t h o u t . O n c e a p o w e r f u l se t

o f s u p p l e m e n t a r y r u l e s h a s b e e n d e v e lo p e d , a " f o r m a l

p r o o f " r e d u c e s t o l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a n i n f o r m a l i n d i c a t i o n

o f h o w a f o r m a l p r o o f c o u l d b e c o n s t r u c t e d .

4 . G e n e r a l R e s e r v a t i o n s

T h e a x i o m s a n d r u le s o f i n f e r e n c e q u o t e d i n t h is p a p e r

h a v e i m p l i c i t ly a s s u m e d t h e a b s e n c e o f s i de e f f e c t s o f t h e

e v a l u a t i o n o f e x p r e ss i o n s a n d c o n d i t io n s . I n p r o v i n g p r o p -e r t ie s o f p r o g r a m s e x p r e s s e d i n a l a n g u a g e p e r m i t t i n g s i d e

e f f e c t s , i t w o u l d b e n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v e t h e i r a b s e n c e i n

e a c h e a s e b e f o r e a p p l y i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p r o o f t e c h n i q u e .

I f t h e m a i n p u r p o s e o f a h ig h l e v e l p r o g r a m m i n g l a n g u a g e

i s t o a s s i s t i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d v e r i f i c a t i o n o f c o r r e c t

p r o g r a m s , i t i s d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r t h e u s e o f f u n c t io n a l

n o t a t i o n t o c a l l p r o c e d u r e s w i t h s i d e e ff e c t s i s a g e n u i n e

a d v a n t a g e .

A n o t h e r d e f i c i en c y i n t h e a x i o m s a n d r u le s q u o t e d a b o v e

5 7 8 C o m m u n i c a t i o n s o f t h e ACM Vo lu m e 1 2 / Nu m b er 1 0 / Oc to b e r , 1 96 9

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i s t h a t t h e y g i v e n o b a s is f o r a p r o o f t h a t a p r o g r a m s u c -

c e s sf u ll y t e r m i n a t e s . F a i l u r e t o t e r m i n a t e m a y b e d u e t o a n

i n f i n i t e l o o p ; o r i t m a y b e d u e t o v i o l a t i o n o f a n i m p l e -

m e n t a t i o n - d e f i n e d l i m i t, f o r e x a m p l e , t h e r a n g e o f n u m e r i c

o p e r a n d s , t h e s i z e o f s t o r ag e , o r a n o p e r a t i n g s y s t e m t i m e

l i m i t . T h u s t h e n o t a t i o n "PIQ}R" s h o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d

" p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e p r o g r a m s u c c e s sf u l ly t e r m i n a t e s , t h e

p r o p e r t i e s o f i t s r e s u l t s a r e d e s c r i b e d b y R . " I t i s f a i r l y

e a s y t o a d a p t t h e a x i o m s s o t h a t t h e y c a n n o t b e u s e d t op r e d i c t t h e " r e s u l t s " o f n o n t e r m i n a t i n g p r o g r a m s ; b u t t h e

a c t u a l u s e o f t h e a x i o m s w o u l d n o w d e p e n d o n k n o w l e d g e

o f m a n y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n - d e p e n d e n t f e a t u r e s , f o r e x a m p l e ,

t h e s i ze a n d s p e e d o f th e c o m p u t e r , t h e r a n g e o f n u m b e r s ,

a n d t h e c h o i ce o f o v e r f lo w t e c h n iq u e . A p a r t f r o m p r o o f s o f

t h e a v o i d a n c e o f i n f i n i te lo o p s , it i s p r o b a b l y b e t t e r t o

p r o v e t h e " c o n d i t i o n a l " c o r r e c t n e s s o f a p r o g r a m a n d r e l y

o n a n i m p l e m e n t a t i o n t o g i v e a w a r n i n g i f i t h a s h a d t o

TABLE III

Linenumber Formal proof Justification

1 tr ue ~x = x ~ y X 0 Le mm al

2 x = x - { - y X O { r : = x } x = r . - t - y X O DO

3 x = r ~ y X O { q : = O } x = r . - b y X q DO

4 t r u e { r := x} x = r ~ y X 0 D1 (1, 2)

