History of Islam

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History of IslamFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Muslim history)This article is about the history of Islam as a culture and polity. For the history of the Islamic faith, see Spread of Islam. For Islamic civilization, see Muslim world. For military conquests, see Islamic conquests. For chronology, see Timeline of Islamic history.This article is part of a series on:IslamAllah-eser-green.png

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Ahl al-Bayt SahabahRashidun ImamateCaliphate Spread of IslamDenominationsSunni Shia SufismIbadi Ahmadiyya NondenominationalQuranism NOI Five-Percent Nation Liberal movements within IslamCulture and societyAcademics Animals ArtCalendar ChildrenDawah DemographicsFestivals MosquesPhilosophy Politics

Science WomenRelated topicsOther religions Islamism Criticism Islamophobia GlossaryPortal icon Islam portalv t eThe history of Islam concerns the Islamic religion and its adherents, known as Muslims. "Muslim" is an Arabic word meaning "one who submits to God". Muslims andtheir religion have greatly impacted the political, economic, and military history of the Old World, especially the Middle East, where lie its roots. Though itis believed by non-Muslims to have originated in Mecca and Medina, Muslims believe that the religion of Islam has been present since the time of the prophet Adam. The Islamic world expanded to include people of the Islamic civilisation, inclusive of non-Muslims living in that civilisation.

A century after the death of last Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Islamic empire extended from Spain in the west to Indus in the east. The subsequent empires suchas those of the Abbasids, Fatimids, Almoravids, Seljukids, Ajuuraan, Adal and Warsangali in Somalia, Mughals in India and Safavids in Persia and Ottomans wereamong the influential and distinguished powers in the world. The Islamic civilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and philosophers during theGolden Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; and the importance of reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general pop


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ulace.In the later Middle Ages, destructive Mongol invasions from the East, and the loss of population in the Black Death, greatly weakened the traditional centre ofthe Islamic world, stretching from Persia to Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire was able to conquer most Arabic-speaking areas, creating an Islamic world power again, although one that was unable to master the challenges of the Early Modern period.Later, in modern history (18th and 19th centuries), many Islamic regions fell under the influence of European Great powers. After the First World War, Ottoman territories (a Central Powers member) were partitioned into several nations underthe terms of the Treaty of Svres.

Although affected by ideologies such as socialism and secularism during much ofthe 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues intensified during the early 21st century. Global interests in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization changed the type of Islamic influence on the contemporary world.[1] In the contemporary period, a set of ideologies holding interpretations of Islamic texts that advocate the unification of religion and state has spread, but the ideology has been criticized.Contents1 Major periods2 Islamic Origins3 City-states and Imperial period4 Universal period and decentralization4.1 Islamic Golden Age

4.2 Regional powers4.3 Fatimid Empire4.4 Berbers and Iberian Umayyads4.5 The Crusades4.6 Mongol invasions4.7 The Mamluks4.8 Africa4.9 Horn of Africa4.10 Asia and the Far East4.11 Southeast Asia5 Fragmentation period5.1 Three Early Modern empires5.2 Mughal Empire

5.3 Safavid Empire5.4 Salafi5.5 Ottoman Empire5.6 Modern history5.7 National period6 See also7 Notes8 References and further reading9 External linksMajor periods[edit]

Main article: Historiography of early IslamThe Islamic state and Muslim's system of government evolved through various stag

es.[2] The precise dates of various periods in history are more or less arbitrary. The City-state period lasted from 620s to 630s. The Imperial period lasted from 630s to 750s. The Universal period lasted from 750s to around 900s. These correspond to the early period of post-classical history. The "Decentralization" period lasted from around 900s to the early 1500s. This correspond to the high period and late period of post-classical history. The "Fragmentation" period lastedfrom around 1500s to the late 1910s. The contemporary period, referred to as the National period, lasted from 1910s into the twenty-first century.Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details.


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Further information: Timeline of Muslim historySee also: Disputed issues in early Islamic historyIslamic Origins[edit]

Main articles: Quraysh (tribe), Banu Hashim, Muhammad, and Qu'ranIn pre-Islamic Arabia Arab people lived on the Arabian Plate. In the south of Hedjaz (principal religious and commercial centre of post-classical Arabia), the Arabic tribe of Quraysh (Adnani Arabs), to which Muhammad belonged, had been in existence. Near Mecca, the tribe was increasing in power. The Quraysh were the guardians of the Kaaba within the town of Mecca and was the dominant tribe of Mecca upon the appearance of Islam. The Kaaba, at the time, was used as an important

pagan shrine. It brought revenues to Mecca because of the multitude of pilgrimsthat it attracted. Muhammad was born into the Banu Hashim tribe of the Qurayshclan,[3] a branch of the Banu Kinanah tribe, descended from Khuzaimah and derived its inheritance from the Khuza'imah (House of Khuza'a).

Muhammad KaabanNakka? Osman, Istanbul (1595)(Ed., note artists began representing the veil-covered face of Muhammad from the16th century onwards)According to the traditional Islamic view, the Qur'an (Koran) began with revelations to Muhammad (when he was 40 years old) in 610. The history of the Qur'an began when its verses were revealed to the Sahabah during Muhammad's life. The ris

e of Islam began around the time Muslims took flight in the Hijra, moving to Medina. With Islam, blood feuds among the Arabs lessened. Compensation was paid inmoney rather than blood and only the culprit was executed.In 628, the Makkah tribe of Quraish and the Muslim community in Medina signed atruce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyya beginning a ten-year period of peace. Warreturned when the Quraish and their allies, the tribe of 'Bakr', attacked the tribe of 'Khuza'ah', who were Muslim allies. In 630, Muslims conquered Mecca. Muhammad died in June 632. The Battle of Yamama was fought in December of the same year, between the forces of the first caliph Abu Bakr and Musailima.See also: Early scholars of IslamCity-states and Imperial period[edit]

Main articles: Succession to Muhammad and Caliphate

After Muhammad died, a series of Caliphs governed the Islamic State: Abu Bakr (632-634), Umar ibn al-Khattab (Umar ?, 634-644), Uthman ibn Affan, (644-656), andAli ibn Abi Talib (656-661). These leaders are known as the "Rashidun" or "rightly guided" Caliphs in Sunni Islam. They oversaw the initial phase of the Muslimconquests, advancing through Persia, Egypt, the Middle East and North Africa.Umar improved the administration and built cities like Basra and canal and irrigation networks. To be close to the poor, Umar lived in a simple mud hut withoutdoors and walked the streets every evening. After consulting with the poor, Umarestablished the first welfare state Bayt al-mal.[4][5][6] The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans,widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced Child Benefit and Pensions for

the children and the elderly.[7][8][9][10] The expansion of the state, was partially terminated between 638639 during the years of great famine and plague in Arabia and Levant respectively. During Umars reign, within 10 years Levant, Egypt,Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, Fezzan, Eastern Anatolia, almost the whole of SassanidPersian Empire including Bactria, Persia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Caucasus and Makran were incorporated into Islamic State. When Umar was assassinated in 644, theelection of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. The Qur'anwas standardized during this time.Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the ByzantineSassanid Wars, often aided Musl


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ims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.[11][12] As new areas joining the Islamic State, theyalso benefited from free trade, while trading with other areas in the Islamic State, so as to encourage commerce, in Islam trade is not taxed, wealth is taxed.[13] The Muslims paid Zakat on their wealth to the poor. Since the Constitutionof Medina, was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State and had their own judges.[14][15][16] Therefore they only paid for policing for the protection of theirproperty. To assist in the quick expansion of the state, the Byzantine and the Persian tax collection systems were maintained and the people paid a poll tax lower than the one imposed under the Byzantines and the Persians.

