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History of Dalmatia 

Dalmatae 

Dalmatia (Roman province) 

Pagania Republic of Ragusa 

Republic of Poljica 

Illyrian provinces  

Kingdom of Dalmatia 

Littoral Banovina 

This article traces the history of the Croatian region of Dalm atia . For more details on modern Dalmatia seethe main article. 

Contents

  1 Antiquity   2 Medieval period o  2.1 Early Middle Ages (AD 500-1000) o  2.2 High Middle Ages (AD 1000-1300) o  2.3 Late Middle Ages (AD 1300-1420)   3 Early modern period (1420-1797)   4 19th Century o  4.1 Napoleonic period o  4.2 Austrian Empire  

5 20th century o  5.1 Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918-1941) o  5.2 World War II (1941-1945) o  5.3 SFR Yugoslavia (1945-1991) o  5.4 Yugoslav Wars (1991-1995) o  5.5 Republic of Croatia (1995 on)   6 References   7 See also   8 External links 

Antiquity

Dalmatia in the Roman Empire.

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Main article: Dalmatia (Roman province) 

Dalmatia's name is derived from the name of an Illyrian tribe called the Dalmatae who lived in the area of the eastern  Adriatic coast in the 1st millennium BC. The history of Dalmatia began when the Dalmatae tribedeclared itself independent of  Gentius, the King of ancient Illyria, and established a Republic. The name"Dalmatia" was in use probably from the second half of the 2nd century and certainly from the first half of the 1st century BC, defining a coastal area of the eastern  Adriatic between the Krka and Neretva rivers. [1] Its territory stretched northwards from the river  Neretva to the river Cetina, and later to the Krka, where it

met the confines of  Liburnia. Its capital during this period was Delminium. 

The Roman Republic attempted to subdue the Illyrian tribes during the  Illyrian Wars of  220 and 168 BC,and succeded, forming the Roman province  of  Illyricum. The Romans, however, were often faced byrebellions of various Illyrian tribes. In 156 BC the Dalmatae themselves were attacked by a Roman army for the first time, and were defeated but not fully subdued. They raised a number of formidable revolts, morenotable of which was that of  33 BC. In AD 9 the Dalmatians formed an alliance with the Pannonians andrebelled for the last time,[2] but were finally crushed by Tiberius. In AD 10, Illyricum was divided by Emperor  Augustus into two provinces: Pannonia and Dalmatia which spread into a larger area inland to cover all of the Dinaric Alps and most of the eastern Adriatic coast. [3] This event was followed by total submission anda ready acceptance of Roman culture which spread all over  Illyria. 

The province of Dalmatia spread inland to cover all of the Dinaric Alps and most of the eastern Adriaticcoast, while its new capital was Salona. During the general reorganization of  Roman Empire in 297 AD, theexisting provincial organization in Dalmatia was changed, with the southern part of the Narona  districtbecoming the Roman province of  Praevalitana. The Narona district was a region from Budva  to the river Cetina,[4]  while Liburnia, also one of the  provincia Dalmatiarum, was north of the Cetina and includedScardona. Liburnia enjoyed the status of a separate administrative-territorial unit later on during theEmpire's final decades. [5] Later on, Dalmatia was the birthplace of Emperor  Diocletian  who constructed the famous Diocletian'sPalace for his retirement a few kilometers south of Salona, in Spalatum. The Palace is now the heart of themodern-day capital of Dalmatia, Split. [6][7] 

The historian Theodore Mommsen wrote in his book, The Provinces of the Roman Empire, that all Dalmatiawas fully romanized by the 4th century AD. However, analysis of archaeological material from that periodhas shown that the process of  romanization was rather selective. While urban centers, both coastal andinland, were almost completely romanized, the situation in the countryside was completely different.Despite the Illyrians being subject to a strong process of acculturation, they continued to speak their nativelanguage, worship their own gods and traditions, and follow their own social-political tribal organizationwhich was adapted to Roman administration and political structure only in some necessities. [8] 

The collapse of the Western Roman Empire, with the beginning of the Migration Period, left the regionsubject to Gothic rulers, Odoacer  and Theodoric the Great. They ruled Dalmatia from 476 to 535 AD, whenit was restored to the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire by Justinian I (Liburnia stayed in Gothic possession asLiburnia Tarsatica[9]).