5 t r ue {r := x; q := 0} x = r -t- y X q D2 (4, 3)

6 x = r ~ y X q A y ~ r ~ x =

( r - y ) ~ y X (1-t-q) Le mm a 2

7 x = ( r - - y ) .- {- y X (1-t-q){r := r - y } x =

r + y X (l +q ) DO

8 x = r + y X (l +q )[ q := 1 . - b q } x =

r - t - y X q DO

9 x = ( r - - y ) -~ y X (l +q) {r := r - - y ;

q := 1+q } x = r + y X q D2 (7, 8)

10 x = r + y X q A y ~ r { r : = r - - y ;

, q := l + q} x = r + y X q D1 (6 , 9 )

11 x = r -b y X q [w hi le y ~ r do

( r : = r - - y ; q := 1--bq)}

~- -Ty < r /~ x = r ~ y X q D3 (10)

12 tr ue {((r := x; q := 0); whi le y ~ rdo

( r : = r - - y ; q := l+q) )} -~y ~ rAx =

r + y X q D2 (5, 11)

NOTES

i. The left han d column is used to nu mb er the lines, and the

right hand column to justify each line, by appealing to an axiom,

a le mm a or a rule of inference applied to one or two previous

l ines , ind icated in b rackets . Nei ther of these columns is pa rtof the formal proof. For example, l ine 2 is an instance of theaxiom of assignm ent (DO); l ine 12 is obtain ed fro m lines 5 and 11by appl icat ion of the ru le o f composi t ion (D2) .

2 . Lemma 1 ma y be proved f rom ax ioms A7 and AS.3 . Lemm a 2 fo l lows d i rect ly f rom the theorem proved in See. 2 .

a b a n d o n e x e c u t i o n o f t h e p r o g r a m a s a r e s u l t o f v i o l a t i o

o f a n i m p l e m e n t a t i o n l i m i t .

F i n a l l y i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o l is t s o m e o f t h e a r e a s w h i c h h a v

n o t b e e n c o v e r e d : f o r e x a m p l e , r e a l a r i t h m e t i c , b i t a n

c h a r a c t e r m a n i p u l a t io n , c o m p l e x a r i th m e t i c , f r a c t i o n

a r i t h m e t i c , a r r a y s , r e c o r d s , o v e r l a y d e f in i t i o n , f il es , i n p u t

o u t p u t , d e c l a r a t i o n s , s u b r o u t i n e s , p a r a m e t e r s , r e c u r s i o n

a n d p a r a l le l e x e c u t io n . E v e n t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f in t e g e

a r i t h m e t i c i s f a r f r o m c o m p l e t e . T h e r e d o e s n o t a p p e a r tb e a n y g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s e p o i n t s , p r o

v i d e d t h a t t h e p r o g r a m m i n g l a n g u a g e i s k e p t s i m p l e

A r e a s w h i c h d o p r e s e n t r e a l d i f f i c u lt y a r e l a b e l s a n d j u m p s

p o i n t e rs , a n d n a m e p a r a m e t e r s . P r o o f s of p r o g r a m s w h i c

m a d e u s e o f t h e s e f e a t u r e s a r e l i k e l y to b e e l a b o r a t e , a n

i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h i s s h o u l d b e r e f l e c t e d i n t h

c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g a x i o m s .

5. P r o o f s o f P r o g r a m C o r r e c t n e s s

T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t y o f a p r o g r a m i s w h e t h e r

a c c o m p l i s h e s t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f i t s u s e r. I f t h e s e i n t e n t i o n

c a n b e d e s c r i b e d r i g o r o u s ly b y m a k i n g a s s e rt i o ns a b o u t t h

v a l u e s o f v a r i a b l e s a t t h e e n d ( o r a t i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s ) ot h e e x e c u t i o n o f t h e p r o g r a m , t h e n t h e t e c h n i q u e s d e s c r i b e

i n t h is p a p e r m a y b e u s e d t o p r o v e t h e c o r r e c t n es s o f t h

p r o g r a m , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e p r

g r a m m i n g l a n g u a g e c o n f o r m s t o t h e a x i o m s a n d r u le s w h i c

h a v e b e e n u s e d i n t h e p r o o f . T h i s f a c t i t se l f m i g h t a l so b