In 639, Muawiyah I was appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous governor Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah died in a plague along with 25,000 other people.[17][18] To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-ByzantineWars, in 649 Muawiyah I set up a navy; manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in thedefeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up theMediterranean.[19][20][21][22][23]When Umar was assassinated in 644, Uthman Ibn Affan became the next caliph. As it is well known that Arabic language is written without vowels, and when Qur'anreached the non-Arabic speakers, people began having different dielects and phonics which was changing the exact meaning of verses in the Qur'an. This was brought to the notice of Uthman Ibn Affan. Begun in the time of Uthman ibn Affan, thecompilation of the Qur'an was finished sometime between 650 and 656, Uthman sen

t copies to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire. From then on,thousands of Muslim scribes began copying the Qur'an.[24]The Qur'an and Muhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in the The Farewell Sermon.[25][26][27][28][29][30][31] Tribal and nationalistic differenceswere discouraged. But after Muhammad's passing the old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Following the RomanPersian Wars and the ByzantineSassanid Wars deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the PersianSassanid Empire and Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area.[32] Previously, the second caliph Umar was very firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on the governors. If he felt that a governor or a commander wasbecoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the required administrative standards, he had him removed from his position.[33]

Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury. In the process, they may get away from the worship of God and become attracted to wealth and start accumulatingwealth and establishing dynasties.[34][35][36][37] "Wealth and children are [but] adornment of the worldly life. But the enduring good deeds are better to yourLord for reward and better for [one's] hope." Qur'an 18:46 [38] "O you who havebelieved, let not your wealth and your children divert you from remembrance ofAllah . And whoever does that - then those are the losers." Qur'an 63:9 [39] Staying in these encampments away from the cities also ensured that there was no stress on the population and also that the populations remained autonomous and kept their own judges and representatives. Some of these encampments later grew into cities themselves, like Basra and Kufa in Iraq and Fustat in Egypt.[40] Some cities also had agreements with the Muslims, such as during the Siege of Jerusale

m in 637 CE.As Uthman ibn al-Affan became very old, Marwan I a relative of Muawiyah I slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary and slowly assumed more control and relaxed some of these restrictions. Marwan I had previously been excluded from positions of responsibility. In 656, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr the son of Abu Bakr andthe adopted son of Ali ibn Abi Talib and the great grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadiq showed some Egyptians, the house of Uthman ibn al-Affan. Later the Egyptiansended up killing Uthman ibn al-Affan.[41] Ali then assumed the position of caliph and moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq. Muawiyah I the governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman ibn al-Affan and Marwan I wanted the culprits arrested. Marwan I


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manipulated every one and created conflict. This later resulted in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Six months later in 661, in the interest of peace, Hasan ibn Ali, highly regarded for his wisdom and as a peacemaker, the fifth Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and the Second Imam for the Shias and the grandson of Muhammad, made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I. In the Hasan-Muawiya treaty, Hasan ibn Ali handed over powerto Muawiya on the condition that he be just to the people and keep them safe andsecure and after his death he does not establish a dynasty.[42][43] This brought to an end the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and Hasan ibn Ali was also the last Imam for the Shias to be a Caliph. Following this, Mu'awiyah broke the conditions of the agreement and began the Umayyad dynasty, with its

capital in Damascus.[44] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". After making everyone else fight,[45] the Umayyad dynasty later fell into the hands of Marwan I who was also an Umayyad. The Umayyads conquered the Maghrib, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[46]After the peace treaty with Ali's son, Hassan ibn Ali, and the suppression of the revolt of the Kharijites,[47] Muawiyah I proclaimed himself Caliph in 661 andbegan consolidating power.[48] In 663, a new Kharijite revolt resulted in the death of their chief.[48] In 664, Muawiyah and Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan reached an agreement: the Caliph recognised Ziyad as a brother and appointed him governor at Basra. Ziyad took the name ibn Abi Sufyan. Muawiyah arranged for his son Yazid Ito be appointed caliph on his death, which came in 680. Husain ibn Ali, by thenMuhammad's only living grandson, refused to swear allegiance to Yazid. He was ki

lled in the Battle of Karbala the same year, an event still mourned by Muslims on the Day of Ashura. Unrest continued in the Second Fitna, but Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah to Rhodes, Crete, Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand, and expanded in North Africa. In 664, Arab armies conquered Kabul,[49] and in 665 pushedinto the Maghreb.[50]Succession and Umayyad accessionConsult particular article for detailsThe Umayyad dynasty (or Ommiads), whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams,the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled from 661 to 750. Although the Umayyad family came from the city of Mecca, Damascus was the capital. After the death of Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr in 666,[51][52] Muawiyah I consolidated his power. Muawiyah I moved his capital to Damascus from Medina, which led to

profound changes in the empire. In the same way, at a later date, the transferof the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family to power.As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally the Bayt al-mal and the Welfare State expenses to assist the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled, increased, the Umayyads asked thenew converts (mawali) to continue paying the poll tax. The Umayyad rule, with its wealth and luxury also seemed at odds with the Islamic message preached by Muhammad.[53][54][55] All this increased discontent.[56][57] The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs,and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750, which moved the capital to Baghdad.[58] A branch of the Ummayad family fled across North Africa to Al-

Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Crdoba, which lasted until 1031before falling due to the Fitna of al-ndalus. The Bayt al-mal, the Welfare Statethen continued under the Abbasids.At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than 5,000,000 square miles (13,000,000 km2) making it one of the largest empires the world had yet seen,[59] and the fifth largest contiguous empire ever. After the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid Caliphate, they fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Crdoba, which lasted until 1031 with the Fitna of al-ndalus.


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The Mosque of Uqba (Great Mosque of Kairouan), founded by the Umayyad general Uqba Ibn Nafi in 670 AD, is the oldest and most prestigious mosque in the Muslim West; its present form dates from the 9th century, Kairouan, Tunisia.Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in Anatolia. Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post-civil war anarchy. However, Shia Muslims accuse him of instigating the war, weakening the Muslim nation by dividing the Ummah, fabricatingself-aggrandizing heresies[60] slandering the Prophet's family[61] and even sell

ing his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.[62] One of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor. According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali.In 682 AD Yazid restored Uqba ibn Nafi as the governor of North Africa. Uqba wonbattles against the Berbers and Byzantines.[63] From there Uqba marched thousands of miles westward towards Tangier, where he reached the Atlantic coast, and then marched eastwards through the Atlas Mountains.[64] With about 300 cavalrymen, he proceeded towards Biskra where he was ambushed by a Berber force under Kaisala. Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers attacked and drove Muslimsfrom north Africa for a period.[65] Weakened by the civil wars the Umayyad lostsupremacy at sea, and had to abandon the islands of Rhodes and Crete. Under therule of Yazid I, some Muslims in Kufa began to think that if Hussein ibn Ali the

descendent of Muhammad was their ruler, he would have been more just. He was invited to Kufa but was later betrayed and killed. Later this concept was taken one step further and they started thinking, what if history took a different course and Ali was the first caliph and these ideas were later adopted by some Shia and institutionalised by the Safavids.