Medieval period

Early Middle Ages (AD 500-1000)

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The Byzantine Empire at the accession of  Leo III the Isaurian, c.  AD 717. Dalmatian enclaves are visiblealong the  Adriatic shore.

See also: Kingdom of Croatia (Medieval), Medieval Dalmatian principalities, and  Dalmatian language 

In 568 AD the  Avar  invasions devastated Dalmatia, and the decimated Roman population survived only inthe fortified Dalmatian coastal cities. The exception was Salona, the capital of Dalmatia, who's size made itdifficult to defend. It was sacked some years later in 639 AD, while the inhabitants who escaped by sea

later established themselves in the nearby long-abandoned Diocletian's Palace, thus greatly increasing thesize and significance of the city of  Spalatum, Salona's successor. The romanized population of the interior survived only in mountainous regions, as a shepherd people called Morlachs. Some inhabitants managedto take refuge in the Adriatic islands, founding new settlements. Cut off from the remnants of the Romanworld, the romanized Dalmatians evolved their own Romance language, Dalmatian, which is now extinctbut not until it exerted a strong influence on the local Slavic  Chakavian dialect. The Avars were followed bythe great South Slavic migrations. The Slavs, loosely allied with the Avars, permanently settled the regionin the first half of the 7th century AD and remained its predominant population ever since.

Because of these dramatic events, the territorial meaning of the term "Dalmatia" shrunk in the Middle Ages.Up to the Avar invasions, "Dalmatia" referred to a much larger area that stretched far inland, whereas fromthe 6th century  onwards it usually referred to the eastern Adriatic coast and the immediate hinterland.

Politically, Dalmatia was not a unififed entity. It consisted of Slavic towns with Byzantine enclavesinterspersed randomly along the coast. Some authors use the term to exclusively refer to ByzantineDalmatia (i.e. the few cities and islands nominally under Byzantine authority). In the 7th century AD,Dalmatia became distinctly divided between two different communities:

  The hinterland populated by Slavic tribes, roughly Croats  to the north and Serbs  to south;approximately separated by the Cetina river.  The Byzantine enclaves populated by the native Romance-speaking descendants of Romans andIllyrians, who populated Ragusa  (Dubrovnik), Spalatum  (Split), Iadera  (Zadar), Tragurium  (Trogir), andother coastal towns.

These cities and towns remained influential as they were well fortified and maintained their connection withthe Byzantine Empire. The two communities were somewhat hostile at first, but as the Slavs becameChristianized  this tension increasingly subsided. A degree of cultural mingling soon took place, in someenclaves stronger, in others weaker, as Slavic influence and culture was more accentuated in Ragusa,Spalatum, and Tragurium.

The Slavs soon formed their own realm: the Principality of Dalmatia, a  Medieval Croatian state  ruled bynative Princes of Guduscan origin. In 806 the Principality was temporarily added to the Frankish Empire, but the cities were restored to Byzantium  by the Treaty of Aachen  in 812. The treaty had also slightlyexpanded the Principality of Dalmatia eastwards. The Saracens raided the southernmost cities in 840 and842, but this threat was eliminated by a common Frankish-Byzantinian campaign of  871. During this time (the first half of the 9th century), Prince Ljudevit Posavski of the northern Croat Principality

of Pannonia fought wars with Prince Borna of Dalmatia, who was a Guduscan. The Guduscans, his own,indigenous people of Dalmatia, abandoned Borna's army in the heat of battle and crossed to Ljudevit'sside, ensuring his victory. Borna's personal guard saved him from certain death on the battlefield. Ljudevitwas soon forced out of his Pannonian realm by the Frankish  forces that according to their historianscontrolled the greater part of Dalmatia.