e s t a b l i s h e d b y d e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g , u s i n g a n a x i o m s

w h i c h d e s c r i b e s t h e l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e h a r d w a r

c i r c u i ts . W h e n t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f a p r o g r a m , i t s c o m p i l e

a n d t h e h a r d w a r e o f t h e c o m p u t e r h a v e a l l b e e n e s t a b l is h e

w i t h m a t h e m a t i c a l c e r t a i n t y , i t w i l l b e p o s s i b l e t o p l a c

g r e a t r e l i an c e o n t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p r o g r a m , a n d p r e d i

t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s w i t h a c o n f i d e n c e l i m i t ed o n l y b y t h

r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e e l e c t r o n ic s .T h e p r a c t i c e o f s u p p l y i n g p r o of s f o r n o n t ri v i a l p r o g r a m

w i ll n o t b e c o m e w i d e s p r e a d u n t i l c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e p o w e

f u l p r o o f t e c h n i q u e s b e c o m e a v a i la b l e , a n d e v e n t h e n w

n o t b e e a s y . B u t t h e p r a c t i c a l a d v a n t a g e s o f p r o g r a m p r o

i n g w i l l e v e n t u a l l y o u t w e i g h t h e d i ff i c u lt i e s, i n v i e w o f t h

i n c r e a si n g c o s t s o f p r o g r a m m i n g e r r o r . A t p r e s e n t , t h

m e t h o d w h i c h a p r o g r a m m e r u s e s t o c o n v i n c e h i m s e l f

t h e c o r r e c tn e s s o f h i s p r o g r a m i s t o t r y i t o u t i n p a r t i c u l

c a s es a n d t o m o d i f y i t if t h e r e s u l ts p r o d u c e d d o n o t c o

r e s p o n d t o h i s i n t e n ti o n s . A f t e r h e h a s f o u n d a r e a s o n a b

w i d e v a r i e t y o f e x a m p l e c a s e s o n w h i c h t h e p r o g r a m s e e m

t o w o r k , h e b e l i e v e s t h a t i t w i l l a l w a y s w o r k . T h e t i m

s p e n t i n t h i s p r o g r a m t e s t i n g i s o f t e n m o r e t h a n h a l f t ht i m e s p e n t o n t h e e n t i r e p r o g r a m m i n g p r o j e c t ; a n d w i t h

r e a l i s ti c c o s t in g o f m a c h i n e t i m e , t w o t h i r d s ( o r m o r e )

t h e c o s t o f th e p r o j e c t i s in v o l v e d i n r e m o v i n g e r r o r s d u r i n

t h i s p h a s e .

T h e c o s t o f r e m o v i n g e r r o r s d i s c o v e r e d a f t e r a p r o g r a

h a s g o n e i n t o u s e i s o f t e n g r e a t e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e c a

o f i t e m s o f c o m p u t e r m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s s o f t w a r e f o r w h i c h

l a r g e p a r t o f th e e x p e n s e is b o r n e b y t h e u s e r. A n d f i n a ll

t h e c o s t o f e rr o r i n c e r t a i n t y p e s o f p r o g r a m m a y b e a l m o

V o l u m e 12 / Num ber 10 / Oct obe r, 1969 Com mun ica ti ons o f t h e ACM 5

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i n e a l c u l a b l e - - a l o s t s p a c e c r a f t , a c o l l a p s e d b u i l d i n g , a

c r a s h e d a e r o p l a n e , o r a w o r l d w a r . T h u s t h e p r a c t i c e o f

p r o g r a m p r o v i n g i s n o t o n l y a t h e o r e t i c a l p u r s u it , f o l l o w e d

i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f a c a d e m i c r e s p e c t a b i l i t y , b u t a s e ri o u s

r e c o m m e n d a t i o n f o r th e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h p r o g r a m m i n g e r r o r .