Dome of the RockThe Mosque of Omar, on Ash-Haram Al-Sharif (the Temple Mount), built by Abd al-Malik; completed at the end of the Second Fitna.The period under Muawiya II was marked by civil wars (Second Fitna). This wouldease in the reign of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, a well-educated and capable ruler.Despite the many political problems that impeded his rule, all important record

s were translated into Arabic. In his reign, a currency for the Muslim world wasminted. This led to war with the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II (Battle ofSebastopolis) in 692 in Asia Minor. The Byzantines were decisively defeated bythe Caliph after the defection of a large contingent of Slavs. The Islamic currency was then made the exclusive currency in the Muslim world. He reformed agriculture and commerce. Abd al-Malik consolidated Muslim rule and extended it, madeArabic the state language, and organized a regular postal service.Al-Walid I began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the early Islamic empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and moved on into Carthage and across to the west of North Africa.Muslim armies under Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and began to conquer Spain using North African Berber armies. The Visigoths of Spain were defeated when the Umayyad conquered Lisbon. Spain was the farthest extent of Isla

mic control of Europe (they were stopped at the Battle of Tours). In the east, Islamic armies under Muhammad bin Qasim made it as far as the Indus Valley. UnderAl-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from Spain to India. Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef played a crucial role in the organization and selection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad era., This tactic was crucial for the expansion to Spain. His reign is considered to be the apex of Islamic power.Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab governor of Mesopotamia. Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of al-Hajjaj, one of two prominent leaders (the other


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was Qutaibah bin Muslim) who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no threat. Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did notmove to Damascus on becoming Caliph, remaining in Ramla. Sulayman sent Maslamahibn Abd al-Malik to attack the Byzantine capital (siege of Constantinople). Theintervention of Bulgaria on the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in 717.Yazid II came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, with whom Umar had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire.[66] Yazid expan

ded the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before dying in 724. Inheritingthe caliphate from his brother, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ruled an empire with many problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing theUmayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, andrenewed reforms introduced by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite teachings combined withlocal restlessness to produce a significant Berber revolt. He was also faced with a revolt by Zayd bin Ali. Hisham suppressed both revolts. The Abbasids continued to gain power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to make a move yet. Some were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors.The Battle of Akroinon, a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty.[67] Hisham died in 743.Al-Walid II saw political intrigue during his reign. Yazid III spoke out against

his cousin Walid's "immorality" which included discrimination on behalf of theBanu Qays Arabs against Yemenis and non-Arab Muslims, and Yazid received furthersupport from the Qadariya and Murji'iya (believers in human free will).[68] Walid was shortly thereafter deposed in a coup.[69] Yazid disbursed funds from thetreasury and acceded to the Caliph. He explained that he had rebelled on behalfof the Book of Allah and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for only six months, while various groups refused allegiance and dissident movements arose, after which he died. Ibrahim ibn al-Walid, named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled fora short time in 744, before he abdicated. Marwan II ruled from 744 until he waskilled in 750. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and asserted his authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially inIran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. Marwan's reign as caliph w

as almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together. His death signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and was followed by the massacre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince Abd ar-Rahman who escaped to Spain and founded a dynasty there.Universal period and decentralization[edit]

Islamic Golden Age[edit]Main articles: Abbasid and Islamic Golden AgeThe Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, consolidating the gains of the earlierCaliphates. Initially, they conquered Mediterranean islands including the Balearics and Sicily.[70] The ruling party had come to power on the wave of dissatisfaction with the Umayyads, cultivated by the Abbasid revolutionary Abu Muslim.[71

][72] Under the Abbasids Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic prose and poetry, termed by The Cambridge History of Islamas its "golden age".[73] Commerce and industry (considered a Muslim AgriculturalRevolution) and the arts and sciences (considered a Muslim Scientific Revolution) also prospered under Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur (ruled 754 775), Harun al-Rashid (ruled 786 809), al-Ma'mun (ruled 809 813) and their immediate successors.[74]Islamic StatesUniversal Golden period


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Eastern hemisphere's States and Empires (820) Abbasid Caliphate Aghlabids Idrisid dynasty Multan Sultans of Sindh Iberian UmayyadsDecentralized territory

Umayyads (Crdoba) Idrisids (Berbers) Rustamid (Ib?diyya of Tahirid) Aghlabids (Emirate of Ifriqiya) Tulunids/Irshkids Qarmatians (Carmathians) Buyjids (Tahirids) Alijds (Ziyarids) Hamdanid (Marwanid/Uqaylid) Samanids (Greater Khorasan) Saffrids (Baloch) Sajids (Shirvanshah)Regions are approximate, consult particular article for details.

The capital was moved from Damascus to Baghdad, due to the importance placed bythe Abbasids upon eastern affairs in Persia and Transoxania.[74] At this time the caliphate showed signs of fracture amid the rise of regional dynasties. Although the Umayyad family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family member, Abd ar-Rahman I, escaped to Spain and established an independent caliphate there in 756. In the Maghreb, Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab Aghlabids as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognise central authority. Aghlabid rule was short-lived, and they were deposed by the Shiite Fatimid dynasty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building acapital there in 973 called "al-Qahirah" (meaning "the planet of victory", known today as Cairo). In Persia the Turkic Ghaznavids snatched power from the Abbasids.[75][76] Abbasid influence had been consumed by the Great Seljuq Empire (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated into mainland Persia) by 1055.[74]

Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful proselytising.[70] The first stage in the conquest of India began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193 1209) years later, the area up to the Ganges river had fallen. In sub-Saharan West Africa, Islam was established just after the year 1000. Muslim rulers were in Kanem starting from sometime between 1081 to 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of Gao as early as 1009. The Islamic kingdomsassociated with Mali reached prominence in the 13th century.[77]The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity. Different sects of the Islamic faith and mosques, separated by doctrine, history, and practice, were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from theUmayyads by attacking the Umayyads' moral character and administration. According to Ira Lapidus, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their M

awali".[78] The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, whoremained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as alower class within the Umayyad empire. Islamic ecumenism, promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of the Ummah in the literal meaning: that therewas a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as the Shariah was codified, and the four Madhabs were established. This era also saw the rise of classical Sufism. Religious achievements included completion of the canonical collections ofHadith of Sahih Bukhari and others.[79] Islam recognized to a certain extent the validity of the Abrahamic religions, the Qur'an identifying Jews, Christians,Zoroastrians, and "Sabi'un" or "baptists" (usually taken as a reference to the M


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andeans and related Mesopotamian groups) as "people of the book". Toward the beginning of the high Middle Ages, the doctrines of the Sunni and Shia, two major denominations of Islam, solidified and the divisions of the world theologically would form. These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods.Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an Islamic monarchy (unitary system of government.) The regional Sultanate and Emirate governors' existence, validity, or legality were acknowledged for unity of the state.[80] In the early Islamic philosophy of the Iberian Umayyads, Averroes presented an argument in TheDecisive Treatise, providing a justification for the emancipation of science andphilosophy from official Ash'ari theology; thus, Averroism has been considereda precursor to modern secularism.[81][82]

Golden Baghdad Abbasids[edit]Early Middle AgesConsult particular article for detailsAccording to Arab sources in the year 750, Al-Saffah, the founder of the AbbasidCaliphate, launched a massive rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate from theprovince of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating the entire Umayyad family andachieving victory at the Battle of the Zab, Al-Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and founded a new dynasty. His forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm of the Abbasid Caliphate.[83]In Al-Mansur's time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs converted to Islam. The Umayyads actively discouraged conversion in order to continue the collection of the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims. Islam nearly doubled within its t

erritory from 8% of residents in 750 to 15% by the end of Al-Mansur's reign. Al-Mahdi, whose name means "Rightly-guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's reign, becoming the world's largest city. It attracted immigrants from Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Persia and as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad was home to Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. Likehis father, Al-Hadi[84] was open to his people and allowed citizens to addresshim in the palace at Baghdad. He was considered an "enlightened ruler", and continued the policies of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was plagued by military conflicts and internal intrigue.

An Arabic manuscript written under the second half of the Abbasid Era.