The establishment of cordial relations between the cities and the Croatian dukedom seriously began withthe reign of Prince Mislav  (835), who signed an official peace treaty with the Venetian Doge PietroTradonico  in 840, and began donating lands to the churches and monasteries. Dalmatia's first Croatianruler and founder of the Trpimirović dynasty, Duke Trpimir , reestablished the Principality of Dalmatia as theDuchy of the Croats. In his wars against the Bulgar Khans and their Serbian subjects, he greatly expandedthe Duchy's territory to include all the lands up to the river of  Drina, thereby including the majority of  Bosnia. His powerful realm extended influence further southwards to Zachlumia slightly. In  AD 920 Duke Tomislav was granted the governance of the Byzantine Dalmatian city enclaves by Emperor  Constantine VIIPorphyrogenitus  with the support of Pope John X. Tomislav managed to subdue the northern CroatianPrincipality of Pannonia  to his authority. In 925 AD  he was crowned in Tomislavgrad, establishing theKingdom of Croatia, and extending his influence further southwards to Zachlumia. 

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The most notable Croatian noble families from Dalmatia are: the Karinjan, Lapčan, Polečić, Tugomirić,Kukar, Snačić, Gusić, Šubić  (later the Zrinski), Mogorović, Lačničić, Jamometić, and Kačić. Within theborders of ancient Roman Dalmatia, on the island of  Krk, ruled the noble family Krčki (later  Frankopan).

The Croatian kings exacted tribute from the Byzantine cities and consolidated their power in the purelyCroatian-settled littoral cities such as Nin, Biograd and Šibenik, which was founded by Croatian kings. Theyalso asserted control over the bordering southern duchies. Rulers of the medieval Croatian state who hadcontrol over the Dalmatian littoral and the cities were the dukes Trpimir , Domagoj, Branimir , and the kings

Tomislav, Trpimir II, Krešimir I, Stjepan Držislav, Petar Krešimir IV and Demetrius Zvonimir . 

High Middle Ages (AD 1000-1300)

The Byzantine Empire  and its  themata  in 1045. From 535  to 1204 AD the Empire held suzerainty  over Croatia, the coastal Dalmatian city-states, and the Venetian Republic. The de facto Byzantine control variedsignificantly, though.

The High Middle Ages  in Dalmatia  are marked by the fluctuating and waning influence of the ByzantineEmpire, and by the struggle of the neighboring powers, the Venetian Republic, the Kingdom of Croatia, and(later) the Kingdom of Hungary, to fill the power vacuum.  [10] The early medieval Dalmatia had still includedmuch of the hinterland covered by the old Roman province of Dalmatia. However, the toponym "Dalmatia"started to shift more towards including only the coastal, Adriatic areas, rather than the mountains inland. Bythe 15th century, use of other regional names would be introduced, marking the shrinking of the borders of Dalmatia to the narrow littoral area where the Dalmatian language was spoken.

The Empire continuously held formal suzerainty over the entire area, including Croatia and Venice, but thede facto impact of this was very periodic and increasingly irrelevant. The Dalmatian littoral cities, beingunable to form a league due to their internal dissensions, were caught in the midst of a power struggle theywere unable to influence. Their own political situation thus became increasingly complex. They were

surrounded by the waning Kingdom of Croatia, which was increasingly under the influence of the Kingdomof Hungary. However, the Croatian South Slavs surrounded and increasingly inhabited the coastal citiesand the Adriatic islands, particularly Ragusa (Dubrovnik) and Spalatum (Split), greatly influencing the localRomance Dalmatian language  and culture.The cities acknowledged the suzerainty of Byzantium, but when the Empire's power weakened, functionedincreasingly as city-states. Croatia and the Venetian Republic also acknowledged nominal Imperial rule.While Venice, due to its increasing financial wealth was able to almost completely ignore this, Croatia cameunder de facto Hungarian control whenever the Empire could no longer maintain its influence on the region.

The city-states, Venice, and Croatia, while under nominal byzantine suzerainty, acknowledged theadministration of the Latin Pope over the local church, with the consent of the Emperors. However, whilethe Croatian-held branch of the Catholic Church with its seat in Nin was under Papal jurisdiction, it used

Slavic liturgy, the Croatian population preferred domestic priests, who were married, bearded, and heldmasses in Croatian. The city-states and the Holy See, on the other hand, used Latin liturgy. After the East-West Schism of 1054, the Papal influence in Dalmatia was increased and Byzantine practices were further suppressed on the general synods of 1059 –1060, 1066, 1075 –1076 and on other local synods, notably by

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demoting the bishopric of Nin, installing the archbishopric of Spalatum (Split) and archbishopric of Dioclea(Montenegro), which explicitly forbade the use of any liturgy other than Latin or Greek.