T h e p r a c t i c e o f p r o v i n g p r o g r a m s i s l i k e l y t o a l l e v i a t e

s o m e o f t h e o t h e r p r o b l e m s w h i c h a f fl ic t t h e c o m p u t i n g

w o r l d . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e i s t h e p r o b l e m o f p r o g r a m d o c u -

m e n t a t i o n , w h i c h i s e s s e n t i a l , f i r s t l y , t o i n f o r m a p o t e n t i a l

u s e r o f a s u b r o u t i n e h o w t o u s e it a n d w h a t i t a c c o m p l i s h e s,

a n d s e c o n d ly , t o a s s is t in f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t w h e n i t

b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y t o u p d a t e a p r o g r a m t o m e e t c h a n g i n g

c i r c u m s t a n c e s o r t o i m p r o v e i t i n t h e l i g h t o f i n c r e a s e d

k n o w l e d g e . T h e m o s t r ig o r o u s m e t h o d o f f o r m u l a t i n g t h e

p u r p o s e o f a s u b r o u t i n e , a s w e l l a s t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f i t s

p r o p e r u s e , is t o m a k e a s s e r ti o n s a b o u t t h e v a l u e s o f v a r i-

a b l es b e f o r e a n d a f t e r i t s e x e c u t io n . T h e p r o o f o f th e c o r -

r e c t n e s s o f t h e s e a s s e r ti o n s c a n t h e n b e u s e d a s a l e m m a i n

t h e p r o o f o f a n y p r o g r a m w h i c h c a l ls t h e s u b r o u t i n e . T h u s ,

i n a l a rg e p r o g r a m , t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e w h o l e c a n b e c l e a rl y

m i r r o r e d i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f i t s p r o o f . F u r t h e r m o r e , w h e ni t b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y t o m o d i f y a p r o g r a m , i t w i ll a l w a y s b e

v a l i d t o r e p l a c e a n y s u b r o u t i n e b y a n o t h e r w h i c h s a t i s f i e s

t h e s a m e c r i t e ri o n o f c o r r e c tn e s s . F i n a l ly , w h e n e x a m i n i n g

t h e d e t a i l o f t h e a l g o r i t h m , i t s e e m s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e p r o o f

w i l l b e h e l p f u l i n e x p l a i n i n g n o t o n l y what i s h a p p e n i n g

b u t why.

A n o t h e r p r o b l e m w h i c h c a n b e s o l v e d , i n s o f a r a s i t i s

s o lu b l e, b y t h e p r a c t i c e o f p r o g r a m p r o o fs is t h a t o f tr a n s -

f e r r i n g p r o g r a m s f r o m o n e d e s i g n o f c o m p u t e r t o a n o t h e r .

E v e n w h e n w r i t t e n i n a s o - c a l l e d m a c h i n e - i n d e p e n d e n t

p r o g r a m m i n g l a n gu a g e , m a n y l a r g e p r o g r a m s i n a d v e r t -

e n t l y ta k e a d v a n t a g e o f s om e m a c h i n e - d e p e n d e n t p r o p -

e r t y o f a p a r t i c u l a r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , a n d u n p l e a s a n t a n de x p e n s i v e s u r p ri s e s c a n r e s u l t w h e n a t t e m p t i n g t o t r a n s f e r

i t t o a n o t h e r m a c h i n e . H o w e v e r , p r e s e n c e o f a m a c h i n e -

d e p e n d e n t f e a t u r e w i l l a l w a y s b e r e v e a l e d i n a d v a n c e b y

t h e f M l u r e o f a n a t t e m p t t o p r o v e t h e p r o g r a m f r o m m a -

c h i n e - i n d e p e n d e n t a x i om s . T h e p r o g r a m m e r w il l t h e n h a v e

t h e c h o i c e o f f o r m u l a t i n g h i s a l g o r i t h m i n a m a c h i n e -

i n d e p e n d e n t f a s h i o n , p o ss i b ly w i t h t h e h e l p o f e n v i r o n m e n t

e n q u i r i e s ; o r i f t h i s i n v o l v e s t o o m u c h e f f o r t o r in e f f i c ie n c y ,

h e c a n d e l i b e r a t e l y c o n s t r u c t a m a c h i n e - d e p e n d e n t p r o -

g r a m , a n d r e l y f o r h is p r o o f o n s o m e m a c h i n e - d e p e n d e n t

a x i o m , f o r e x a m p l e , o n e o f t h e v e r s i o n s o f A 1 1 ( S e c t i o n 2 ) .