The military conflicts subsided as Harun al-Rashid ruled.[85] His reign was marked by scientific, cultural and religious prosperity. He established the libraryBayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom"), and the arts and music flourished during hisreign. The Barmakid family played a decisive advisorial role in establishing theCaliphate, but declined during Rashid's rule.[86]According to signed pledges during a pilgrimage to Mecca, Al-Amin received the Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid. Al-Amin faced internal rebellions. General Tahir ibn Husayn rebelled and besieged Baghdad. Tahir led reinforcements toregain positions lost by another officer. When Tahir pushed into the city, Al-Amin sought to negotiate safe passage. Tahir agreed on the condition Al-Amin turnover his sceptre, seal and other signs that he was caliph. Al-Amin tried to leave on a boat and rejected warnings that he wait. Tahir's forces attacked the boat and Al-Amin was thrown into the water. He swam to shore where he was captured

and executed. His head was placed on the Al Anbar Gate.[87]Regional powers[edit]The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry among Coptic Arabs, Indo-Persians, and immigrant Turks.[88] In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great.[89] The Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs adhered to the Sunnitesect; the Persians, a great portion of the Turkic groups, and several of the princes in India were Shia. The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. Under the influence of the Abbasid caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the Muslim world and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was the Tahirid dynasty in Khorasan, which was founded during the caliph


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Al-Ma'mun's reign. Similar dynasties included the Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids and Seljuqs. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.[90]High Baghdad Abbasids[edit]Early Middle AgesConsult particular article for detailsUpon Al-Amin's death, Al-Ma'mun became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun extended the Abbasid empire's territory during his reign and dealt with rebellions.[91] Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor of his military services in order to assure his lo

yalty. Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became powerful, frustrating Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid dynasty became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and other opponents.Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession. Al-Mahdi proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy. Religious scholars averred that Al-Ma'munwas overstepping his bounds in the Mihna, the Abbasid inquisition which he introduced in 833 four months before he died.[92] The Ulama emerged as a force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the inquisitions. The Ulemaand the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of Al-Ma'mun. In parallel, Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more pronounced.

During the Al-Ma'mun regime, border wars increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparationsfor a major campaign, but died while leading an expedition in Sardis. Al-Ma'mungathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famousmanuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic.[93] His scientists originated alchemy. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza to search for knowledge and treasure. Workers tunneled in near where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was succeeded by his half-brother, Al-Mu'tasim, rather than his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-Ma'mun.As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma'mun's militarybase at Tyana. He faced Khurramite revolts. One of the most difficult problems f

acing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising of Babak Khorramdin. Al-Mu'tasim overcame the rebels and secured a significant victory. Byzantine emperor Theophiluslaunched an attack against Abbasid fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who met and defeated Theophilus' forces at the Battle of Anzen. On his return he became aware of a serious military conspiracy which forced him and his successors torely upon Turkish commanders and ghilman slave-soldiers (foreshadowing the Mamluk system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly declined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's life there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels.During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid dynasty continued to grow in power. TheTahirids were exempted from many tribute and oversight functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid decline in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his predecessor's support for the

Islamic Mu'tazila sect, applying brutal torture against the opposition. Arab mathematician Al-Kindi was employed by Al-Mu'tasim and tutored the Caliph's son. Al-Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and algebra under the caliph's patronage.[94]Al-Wathiq succeeded his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and in Baghdad. Using a famous sword he personally joined the execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly largegap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down,but antagonism between the two groups grew, as Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of sc


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holars, as well as artists. He personally had musical talent and is reputed to have composed over one hundred songs.[95]

Minaret at the Great Mosque of Samarra.When Al-Wathiq died of high fever, Al-Mutawakkil succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil'sreign is remembered for many reforms and is viewed as a golden age. He was the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty fell into decline. Al-Mutawakkil ended the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil built the Great Mosque of Samarra[96] as part of an extension of Samarra eastwards. During his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met famous Byzantine theologian Constantine the Philosopher, who was sent to strengthe

n diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by Emperor Michael III. Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his actions against minorities. The Sh??i faced repression embodied in the destructionof the shrine of Hussayn ibn ?Al?, an action that was ostensibly carried out tostop pilgrimages. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slavesoldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably capturing Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by a Turkish soldier.Al-Muntasir succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the Turkish faction, though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the line of succession, fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. Duringhis reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and

Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor, electing Al-Musta'in. The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice andattacked. However, the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim campaign against the Christians,people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and murdering theirCaliphs. After the Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to Al-Mu'tazz but was put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turks, becoming the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power.High AbbasidsJurisprudenceFour constructions of Islamite lawAbu Hanifa (Iraq teacher)

Malik bin Anas (Medina Imam)Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i (Egyptian Iman)Ahmad ibn Hanbal (Baghdad teacher)Early AbbasidsLiterature and ScienceHunayn ibn Ishaq, physician, Greek translator;Ibn Fadlan, explorer;Al Battani, astronomer;Tabari, historian and theologian;Al-Razi, philosopher, medic, chemist;Al-Farabi, chemist and philosopher;Abu Nasr Mansur, mathematician;Alhazen, mathematician;

Al-Biruni, mathematician, astronomer, physicist;Omar Khayym, poet, mathematician, and astronomer;Mansur Al-Hallaj, Sufism mystic, writer and teacherAl-Mu'tazz proved too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters, but was surrounded byparties jealous of each other. At Samarra, the Turks were having problems with the "Westerns" (Berbers and Moors), while the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, whohad supported al-Musta'in, regarded both with equal hatred. Al-Mu'tazz put his brothers Al-Mu'eiyyad and Abu Ahmed to death. The ruler spent recklessly, causinga revolt of Turks, Africans, and Persians for their pay. Al-Mu'tazz was brutally deposed shortly thereafter. Al-Muhtadi became the next Caliph. He was firm and


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virtuous compared to the earlier Caliphs, though the Turks held the power. TheTurks killed him soon after his ascension. Al-Mu'tamid followed, holding on for23 years, though he was largely a ruler in name only. After the Zanj Rebellion,Al-Mu'tamid summoned al-Muwaffak to help him. Thereafter, Al-Muwaffaq ruled in all but name. The Hamdanid dynasty was founded by Hamdan ibn Hamdun when he was appointed governor of Mardin in Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890. Al-Mu'tamid latertransferred authority to his son, al-Mu'tadid, and never regained power. The Tulunids became the first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke awayduring this time.Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to allegiance and Mesopotamia was restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi'i, but toward the U

mayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu'tadid was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, ofwhich Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-Mu'tadid's death, his son by a Turkish slave-girl, Al-Muktafi, succeeded to the throne.Al-Muktafi became a favorite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as the Carmathians. Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the vazir next chose Al-Muqtadir. Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one rising on the fall or assassination of another. His long reignbrought the Empire to its lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul threw off its dependence, and the Greeks raided across the undefended border. TheEast continued to formally recognise the Caliphate, including those who virtual

ly claimed independence.At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress Zoe Karbonopsina pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner[97] while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This onlyadded to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir was again placed in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside thecity gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother al-Qahir. He was even worse. Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison.His son Ar-Radi took over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised for his piety, he became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister, Ibn Raik (amiral-umara; 'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his name was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period, the Hanbalis, supported by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition

'. Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies, to commune with philosophers, to discuss the questions of the day, to take counsel on the affairs of State; to distribute alms, or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus endedthe Early Baghdad Abbasids.In the late mid-930s, the Ikhshidids of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first governor (Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid) was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince".Also in the 930s, Al? ibn B?yah and his two younger brothers, al-Hassan and A?madfounded the B?yid confederation. Originally a soldier in the service of the Ziy?r?ds of ?abarist?n, Al? was able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general

from Baghdad named Y?q?t in 934. Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad. The B?yids made large territorial gains. Fars andJibal were conquered. Central Iraq submitted in 945, before the B?yids took Kerm?n (967), Oman (967), the Jaz?ra (979), ?abarist?n (980), and Gorgan (981). After this the B?yids went into slow decline, with pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule becoming de facto independent.[98]Middle Baghdad Abbasids[edit]Early High Middle Ages


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Consult particular article for detailsMediterrean Regionand the States of the Crusades

Regional States, ca. 1180. Almohad Dominion Kingdom of Sicily Fatimid Caliphate Abbasid Caliphate