 At the beginning of the High Medieval period, having just achieved a crushing victory in the Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars, the Empire was capable of controlling the area (Croatia, the city-states, Venice) to asignificant extent. However, with the rising Norman threat in southern Italy and the East-West Schism, theBattle of Manzikert finally left it powerless to maintain its power in the far west. Croatia was slipping awayfrom Byzantine rule: King Demetrius Zvonimir   rose to the throne with Papal blessing after aiding the

Normans in their war against Byzantium. After his death, however, the Kingdom found itself in a struggle for independence against King Coloman of Hungary who laid claim to the throne. In 1102 Coloman forced theCroatian feudal lords to enter into a personal union with Hungary with the Pacta conventa. Hungaryextended its influence to the Dalmatian coast. Venice during this time forced the Dalmatian city-states intosubmission, but in 1105 Coloman forced the Venetians to abandon Dalmatia granting the cities theautonomy of "Free Royal Cities" within his feudal realm (which now included both Hungary and Croatia).Based on economic reasons, both Venice and Hungary had support within the Dalmatian city states. Thefarmers and the merchants who traded in the interior favored Hungary as their most powerful neighbor onland that affirmed their municipal privileges, while the cities feared Venetian suppression of their trade andeconomy.

Byzantine Empire in purple, c. 1180, at the end of the Komnenian period. In 1167  Manuel I Komnenos 

briefly restored the Empire's de facto rule over most of Dalmatia (1168-1180).

Subject only to the Royal Assent the cities enjoyed the right to elect their own chief magistrate, bishop, and judges. Their ancient Roman law remained valid, and they were even permitted to conclude separatealliances. No alien, not even a Hungarian, could reside in a city if he was unwelcome, while any man whodisliked Hungarian suzerainty could emigrate with all his household and property. In lieu of tribute, therevenue from customs was in most cases shared equally by the king, chief magistrate, bishop and themunicipality. On the other hand, the rights and analogous privileges granted by Venice were, however, toofrequently infringed. While Hungarian garrisons were being quartered on unwilling towns, Venice interferedwith trade, the appointment of bishops, or the tenure of communal domains. Consequently the Dalmatiansremained loyal only while it suited their interests, and insurrections frequently occurred. In  Iadera (Zadar)alone, four separate rebellions are recorded between 1180 and 1345, although the city was treated withspecial consideration by its Venetian masters, who regarded its possession as essential to their maritimeascendancy. The doubtful allegiance of the Dalmatian cities tended to protract the struggle between Veniceand Hungary, which was further complicated by internal discord due largely to the spread of the Bogomilheresy, and by many outside influences.

Dalmatia was, however, once again to be returned to Imperial Byzantine rule, as the Empire regained someof its former strength during the Komnenian restoration. Emperor  Manuel I the Great  of the Komneniandinasty invaded and defeated the Kingdom of Hungary at the Battle of Sirmium in 1167. By 1168 nearly thewhole of the eastern Adriatic coast lay in Manuel's hands. [11]  After his death in 1180, however, and thesubsequent coup d'état   against his son, Byzantium's influence once again withdrew from the area.Hungary/Croatia also lost its grip on the cities at this time, and they found themselves increasingly under 

Venetian influence, but King Béla III  reasserted his power in Dalmatia.This was to change after the King's his death. In 1202, the armies of the Fourth Crusade were forced, dueto the Crusades financial difficulties, to render assistance to Venice by taking the city of Zadar for therepublic. In 1204 the same crusader   army was ironically persuaded by Doge Enrico Dandolo  totreacherously attack the Christian capital of  Constantinople, finally eliminating the Byzantine Empire  fromthe list of contenders on Dalmatian territory.

Mongol invasion of  Hungary, 1241.