I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e, t h e a x i o m m u s t b e e x p l i c i tl y q u o t e d a s

o n e o f t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n s o f s u c c e s s f u l u s e o f t h e p r o g r a m .T h e p r o g r a m c a n s t il l, w i t h c o m p l e t e c o n f i d en c e , be t r a n s -

f e r r e d to a n y o t h e r m a c h i n e w h i c h h a p p e n s t o s a t i s f y th e

s a m e m a c h i n e - d e p e n d e n t a x i o m ; b u t i f i t b e c o m e s n ec e s -

s a r y t o t r a n s f e r i t t o a n i m p l e m e n t a t i o n w h i c h d o e s n o t ,

t h e n a l l t h e p l a c e s w h e r e c h a n g e s a r e r e q u i r e d [ w i l l b e

c l e a r l y a n n o t a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p r o o f a t t h a t p o i n t

a p p e a l s t o t h e t r u t h o f t h e o f f e n d in g m a c h i n e - d e p e n d e n t

a x i o m .

T h u s t h e p r a c t i c e o f p r o v i n g p r o g r a m s w o u l d s e e m t o

l e a d t o s o l u t i o n o f t h r e e o f t h e m o s t p r e s s i n g p r o b l e m s i n

s o f t w a r e a n d p r o g r a m m i n g , n a m e l y , r e l ia b i l it y , d o c u m e n -

t a t i o n , a n d c o m p a t i b i l it y . H o w e v e r , p r o g r a m p r o v i n g , c e r-

t a i n l y a t p r e s e n t , w i l l b e d i f f ic u l t e v e n f o r p r o g r a m m e r s o f

h i g h c a l i be r ; a n d m a y b e a p p l i c a bl e o n l y t o q u i t e s i m p l e

p r o g r a m d e s i g n s . A s i n o t h e r a r e a s , r e l i a b i l i t y c a n b e p u r -

c h a s e d o n l y a t t h e p r i c e o f s i m p l i c i t y .

6 . F o r m a l L a n g u a g e D e f i n i ti o n

A h i g h l e v e l p r o g r a m m i n g l a n g u a g e , s u c h a s A L c~ oL ,

F OR TR A N, o r C O BO L, s u s u a l l y i n t e n d e d t o b e i m p l e m e n t e d

o n a v a r i e t y o f c o m p u t e r s o f d if f e r i n g s i ze , c o n f i g u r a t i o n ,

a n d d e s i g n . I t h a s b e e n f o u n d a s e r io u s p r o b l e m t o d e f i n e

t h e s e l a n g u a g e s w i t h s u f f i c i e n t r i g o u r t o e n s u r e c o m p a t -

i b i li t y a m o n g a l l i m p l e m e n t o r s . S i n c e t h e p u r p o s e o f c o m -

p a t i b i l i ty i s t o f a c i l it a t e i n te r c h a n g e o f p r o g r a m s e x -

p r e s s e d in t h e l a n g u a g e , o n e w a y t o a c h i e v e t h is w o u l d b e t o

i n s is t t h a t a ll im p l e m e n t a t i o n s o f t h e l a n g u a g e s h a l l " s a t -

i s f y " t h e a x i o m s a n d r u le s o f in f e r e n c e w h i c h u n d e r l i e

p r o o f s o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f p r o g r a m s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e

l a n g u a g e , s o t h a t a l l p r e d i c t i o n s b a s e d o n t h e s e p r o o f s w i l l

b e f u l fi l le d , e x c e p t i n t h e e v e n t o f h a r d w a r e f a i l u re . I ne f f e c t , t h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a c c e p t i n g t h e a x i o m s a n d r u l e s

o f i n f e r e n c e a s t h e u l t i m a t e l y d e f i n i t i v e s p e c i fi c a t i o n of t h e

m e a n i n g o f t h e l a n g u a g e.