Sm. Turkic states Crusader states Komnenian Byzantines Kingdom of HungaryAt the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had become of little importance. The amir al-umara Bajkam contented himself with dispatching hissecretary to Baghdad to assemble local dignitaries to elect a successor. The choice fell on Al-Muttaqi. Bajkam was killed on a hunting party by marauding Kurds.In the ensuing anarchy in Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee to Mosul where he was welcomed by the Hamdanids. They assassinated Ibn Raik. HamdanidNasir al-Dawla advanced on Baghdad, where mercenaries and well-organised Turks repelled them. Turkish general Tuzun became amir al-umara. The Turks were staunchSunnis. A fresh conspiracy placed the Caliph in danger. Hamdanid troops helped

ad-Daula escape to Mosul and then to Nasibin. Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalemated. Al-Muttaqi was at Ar Raqqah, moving to Tuzun where he was deposed. Tuzun installed the blinded Caliph's cousin as successor, with the title of Al-Mustakfi. With the new Caliph, Tuzun attacked the Buwayhid dynasty and the Hamdanids. Soon after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of his generals, Abu Ja'far. TheBuwayhids then attacked Baghdad, and Abu Ja'far fled into hiding with the Caliph. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula assumed command forcing the Caliph into abject submission to the Amir. Eventually, Al-Mustakfi was blinded and deposed. The cityfell into chaos, and the Caliph's palace was looted.[99]Significant Middle Abbasid MuslimsIbn Rushd (Averoes), philosopher;al-Farabi, Persian (Soghdian) philosopher;Al-Mutanebbi, Arabic poet;

Abu Ali Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (Avicenna), physician, philosopher, and scientistOnce the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad, Al-Muti became caliph. The office was shorn of real power and Shi'a observances were established. The Buwayhids held on Baghdad for over a century. Throughout the Buwayhid reign the Caliphate was at its lowest ebb, but was recognized religiously, except in Iberia. Buwayhid SultanMu'izz al-Dawla was prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne by fearfor his own safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and beyond.[100]The next Caliph, Al-Ta'i, reigned over factional strife in Syria among the Fatimids, Turks, and Carmathians. The Hideaway dynasyty also fractured. The Abbasid borders were the defended only by small border states. Baha' al-Dawla, the Buyidamir of Iraq, deposed al-Ta'i in 991 and proclaimed al-Qadir the new caliph.[101]

During al-Qadir's Caliphate, Mahmud of Ghazni looked after the empire. The greatMahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, was friendly towards the Caliphs, and his victories in the Indian Empire were accordingly announced from the pulpits of Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms. Al-Qadir fostered the Sunni struggle againstShi?ism and outlawed heresies such as the Baghdad Manifesto and the doctrine that the Qu'ran was created. He outlawed the Mu?tazila, bringing an end to the development of rationalist Muslim philosophy. During this and the next period, Islamic literature, especially Persian literature, flourished under the patronage ofthe Buwayhids.[102] By 1000 the global Muslim population had climbed to about 4per cent of the world total compared to the Christian population of 10 per cent.


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During Al-Qa'im's reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained power. Toghrl overran Syria and Armenia. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was well-received both by chiefs and people. In Bahrain, the Qarmatian state collapsed in Al-Hasa. Arabia recovered from the Fatimids and again acknowledged the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbasids. Al-Muqtadi washonored by the Seljuq Sultan Malik-Shah I, during whose reign the Caliphate wasrecognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was critical of the Caliph's interference in affairs of state, but died before deposing the last of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids.[103]Late Baghdad Abbasids[edit]Late High Middle Ages

Consult particular article for detailsAl-Aqsa Mosque

Plan of Al-Aqsa Mosque, year 985

Dome of Al Aqsa Mousque

The Late Baghdad Abbasids reigned from the beginning of the Crusades to the Seventh Crusade. The first Caliph was Al-Mustazhir. He was politically irrelevant, despite civil strife at home and the First Crusade in Syria. Raymond IV of Toulou

se attempted to attack Baghdad, losing at the Battle of Manzikert. The global Muslim population climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian populationof 11 per cent by 1100. Jerusalem was captured by crusaders who massacred its inhabitants. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedyand rousing men to recover the Al-Aqsa Mosque from the Franks (European Crusaders). Crowds of exiles rallied for war against the infidel. Neither the Sultan northe Caliph sent an army west.[104]Al-Mustarshid achieved more independence while the sultan Mahmud II of Great Seljuq was engaged in war in the East. The Banu Mazyad (Mazyadid State) general, Dubays ibn Sadaqa[105] (emir of Al-Hilla), plundered Bosra and attacked Baghdad together with a young brother of the sultan, Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud. Dubays was crushed by a Seljuq army under Zengi, founder of the Zengid dynasty. Mahmud's deathwas followed by a civil war between his son Dawud, his nephew Mas'ud and the at

abeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East, stimulated by the Caliph and Dubays, where he was beaten. The Caliph then laid siege to Mosul for three monthswithout success, resisted by Mas'ud and Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone inthe caliphate's military revival.[106]After the siege of Damascus (1134),[107] Zengi undertook operations in Syria. Al-Mustarshid attacked sultan Mas'ud of western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. Hewas later found murdered.[108] His son, Al-Rashid failed to gain independence from Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultanate. Mas'ud attacked; the Caliph and Zengi, hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul.The Sultan regained power, a council was held, the Caliph was deposed, and hisuncle, son of Al-Muqtafi, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to Isfahanand was killed by Hashshashins.[109]Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks allowe4d al-Muqtafi to main

tain control in Baghdad and to extend it throughout Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi granted protection to the Nestorian patriarch Abdisho III. While the Crusade raged, the Caliph successfully defended Baghdad against Muhammad II of Seljuq in theSiege of Baghdad (1157). The Sultan and the Caliph dispatched men in response toZengi's appeal, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph, nor their Amirs, daredresist the Crusaders.The next caliph, Al-Mustanjid, saw Saladin extinguish the Fatimid dynasty after260 years, and thus the Abbasids again prevailed. Al-Mustadi reigned when Saladin become the sultan of Egypt and declared allegiance to the Abbasids.An-Nasir, "The Victor for the Religion of God", attempted to restore the Calipha


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te to its ancient dominant role. He consistently held Iraq from Tikrit to the Gulf without interruption. His forty-seven year reign was chiefly marked by ambitious and corrupt dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his hazardous invocationof the Mongols, which ended his dynasty. His son, Az-Zahir, was Caliph for a short period before his death and An-Nasir's grandson, Al-Mustansir, was made caliph.Al-Mustansir founded the Mustansiriya Madrasah. In 1236 gedei Khan commanded to raise up Khorassan and populated Herat. The Mongol military governors mostly madetheir camp in Mughan plain, Azerbaijan. The rulers of Mosul and Cilician Armenia surrendered. Chormaqan divided the Transcaucasia region into three districts based on military hierarchy.[110] In Georgia, the population were temporarily div

ided into eight tumens.[111] By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia, excluding Abbasid Iraq and Ismaili strongholds, and all of Afghanistan andKashmir.[112]Al-Musta'sim was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposition to the rise of Shajar al-Durr to the Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crusade. To the east, Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan swept through the Transoxianaand Khorasan. Baghdad was sacked and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and Syria later appointed a powerless Abbasid Caliph in Cairo.Cairo Abbasid Caliphs[edit]Abbasid "shadow" caliph of CairoLate Middle AgesConsult particular article for details

The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo reigned under the tutelage of the Mamluk sultans and nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans. All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or succeeded Al-Musta'in were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the only Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to even briefly hold political power. Al-Mutawakkil III was the last "shadow" caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire.[113][114]Fatimid Empire[edit]Main article: Fatimids