Hungary and Venice were now intermittently controlling Dalmatia. The cities of Spalatum, Iadera,Tragurium and Ragusa with the surrounding territories each changed hands several times between Veniceand Hungary during the early 13th century. However, this period was marked by a decline in external

hostilities as the Dalmatian cities started accepting de facto foreign sovereignty, having been mainlyindependent for nearly 700 years. The exception was the southernmost city of  Ragusa, then known by itsSlavic inhabitants as Dubrovnik (its modern name). Even more isolated by land than the other cities,Ragusa established its own Republic which quickly began to develop a specific culture. Its geographicallyisolated position in the uttermost south of Dalmatia meant that the Republic of Ragusa exhibited a strong

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ethnic mix of Romance Dalmatians and Slavic Croat Dalmatians. By the 13th century, the councilmen in theRepublic's council were mixed, and in the 15th century the ragusan literature was written in the Slaviclanguage (from which Croatian language is directly descended), while the city was often called by its Slavicname, Dubrovnik. This state, though often recognizing the suzerainty of foreign powers, kept its de facto independence all the way up to the Napoleonic era, when it was abolished by the French. 

 A consistent period of Hungarian rule in Dalmatia was ended with the Mongol invasion of Hungary in 1241.The Mongols severely impaired the feudal state, so much so that that same year, King Béla IV had to take

refuge in Dalmatia, as far south as the Klis fortress. The Mongols attacked the Dalmatian cities for the nextfew years but eventually withdrew without major success, as the mountainous terrain and distance were notsuitable for Mongol warfare. Soon afterwards, the Venetians once again took advantage of temporaryHungarian weakness to once again take control of Dalmatia.

Late Middle Ages (AD 1300-1420)

In 1346, Dalmatia was struck by the Black Death. The economic situation was also poor, and the citiesbecame more and more dependent on Venice. However, having thoroughly recovered from the Mongolinvasion, Hungary began restoring its influence. In the same year (1346), King Louis I the Great of Hungaryand Croatia began a military campaign to expel the Venetians from Dalmatia. He was defeated at Zadar,though, and was compelled to withdraw. Thirteen years later, in 1357, the King waged a new war against

Venice for the rule of Dalmatia. After successfully organizing an anti-Venetian league, Louis defeated theVenetian Republic expelling all Venetians from Dalmatia. By the Treaty of Zadar  (1358), all Louis' demandsin the region were recognized. Having won the land war, he immediately formed an Adriatic fleet.

 After King Louis' death in 1382, Hungary was once again weakened by internal struggles. In 1389 Tvrtko I, the founder of the Bosnian Kingdom, was able to control the Adriatic littoral between Kotor  and Šibenik, andeven claimed control over the northern coast up to Rijeka, and his own independent ally, Dubrovnik(Ragusa). This was only temporary, as Hungary and the Venetians continued their struggle over Dalmatiaafter Tvrtko's death in 1391. By this time Hungary was facing increasing internal difficulties, as a 20-year civil war ensued between the Capetian House of Anjou from the Kingdom of Naples, and King Sigismund of the House of Luxembourg. During the war, the Neapolitan fleet arrived in Dalmatia and was welcomed by

all cities except Ragusa (Dubrovnik), which was by this time an independent merchant republic. The Anjoucontender, Ladislaus of Naples, remained in control of Dalmatia throughout the conflict. However, Ladislauswas eventually defeated and forced to sail away for Naples, on his departure he sold his "rights" onDalmatia to the Venetian Republic for a relatively meager sum of 100,000 ducats. The much morecentralized Republic took over the city-states by the year 1420, it was to remain under Venetian rule for 377years (1420 - 1797). The city of  Omiš was the last to yield to Venice in 1444, while only the Republic of Ragusa preserved its independence. [12] 

Early modern period (1420-1797)

The Venetian Republic and the Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) around 1560.

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See also: Republic of Ragusa and  Hvar Rebellion 

During the Venetian  rule in Dalmatia from 1420 to 1797 the number of  Orthodox Serbs  in Dalmatia wasincreased by numerous migrations

 An interval of peace ensued, but meanwhile the Ottoman advance continued.

Hungary was itself assailed by the Turks, and could no longer afford to try to control Dalmatia. Christian

kingdoms and regions in the east fell one by one, Constantinople in 1453, Serbia in 1459, neighbouringBosnia in 1463, and Herzegovina in 1483. Thus the Venetian and Ottoman frontiers met and border warswere incessant.