A p a r t f r o m g i v i n g a n i m m e d i a t e a n d p o s s i b l y e v e n

p r o v a b l e c r i t e ri o n f o r t h e c o r r e c t n e ss o f a n i m p l e m e n t a t i o n ,

t h e a x i o m a t i c t e c h n i q u e f o r t h e d e f i n i ti o n of p r o g r a m m i n g

l a n g u a g e s e m a n t i c s a p p e a r s t o b e li k e th e f o r m a l s y n t a x o f

t h e A L a O L 6 0 r e p o r t , i n t h a t i t i s s u f fi c i e n t l y s i m p l e t o b e

u n d e r s t o o d b o t h b y t h e i m p l e m e n t o r a n d b y t h e r e a s o n a b l y

s o p h i s t i c a t e d u s e r o f t h e l a n g u a g e . I t i s o n l y b y b r i d g i n g

t h i s w i d e n i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n g a p i n a s i n g l e d o c u m e n t

( p e rh a p s e v e n p r o v a b l y c o n s is t e n t) t h a t t h e m a x i m u m

a d v a n t a g e c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m a f o r m a l l a n g u a g e de f -i n i t i o n .

A n o t h e r o f t h e g r e a t a d v a n t a g e s o f u s i n g a n a x i o m a t i c

a p p r o a c h i s t h a t a x i o m s o f f e r a s i m p l e a n d f l e x ib l e t e c h -

n i q u e f o r l e a v i n g c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f a l a n g u a g e undefined,

f o r e x a m p l e , r a n g e o f i n te g e r s , a c c u r a c y o f f l o a t i n g p o i n t ,

a n d c h o i c e o f o v e r f l o w t e c h n i q u e . T h i s i s a b s o l u t e l y e s -

s e n t i a l f o r s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n p u r p o s e s , s i n c e o t h e r w i s e t h e

l a n g u a g e w i l l b e i m p o s s i b l e t o i m p l e m e n t e f f i c i e n tl y o n

d i ff e r in g h a r d w a r e d e s ig n s. T h u s a p r o g r a m m i n g l a n g u a g e

s t a n d a r d s h o u l d c o n s i s t o f a s e t o f a x i o m s o f u n i v e r s a l

a p p l i c a b i l i t y , t o g e t h e r w i t h a c h o i c e f r o m a s e t o f s u p p l e -

m e n t a r y a x i o m s d e s c r i bi n g t h e r a n g e o f ch o i ce s f a c in g a n

i m p l e m e n t o r . A n e x a m p l e o f t h e u s e o f a x i o m s f o r th i sp u r p o s e w a s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 2 .

A n o t h e r o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f f o r m a l l a n g u a g e d e f i n it i o n

i s t o a s s i s t i n t h e d e s i g n o f b e t t e r p r o g r a m m i n g l a n g u a g e s .

T h e r e g u l a r i t y , c l a r i ty , a n d e a s e of i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e

A LG OL 6 0 s y n t a x m a y a t l e a s t i n p a r t b e d u e t o t h e u s e o f

a n e l e g a n t f o r m a l t e c h n i q u e f o r it s d e f i ni t io n . T h e u s e o f

a x i o m s m a y l e a d t o s i m i l a r a d v a n t a g e s i n t h e a r e a o f

" s e m a n t i c s , " s i n c e i t se e m s l ik e l y t h a t a l a n g u a g e w h i c h c a n

(Continued on p. 583)

5 8 0 C o m m u n i c a t i o n s o f t h e A C M V o l u m e 12 / N u m b e r 10 / O c t o b e r , 1 96 9

8/3/2019 Hoare - An Axiomatic Basis for Computer Programming

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by Lowe. In addition, we define F ( j ) = ~ = ~ f ( i) and

write Ix] for the greatest integer no t exceeding x.

In a packed list file, the bucket which contains the first

element of list j will have its first

F ( j ) - - C [ F ( j ) / C ] (1)

positions occupied by lists j - 1, j - 2, .. . . For any

pract ical file, when j is not a smal l integer, (1) behaves as

a random variable uniformly distributed between 0 and C.In other words, the start of a list is independent of bucket

boundaries. It is easy to see that the expected number of

accesses required to re trieve list j is f ( j ) / C ~ 1.

Hence we have

T , = t~ ( f ( j ) / C + 1 ) p ( j ) ,

( 2 ). ' . T , / t , - - 1 + ~ f ( j ) p ( j ) / C ,

since ~f=l p ( j ) = 1. Equat ion (2) corresponds to (1

in [1].