The Al-Hakim MosqueCairo, Egypt; south of Bab Al-Futuh

"Islamic Cairo" building was named after Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, built by Fatimidvizier Gawhar Al-Siqilli, and extended by Badr al-Jamali.The Fatimids originated in Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia and eastern Algeria). The dynasty was founded in 909 by ?Abdull?h al-Mahd? Billah, who legitimised his claim through descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter F?tima as-Zahra and her husband ?Al? ibn-Ab?-T?lib, the first Sh??a Im?m, hence the name al-F?timiyy?n"Fatimid".[115] The Fatamids and the Zaydis at the time, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.[116][117][118]Abdull?h al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central Maghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, whichhe ruled from Mahdia, his capital in Tunisia.[119]The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 10th century, conquering the Ikhshidid dynasty and founding a capital at al-Q?hira(Cairo) in 969.[120] The name was a ref

erence to the planet Mars, "The Subduer", which was prominent in the sky at themoment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as Fustat until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria and even crossed the Mediterranean into Sicily and southern Italy.Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, the Red Sea coast of Africa,Yemen and the Hejaz.[121] Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade a


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nd diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its Song Dynasty, which determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages.Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, includingSunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews; they took high levels ingovernment based on ability.[122] There were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, notably Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.The Fatimid palace was in two parts. It was in the Khan el-Khalili area at Bin El-Quasryn street.[123]Fatimid caliphs[edit]

Early and High Middle AgesConsult particular article for detailsAlso see: Cairo Abbasid Caliphs (above)During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Fatimid Caliphs claimedspiritual supremacy not only in Egypt, but also contested the religious leadership of Syria. At the beginning of the Abbasid realm in Baghdad, the Alids facedsevere persecution by the ruling party as they were a direct threat to the Caliphate. Owing to the Abbasid inquisitions, the forefathers opted for concealment of the Dawa's existence. Subsequently, they traveled towards the Iranian Plateauand distanced themselves from the epicenter of the political world. Al Mahdi's father, Al Husain al Mastoor returned to control the Dawa's affairs. He sent twoDai's to Yemen and Western Africa. Al Husain died soon after the birth of his so

n, Al Mahdi. A system of government helped update Al Mahdi on the development which took place in North Africa.[124]Al Mahdi established the first Imam of the Fatimid dynasty. He claimed genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah through Husayn and Ismail. Al Mahdi established his headquarters at Salamiyah and moved towards north-western Africa, under Aghlabid rule. His success of laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi was instrumental among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe. Al Mahdi established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of Al-Qayrawan in Tunisia. At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of the Idrisids, as well as Egypt itself. In 920, Al Mahdi took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire, Al-Mahdiyyah. After his death, Al Mahdi was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.[125]

Berbers and Iberian Umayyads[edit]

The interiors of the Alhambra in Granada, Spain decorated with arabesque designs.Main articles: Umayyad conquest of Hispania, Al-Andalus, and TaifaThe Arabs, under the command of the Berber General Tarik ibn Ziyad, first begantheir conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania.Crossing the Strait of Gibraltar (named after the General), it won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariq's commander, Musa bin Nusair crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of

the peninsula. Some later Arabic and Christian sources present an earlier raid by a certain ??rif in 710 and also, the Ad Sebastianum recension of the Chronicleof Alfonso III, refers to an Arab attack incited by Erwig during the reign of Wamba (67280). The two large armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought.[126]The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of Emir by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I in Damascus. After the Abbasids came to power, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler Abd al-Rahman III took over the title of Emir of Crdoba(912-961).[127] Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as Crd


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oba. Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia,[128] and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works.[129] Economical development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.[130]The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of Hicham II who was ousted because of his indolence.[131] Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of states called taifa kingdoms (Arabic, Muluk al-?aw?'if; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those petty kingdoms weakened the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula vis--vis th

e Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the taifas, such as that of Seville,were forced to enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.[132]See also: Reconquista and Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsulaEmirs of Crdoba[edit]Main article: Emirs of CrdobaConsult particular article for detailsAbd al-Rahman I and Bedr (a former Greek slave) escaped with their lives after the popular revolt known as the Abbasid Revolution. Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Rahman I was one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Ra

hman I and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near Ceuta. Next step would be to cross to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have been sure whether he would be welcome. Following the Berber Revolt (740s), the province was in a state ofconfusion, with the Ummah torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racialtensions between the Arabs and Berbers. Bedr lined up three Syrian commanders Obeid Allah ibn Uthman and Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus, andYusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to gethis consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Rahman I would try to make himself emir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group of followers for Europe. Abd al-Rahman landed at Almucar in al-Andalus, to the east of Mlaga.During his brief time in Mlaga, he quickly amassed local support. News of the prince's arrival spread throughout the peninsula. In order to help speed his ascens

ion to power, he took advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to control Zaragoza. Rahman I fought to rule al-Andalus in a battle at the Guadalquivir river, just outside of Crdoba on the plains ofMusarah (Battle of Musarah). Rahman I was victorious, chasing his enemies from the field with parts of their army. Rahman I marched into the capital, Crdoba, fighting off a counterattack, but negotiations ended the confrontation. After Rahman I consolidated power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I didnot claim the Muslim caliph, though.[133] The last step was to have al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, garroted in Crdoba's jail. Al-Andalus was a safe haven for thehouse of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.[134]In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur had planned to depose the emir. RahmanI and his army confronted the Abbasids, killing most of the Abbasid army. The ma

in Abbasid leaders were decapitated, their heads preserved in salt, with identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled in a gruesome package andsent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Rahman I quelled repeated rebellions in al-Andalus. He began the building of the great mosque [cordova], and formed ship-yards along the coast; he is moreover said to have been thefirst to transplant the palm and the pomegranate into the congenial climate ofSpain: and he encouraged science and literature in his states. This good king died on the 29th of September, 788, after a reign of thirty-four years and one month.[135][136]


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The exterior of the Mezquita.Rahman I's successor was his son Hisham I. Born in Crdoba, he built many mosquesand completed the Mezquita. He called for a jihad that resulted in a campaign against the Kingdom of Asturias and the County of Toulouse; in this second campaign he was defeated at Orange by William of Gellone, first cousin to Charlemagne.His successor Al-Hakam I came to power and was challenged by his uncles, other sons of Rahman I. One, Abdallah, went to the court of Charlemagne in Aix-la-Chapelle to negotiate for aid. In the mean time Crdoba was attacked, but was defended.Hakam I spent much of his reign suppressing rebellions in Toledo, Saragossa andMrida.[137]

Abd ar-Rahman II succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. Rahman II repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cadiz, conquered Seville (withthe exception of its citadel) and attacked Crdoba. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids. He responded to Williamof Septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald's nominations.[138]Muhammad I's reign was marked by the movements of the Muladi (ethnic Iberian Muslims) and Mozarabs (Muslim-Iberia Christians). Muhammad I was succeeded by his son Mundhir I. During the reign of his father, Mundhir I commanded military operations against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muladi rebellions. Athis father's death, he inherited the throne. During his two-year reign, MundhirI fought against Umar ibn Hafsun. He died in 888 at Bobastro, succeeded by his b

rother Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi.Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. His government was marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muladi. His poweras emir was confined to the area of Crdoba, while the rest had been seized by rebel families. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi'sbrothers. The latter was in turn executed by Umawi's father, who named as successor Abd ar-Rahman III, son of the killed son of Umawi.[139][140][141]Caliphs at Crdoba[edit]Main article: Caliphate of CrdobaConsult particular article for detailsRahman III to help in his fight against the invasion by the Fatimids claimed theCaliphate in opposition to the generally recognized Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad.[

142]Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia[edit]Main article: Almoravid dynastyConsult particular article for details Ifriqiyah, IberianAlmohad caliphs[edit]Main article: Almohad dynastyConsult particular article for detailsThe Crusades[edit]Main article: The Crusades

Saladin and Guy of Lusignan after the Battle of HattinList of CrusadesEarly period First Crusade 10951099 Second Crusade 11471149 Third Crusade 11871192Low Period Fourth Crusade 12021204 Fifth Crusade 12171221