Dubrovnik sought safety in friendship with the invaders, and in one particular instance, actually sold twosmall strips of its territory (Neum and Sutorina) to the Ottomans in order to prevent land access from theVenetian territory.

In 1508 the hostile League of Cambrai compelled Venice to withdraw its garrison for home service, andafter the overthrow of Hungary in 1526 the Turks were able easily to conquer the greater part of Dalmatiaby 1537. The peace of 1540 left only the maritime cities to Venice, the interior forming a Turkish province,governed from the fortress of  Klis by a Sanjak beg (an administrator with military powers).

Christian Croats from the neighbouring lands now thronged to the towns, outnumbering the Romanicpopulation even more, and making their language the primary one. The pirate community of the "uskoks" had originally been a band of these fugitives, esp. near  Senia; its exploits contributed to a renewal of war between Venice and Turkey (1571-1573). An extremely curious picture of contemporary manners ispresented by the Venetian agents, whose reports on this war resemble some knightly chronicle of theMiddle Ages, full of single combats, tournaments and other chivalrous adventures. They also show clearlythat the Dalmatian levies far surpassed the Italian mercenaries in skill and courage. Many of these troopsserved abroad; at the Battle of Lepanto, for example, in 1571, a Dalmatian squadron assisted the alliedfleets of Spain, Venice, Austria and the Papal States to crush the Turkish navy.

The continental bits of Dalmatia were under  Ottoman rule, parts of the Viyalet of Bosnia or the Klis Sanjak. The desolated areas of the Knin Frontier   and Bukovica were inhabited by Orthodox Serbs from Bosnia, while Boka received constant Serb migrations from Herzegovina and Montenegro. The Serbs formed onequarter of Dalmatia's population in the 16th century. They had absolute majority in the Knin Frontier , Bukovica  and Boka. The Ottomans have resettled this populace to create a living defence towards theterritories of the Venetian Republic. A great portion of this population fled to Venetian land and gladlyfought against the Ottomans. The number of Serbs in Venetian Dalmatia rapidly increased during the War of Crete in 1645 –1669 and the Great Viennese War war in 1683 –1699, after which peace of Karlowitz gavethe whole of Dalmatia to Ston  and from Sutorina  to Boka kotorska  to the Venetian Republic. After theVenetian-Turkish war of 1714 –1718, Venetian territorial gains were confirmed by the 1718 Treaty of Passarowitz. The number of  Dalmatian Serbs  remained between 20% and 25% by the end of Venetianrule.

The Serbian peasant  population of infertile Upper Dalmatia was freed of  Feudal  bounds, according thatthey fight wars for the Venetian Republic. The Serbs living in Urban cities of Dalmatia were much wealthier.The Serbs in Dalmatia with Boka have had strong national and religious determination through numerousold monasteries as beacons of culture and faith. Such were the early 14th century Krupa,  Krka  andDragović monasteries in the Knin Frontier   and Bukovica. The Serbs in Boka kotorska  had much morecultural advancement due to the nearby Cetinje  Metropolitan  and the Venetians had to fall back frominfluencing the religious life of people there.

Dalmatia was the largest Europe's concentration of Roman Catholic Christian Bishops,  Priesthood, Churches, Monasteries and religious institutions. The Catholic Bishops controlled the Orthodox Episcopy in

Dalmatia by naming the Eastern Othodox Christian Episcopes themselves.

Dalmatia experienced a period of intense economic and cultural growth in the 18th century, given howtrade routes with the hinterland were reestablished in peace. Christians that noticeably migrated from theOttoman-held territory into the Dalmatian cities converted from Orthodoxy to Catholicism. 

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Because the Venetians were able to reclaim some of the inland territories in the north during the Turkishwars, the region of Dalmatia was no longer restricted to the coastline and the islands. However, theVenetian influence wasn't as strong in the former southern Dalmatia, meaning that the toponym did notextend inland into areas of Herzegovina or Montenegro.

This period was abruptly interrupted with the fall of the Venetian republic in 1797.