The assumptions on f ( j ) and p ( j ) in [1] may be su

stituted into (2). The first two assumptions yield

T r / t , = 1 + S / N C , (

and the third assumption, for large N, yields approximate

T~/t~ = 1 + ( lnN + ~)-2~-V6. (

These equations should be compared with the right-han

inequalities of (13) and (24) in [1].

RECEIVED MARCH 1969; REVISED JUNE 1969

REFERENCES

1. LOWE, THOMAS C. The influence of data- base chara cteri sti

and usage on direct-access file organization. J . A C M 1

4 (Oct. 1968), 535-548.

A

C . A . R. H O A R E - - c o n t ' d from p a g e 5 8 0

be described by a few "self-evident" axioms from which

proofs will be relatively easy to construct will be preferable

to a language with many obscure axioms which are dif-

ficult to apply in proofs. Furthermore, axioms enable the

language designer to express his general i n t e n t io n s quite

simply and directly, without the mass of detail which

usually accompanies algorithmic descriptions. Finally, ax-

ioms can be formulated in a manner largely independent

of each other, so that the designer can work freely on one

axiom or group of axioms without fear of unexpected in-

teraction effects with other parts of the language.

Ackn o wle d g m e n t s . Many axiomatic treatments of com-

puter programming [1, 2, 3] tackle the problem of proving

the equivalence, rather t han the correctness, of algorithms.

Other approaches [4, 5] take recursive functions rather

than programs as a starting point for the theory. The

suggestion to use axioms for defining the primitive opera-

tions of a computer appears in [6, 7]. The importance ofprogram proofs is clearly emphasized in [9], and an in-

formal technique for providing them is described. The

suggestion that the specification of proof techniques pro-

vides an adequate formal definition of a programming

language first appears in [8]. The formal trea tmen t of pro-

gram execution presented in this paper is clearly derived

from Floyd. The main contributions of the a uthor appear

to be: (1) a suggestion tha t axioms may provide a simple

solution to the problem of leaving certain aspects of a

language undefined; (2) a comprehensive evaluation

the possible benefits to be gained by adopting this approac

both for program proving and for formal language defin

tion.

However, the formal material presented here has on

an expository status and represents only a minute propo

tion of what remains to be done. It is hoped that many othe fascinating problems involved will be taken up b

others.

RECEIVED NOVEMBER, 1968;REVISED MAY, 1969

R E F E R E N C E S

i . Y A N O V , Y u I. Lo g i c a l o p e r a t o r s c h e m e s . K y b e r n e t i k a I, ( 1 9 5 8 )

2 . IG A R AS H I , S . A n a x i o m a t i c a p p r o a c h t o e q u i v a l e n c e p r o b l e m

o f a l g o r i t h m s w i t h a p p l i c a t i o n s . P h . D . Th e s i s 1 9 6 4 . R e p

C o m p t . C e n t r e , U . To k y o , 1 9 6 8 , p p . i - I0 1 .

3 . D E BAK IC ER , J . W . Ax i o m a t i c s o f s i m p l e a s s i g n m e n t s t a t e m e n t s

M . R . 9 4 , M a t h e m a t i s c h C e n t r u m , A m s t e r d a m , J u n e 1 9 6 8 .

4 . M c C A R T H Y , J . T o w a r d s a m a t h e m a t i c a l t h e o r y o f c o m p u t a t i o n .

P r o c . I F I P C o n g . 1 9 6 2 , N o r t h H o l l a n d P u b . C o . , A m s t e r d a m ,

1 9 6 3 .

5. BURSTALL,R. Proving properties of programs by structural i

duction. Experimental Programming Reports: No. 17 DMIPEdinburgh, Feb. 1968.

6. VAN WIJNGAARDEN, A. Numerical analysis as an independe

science. B I T 6 (1966), 66-81.

7. LASKI, J. Sets and o ther types . ALGOL Bull. 27, 1968.

8. FLOYD, R. W. Assigning meanings to programs. Proc. AmeMath. Soc. Symposi a in Applied Mathemat ics, Vol. 19, p19-31.

9. N~_uR, P. P roof of algorithms by general sna pshot s. B I T

(1966), 310-316.

Volu me 12 / Numb er 10 / October, 1969 Com mun ica tio ns of the ACM 58