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Sixth Crusade 12281229Late period Seventh Crusade 12481254 Eighth Crusade 1270 Ninth Crusade 12711272Beginning in the 8th century, the Iberian Christian kingdoms had begun the Reconquista aimed at retaking Al-Andalus from the Moors. In 1095, Pope Urban II, inspired by the conquests in Spain by Christian forces and implored by the eastern Roman emperor to help defend Christianity in the East, called for the First Crusade from Western Europe which captured Odessa, Antioch, County of Tripoli and Jerusalem.[143]

In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem emergedand for a time controlled Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smallerCrusader kingdoms over the next 90 years formed part of the complicated politicsof the Levant, but did not in threaten the Islamic Caliphate nor other powers in the region. After Shirkuh ended Fatimid rule in 1169, uniting it with Syria, the Crusader kingdoms were faced with a threat, and his nephew Saladin reconquered most of the area in 1187, leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports.[144]In the Third Crusade armies from Europe failed to recapture Jerusalem, though Crusader states lingered for several decades, and other crusades followed. The Christian Reconquista continued in Al-Andalus, and was eventually completed with the fall of Granada in 1492. During the low period of the Crusades, the Fourth Crusade was diverted from the Levant and instead took Constantinople, leaving the Eastern Roman Empire (now the Byzantine Empire) further weakened in their long st

ruggle against the Turkish peoples to the east. However, the crusaders did manage to damage Islamic caliphates; according to William of Malmesbury, preventing them from further expansion into Christendom[145] and being targets of the Mamluks and the Mongols.See also: High Middle Ages, Frankokratia, and Crusader statesAyyubid dynasty[edit]Main article: Ayyubid dynastyThe Ayyubid dynasty was founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan and conquered the Near East region. The Ayyubids ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries, controlling Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up tothe borders of modern-day Tunisia. After Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself in

1200. In the 1230s, Syria's Ayyubid rulers attempted to win independence from Egypt and remained divided until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubidunity by taking over most of Syria, excluding Aleppo, by 1247. In 1250, the dynasty in the Egyptian region was overthrown by slave regiments. A number of attempts to recover it failed, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after.[146]Sultans of Egypt[edit]Consult particular article for detailsSultans and Amirs of Damascus[edit]Consult particular article for details

Emirs of Aleppo[edit]Consult particular article for detailsMongol invasions[edit]See also: Ilkhanate and Golden Horde

The Mongol ruler, Ghazan, studying the Quran.After the Crusades the Mongols invaded in the 13th century, marking the end of the Islamic Golden Age. Some historians assert that the eastern Islamic world nev


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er fully recovered. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, The Mongols put an endto the Abbasid era. The Mongol invasion of Central Asia began in 1219 at a hugecost in civilian life and economic devastation. The Mongols spread throughout Central Asia and Persia: the Persian city of Isfahan had fallen to them by 1237.[147]With the election of Khan Mongke in 1251, Mongol targeted the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke's brother, Hulegu, was made leader of the Mongol Army assigned tothe task of subduing Baghdad. The fall of Bagdhad in 1258 destroyed what had been the largest city in Islam. The last Abbasid caliph, al-Musta'sim, was captured and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and destroyed. The cities of Damascus and Aleppo fell in 1260. Plans for the conquest of Egypt were delayed due to the d

eath of Mongke at around the same time. The Abbasid army lost to the superior Mongol army, but the invaders were finally stopped by Egyptian Mamluks north of Jerusalem in 1260 at the pivotal Battle of Ain Jalut.[148]Ultimately, the Ilkhanate, Golden Horde, and the Chagatai Khanate - three of thefour principal Mongol khanates - embraced Islam.[149][150][151] In power in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia and further east, over the rest of the 13th century gradually all converted to Islam. Most Ilkhanid rulers were replaced by the new Mongol power founded by Timur (himself a Muslim), who conquered Persia in the 1360s,and moved against the Delhi Sultanate in India and the Ottoman Turks in Anatolia. His invasions were equally destructive, sacking Bagdhad, Damascus, Delhi andmany other cities, with enormous loss of life. Timur had attacked areas still recovering from the Black Death, which may have killed one third of the populationof the Middle East. The plague began in China, and reached Alexandria in Egypt

in 1347, spreading over the following years to most Islamic areas. The combination of the plague and the wars left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in a seriously weakened position. The Timurid dynasty would found many branches of Islam, including the Mughals of India.[152][153]The Mamluks[edit]In 1250, the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by slave regiments, and theMamluk Sultanate was born. In the 1260s, the Mongols sacked and control the Islamic Near East territories. The Mamluks, who were Turkic, forced out the Mongols(see Battle of Ain Jalut) after the final destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty. Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest interval between the Abbasid andOttoman empires (12501517).[154] The Mamluks experienced a continual state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition betweenthe "Muslim territory" (Dar al-Islam) and "non-Muslim territory" (Dar al-Harb).

[155]As part of their chosen role as defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, the Mamluks sponsored many religious buildings, including mosques, madrasas and khanqahs. Thoughsome construction took place in the provinces, the vast bulk of these projectsexpanded the capital. Many Mamluk buildings in Cairo survive, particularly in Old Cairo.[156]Bahri Sultans[edit]Main article: Bahri dynastyConsult particular article for detailsA former Mamluk slave who was born a prince, Aybak (known as Lion of Ain Jaloot)replaced the Mamluks in 1250. Aybak, by then a general, married Shajar al-Durr,the widow of Ayyubid caliph al-Salih Ayyub. Military prestige was at the center

of Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the Mongol forces. After Aybak's assassination and the accession of Qutuz in 1259, the Mamluks challenged and routed the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in late 1260. The Mongols were again defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Hims a few months later, and then driven out of Syria altogether.[76] With this, the Mamluks were able to concentrate their forces and to conquer the last of the crusader territories in the Levant.Burji Sultans[edit]Main article: Burji dynasty


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Eastern Mediterranean 1450Consult particular article for detailsSee also: Islamic Egypt governors, Mamluks EraThe global Muslim population had reached about 8 per cent of the world total asagainst the Christian population of 14 per cent by 1400.Africa[edit]Main article: Islam in AfricaThe Umayyad conquest of North Africa continued the century of rapid Muslim military expansion following the death of Muhammad in 632. By 640 the Arabs controlle

d Mesopotamia, had invaded Armenia, and were concluding their conquest of Byzantine Syria. Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad caliphate. By the end of 641 allof Egypt was in Arab hands.Horn of Africa[edit]Main articles: Islam in Ethiopia and Islam in SomaliaThe history of Islam in the Horn of Africa is almost as old as the faith itself.Through extensive trade and social interactions with their converted Muslim trading partners on the other side of the Red Sea, in the Arabian peninsula, merchants and sailors in the Horn region gradually came under the influence of the newreligion.[157]Early Islamic disciples fled to the port city of Zeila in modern-day northern Somalia to seek protection from the Quraysh at the court of the Aksumite Emperor in present-day Somalia. Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said

to have then settled in several parts of the Horn region to promote the religion. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had by then all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the Mediterraneanand the Red Sea came under the sway of the Muslim Caliphs. Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve as catalysts, forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region.[157]Maghreb[edit]

The Great Mosque of Kairouan also known as the Mosque of Uqba was established in670 by the Arab general and conqueror Uqba ibn Nafi, it is the oldest mosque in

the Maghreb, situated in the city of Kairouan, Tunisia.Kairouan in Tunisia was the first city founded by Muslims in the Maghreb. Arab general Uqba ibn Nafi erected the city (in 670) and, in the same time, the GreatMosque of Kairouan[158] considered as the oldest and most prestigious sanctuaryin the western Islamic world.[159]This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Islamic history. The Idrisid were the first Arab rulers in the western Maghreb (Morocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is named after its first sultan Idris I.[160]The Almoravid dynasty was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara flourished over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian Peninsula during the 11th century. Under this dynasty the Moorish empire was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar, Tlemcen (in Algeria) and a part of what is

now Senegal and Mali in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north.[161]The Almohad Dynasty or "the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded the fifth Moorish dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt, together with Al-Andalus.[162]Great Lakes[edit]Islam came to the Great Lakes region of South Eastern Africa along existing trade routes.[163] They learned from them the manners of the Muslims and this led totheir conversion by the Muslim Arabs.Local Islamic governments centered in Tanzania (then Zanzibar). The people of Zayd were Muslims that immigrated to the Great Lakes region. In the pre-colonial p


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eriod, the structure of Islamic authority here was held up through the Ulema (wanawyuonis, in Swahili language). These leaders had some degree of authority overmost of the Muslims in South East Africa before territorial boundaries were established. The chief Qadi there was recognized for having the final religious authority.[164]West Africa[edit]Much later, Usman dan Fodio after the Fulani War, found himself in command of the largest state in Africa, the Fulani Empire. Dan Fodio worked to establish an efficient government grounded in Islamic laws. Already aged at the beginning of the war, he retired in 1815 passing the title of Sultan of Sokoto to his son Muhammed Bello.