19th Century

Napoleonic period

Republic of Ragusa before 1808

Dalmatia as a part of the Illyrian Provinces in 1811

Later in 1797, in the treaty of Campo Formio, Napoleon gave Dalmatia to  Austria in return for  Belgium. Therepublics of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) and Poljica  retained their independence, and Ragusa grew rich by itsneutrality during the earlier Napoleonic wars.

By the peace of Pressburg in 1805, Istria, Dalmatia and the Bay of Kotor  were handed over to France. 

In 1805 Napoleon created his Kingdom of Italy around the Adriatic sea, annexing to it the former venetianDalmatia from Istria to Cattaro (Kotor). In 1809 he removed the venetian Dalmatia from his Kingdom of Italyand created the Illyrian Provinces, that were annexed to France.

In 1806, the Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) finally succumbed to foreign (French) troops under generalMarmont, the same year a Montenegrin force supported by the Russians  tried to contest the French byseizing Boka Kotorska. The allied forces have pushed the French to Ragusa. The Russians induced theMontenegrins to render aid and they proceeded to take the islands of  Korčula and Brač but made no further progress, and withdrew in 1807 under the treaty of Tilsit. The Republic of Ragusa was officially annexed tothe Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy in 1808.

The major part of the Dalmatian population was Roman Catholic Christian. 

In 1809, war again broke out between France and Austria. In the summer, Austrian forces retook Dalmatia,but this lasted only until the Treaty of Schönbrunn  in the autumn of the same year. Austria-Hungarydeclared war on France in 1813, restored control over Dalmatia by 1815 and formed a temporary Kingdomof Illyria. In 1822, this was eliminated and Dalmatia was placed under Austrian administration.

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Austrian Empire

Dalmatia within  Austria-Hungary 

During the period of the  Austrian Empire, the Kingdom of Dalmatia was a separate administrative unit of theEmpire. Since 1867, the Empire was fundamentally reorganised  into the a  dual monarchic union  of the Austrian and the Hungarian lands, while the country was renamed into the  Austro-Hungarian Empire. While retaining exceptionally significant autonomy, the Kingdom of Croatia was assigned to the Hungarianpart of the Empire, while Dalmatia remained in the Austrian (mostly for naval strategic reasons). The Croatsin Dalmatia resented this as it permanently forbade the union of all Croatian lands.

 After the revolutions of 1848 and particularly since the 1860s, in the age of  romantic nationalism, twofactions appeared.The first was the pro-Croatian or Unionist faction (later also known as the "Puntari"), led by the People'sParty (Narodna Stranka) and, to a lesser extent, the Party of Rights (Stranka Prava), which advocated theunion of Dalmatia with the remaining parts of Croatia which were under Hungarian overall administration.The second was the pro-Italian Autonomist faction (also called the "Irredentist" faction), the political goals of which varied from autonomy within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to a political union with Italy. The 1880 Austrian census gives the following data for Dalmatia: 371,565 Croats, 78,714 Serbs and 27,305Italians.

The Unionist faction won the elections in Dalmatia in 1870, but they were prevented from following throughwith the merger with the rest of Croatia due to the intevention of the Austrian imperial government, whichdreaded the loss of precious coastline territories to the Hungarians.

Kingdom of Dalmatia within and the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia

The political alliances in Dalmatia shifted over time. At the beginning, the unionists and autonomists wereallied together, against centralism of Vienna. After a while, when the national question came to prominence,they split. A third splintering happened when the local Orthodox population, few of whom were nationallyconscious Serbs, heard of the ideas of unification of all Serbs through of the Serbian Orthodox Church, which acted as Serbia's agit-prop agency abroad. As a result, Serbian Orthodox population started to sidewith the autonomists and irredentists rather than the unionists.

20th century

Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918-1941)

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In World War I,  Austria-Hungary was defeated and it disintegrated, which helped solve the internal politicalconflict in Dalmatia.