Asia and the Far East[edit]Main article: Islam in AsiaSouth Asia[edit]

The Taj MahalMain article: Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinentOn the Indian subcontinent, Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of thepeninsula, in today's Kerala state. Arabs traded with Malabar even before the birth of Muhammad. Native legends say that a group of Sahaba, under Malik Ibn Deenar, arrived on the Malabar Coast and preached Islam. According to that legend, the first mosque of India was built by Second Chera King Cheraman Perumal, who accepted Islam and received the name Tajudheen. He traveled to Arabia to meet Muha

mmad and died on the trip back, somewhere in today's Oman. Historical records suggest that the Cheraman Perumal Mosque was built in around 629.[165]Islamic rule came to India in the 8th century, when Muhammad bin Qasim conqueredSindh. Muslim conquests expanded under Mahmud and the Ghaznavids until the late12th century, when the Ghurids overran the Ghaznavids and extended the conquests in Northern India. Qutb-ud-din Aybak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the Delhi Sultanates.[166]In the 14th century, Alauddin Khilji extended Muslim rule south to Gujarat, Rajasthan and Deccan. Various other Muslim dynasties also formed and ruled across India from the 13th to the 18th century such as the Qutb Shahi and the Bahmani, but none rivalled the power and extensive reach of the Mughal Empire at its peak.[167]See also: Islam in India

China[edit]Further information: History of Islam in ChinaIn China, four Sahabas (Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas, Wahb Abu Kabcha, Jafar ibn Abu Talib and Jahsh) preached in 616/17 and onwards after following the ChittagongKamrupManipur route after sailing from Abyssinia in 615/16. After conquering Persia in636, Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas went with Sa'id ibn Zaid, Qais ibn Sa'd and Hassan ibnThabit to China in 637 taking the complete Quran. Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas headed for China for the third time in 650-51 after Caliph Uthman asked him to lead an embassy to China, which the Chinese emperor received.[168]Southeast Asia[edit]See also: The spread of Islam in Indonesia (1200 to 1600)Islam first reached Maritime Southeast Asia through traders from Mecca in the 7th century CE,[76] particularly via the western part of what is now Indonesia. Ar

ab traders from Yeman already had a presence in Asia through trading and sea travelling by sea, serving as intermediary traders to and from Europe and Africa. They traded not only Arabian goods but also from Africa, India, and so on including ivory, fragrances, spices, and gold.[169]According to T.W. Arnold in The Preaching of Islam, by the 2nd century of the Islamic Calendar, Arab traders had been trading with the inhabitants of Ceylon. The same argument has been told by Dr. B.H. Burger and Dr.Mr. Prajudi in SedjarahEkonomis Sosiologis Indonesia (History of Socio Economic of Indonesia)[170] According to the atlas by geographer Al Biruni (973 - 1048), the Indian or IndonesiaOcean used to be called the Persian Ocean. After the Western Imperialist ruled,


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it is replaced Persian Ocean to be Indian Ocean.[171]Soon, many Sufi missionaries translated classical Sufi literature from Arabic and Persian into Malay; a tangible product of this is the Jawi script. Coupled with the composing of original Islamic literature in Malay, this led the way to thetransformation of Malay into an Islamic language.[172] By 1292, when Marco Polovisited Sumatra, most of the inhabitants had converted to Islam. The Sultanateof Malacca was founded on the Malay Peninsula by Parameswara, a Srivijayan Prince.Through trade and commerce, Islam then spread to Borneo and Java. By the late 15th century, Islam had been introduced to the Philippines via the southern islandof Mindanao.[173] The foremost socio-cultural Muslim entities that resulted for

m this are the present-day Sultanate of Sulu and Sultanate of Maguindanao; Islamised kingdoms in the northern Luzon island, such as the Kingdom of Maynila and the Kingdom of Tondo, were later conquered and Christianised with the majority ofthe archipelago by Spanish colonisers beginning in the 16th century.As Islam spread, societal changes developed from the individual conversions, andfive centuries later it emerged as a dominant cultural and political power in the region. Three main Muslim political powers emerged. The Aceh Sultanate was the most important, controlling much of the area between Southeast Asia and Indiafrom its centre in northern Sumatra. The Sultanate also attracted Sufi poets. The second Muslim power was the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula. The Sultanate of Demak on Java was the third power, where the emerging Muslim forcesdefeated the local Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century.[174] Although the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief.[7

6]Portuguese forces captured Malacca in 1511 under naval general Afonso de Albuquerque. With Malacca subdued, the Aceh Sultanate and Bruneian Empire established themselves as centres of Islam in Southeast Asia. The Sultanate's territory, although vastly diminished, remains intact to this day as the modern state of BruneiDarussalam.[76]Fragmentation period[edit]

Three Early Modern empires[edit]Main article: Early modern historyIn the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires formed: the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East, the Balkans and Northern Africa; the Safavid Empire inGreater Iran; and the Mughal Empire in South Asia. These imperial powers were ma

de possible by the discovery and exploitation of gunpowder and more efficient administration.[175] By the end of the 19th century, all three had declined, and by the early 20th century, with the Ottomans' defeat in World War I, the last Muslim empire collapsed.Dar al-'Ahd (House of truce) began to develop in the Ottoman Empire's relationship with its tributary states. In the contemporary National period, the term referred to non-Muslim governments that had armistice or peace agreements with Muslim governments. Today, the actual status of the non-Muslim country in question may vary from acknowledged equality to tributary states.[176]Mughal Empire[edit]

Humayun's Tomb in Delhi, India.

Main article: Mughal EmpireThe Mughal Empire was a product of various Central Asian invasions into the Indian subcontinent. It was founded by the Timurid prince Babur in 1526 with the destruction of the Delhi sultanate, placing its capital in Agra. Babur's death someyears later and the indecisive rule of his son, Humayun, brought instability toMughal rule. The resistance of the Afghani Sher Shah, who administered a stringof defeats to Humayun, weakened the empire. A year before his death, however, Humayun managed to recover much of the lost territories, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, the 13 year old Akbar (later known as Akbar the Great), in 1556. Under Akbar, consolidation of the Mughal Empire occurred through both expansi


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on and administrative reforms. After Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan came to power. Subsequently, Aurangazeb ruled vast areas including Afghanisthan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.[76][177]The empire ruled most of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistanfor several centuries. Its decline in the early 18th century allowed India to be divided into smaller kingdoms and states. The Mughal dynasty was dissolved bythe British Empire after the Indian rebellion of 1857.[76][177] It left a lasting legacy on Indian culture and architecture. Famous buildings built by the Mughals, include: the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, the Lahore Fort,the Shalimar Gardens and the Agra Fort. During the empire's reign, Muslim communities flourished all over India, in Gujarat, Bengal and Hyderabad. Various Sufi

orders from Afghanistan and Persia were active throughout the region. More thana quarter of the population converted to Islam.[177]Safavid Empire[edit]Main article: SafavidsThe Safavid d

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