Following the conclusion of  World War I and the disintegration of Austria-Hungary, the vast majority of Dalmatia became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed theKingdom of Yugoslavia).During the war, the Kingdom of Italy turned on its pre-war  Triple Alliance allies, the German Empire and Austro-Hungary, due to the many guarantees of territorial gains made by the Entente in the 1915 secret

London Pact, which included a large part of Dalmatia and (especially) the port of Zadar (Zara). However,the pact was nullified in the Treaty of Saint Germain due to the objections of American president WoodrowWilson and the Slavic delegates. In Dalmatia Italy received the city of Zara (Zadar), as well as the islands of Krk (Cherso), Lošinj (Lussino) and Lastovo (Làgosta).

When the Croatian Banate was in 1939 formed, the biggest part of Dalmatia was in it.

World War II (1941-1945)

In April 1941, during World War II, Nazi Germany invaded and conquered Yugoslavia. A month later, largesections of Dalmatia were annexed by the Kingdom of Italy (in the Governatorato di Dalmazia), the restbeing formally left to the Independent State of Croatia, but in reality occupied by Italian forces which later 

supported Chetniks in Serb-populated areas. Many Croats from Dalmatia joined the resistance movement led by Tito's  Partisans, while others joined the fascist Croatia of  Ante Pavelić. The result was a terribleguerrilla war that ravaged all Dalmatia.

In September 1943, following the capitulation of Italy, large sections of Dalmatia were temporarily controlledby Partisans, only to be reoccupied, this time by the German Wehrmacht. In later stages of the war, manyDalmatian Croats went in exile, in fear from Third Reich's vindictive actions, especially after strong rumoursthat a second front would be formed and that there would be an invasion on the Croatian coast. In thesecond of half of 1944, Partisans, supplied by the  Allies, finally took control of all Dalmatia. The Italianpopulation of Dalmatia, concentrated in Zadar, suffered civilian losses due to allies bombardments in 1944.

SFR Yugoslavia (1945-1991)

 After 1945, most of the remaining Italians fled the region. They were treated as remnants of the occupationforce and were given an option to leave for Italy. Some died in the so-called foibe massacres, although thiswas more common in Istria and elsewhere than in Dalmatia. The "disappearance" of the Italian speakingpopulations in Dalmatia was nearly complete after World War II. The linguist Matteo Bartoli calculated thatthe Italians were 33% of the Dalmatian population during the Napoleonic wars, while currently there areonly 300 Italians in Croatian Dalmatia and 500 Italians in coastal Montenegro.

Dalmatia was divided between three republics of  socialist Yugoslavia  - almost all of the territory went toCroatia, leaving Cattaro Bay of Kotor   to Montenegro and a small strip of coast at Neum  to Bosnia-Herzegovina. 

 Yugoslav Wars (1991-1995)

For a complete account of the civil war in Dalmatia, see the Yugoslav wars, Croatian War of Independence, and  Battle of Dalmatia articles.

Following the collapse of SFR Yugoslavia  in the 1990s the states of Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovinabecame independent, and in 2006 the new state of Montenegro declared independence as well. Today'sDalmatia is, thus, divided politically between these three independent countries.

In 1991, when Yugoslavia began to disintegrate, Croatia declared independence. The Homeland war 

(Domovinski rat ) affected sections of northern Dalmatia, where there lived a significant population of Serbs.They rebelled, under encouragement and with assistance from a variety of Serbian nationalist circles, andseceded into the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK). The center of the RSK was in the northern Dalmatiantown of  Knin. 

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The establishment of the RSK was helped by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), as well as paramilitary troops that came from Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro. The Serbian forces had aprevalence in equipment and munitions because of JNA support, and they proceeded to commit variousacts of terrorism, including shelling attacks on civilian targets.

The Yugoslav People's Army operated from their  barracks, that were mostly positioned in bigger cities andstategically important points. In some bigger cities JNA had built large residential blocs, and in the openingstages of the war it was believed that those buildings will be used by sharpshooters or for reconnaisanse

purposes. This widespread belief, although justified in few cases, served mostly as an excuse for variousCroatian paramilitary and vigilante groups to forcibly evict members of  JNA families from their homes, robtheir property and sometimes even subject them to torture, rape and murder.

First attempts to  take over JNA facilities occurred in August in Sinj and failed, but the major action tookplace in September 1991. Croatian Army and police were then more successful, although most of theobjects taken were repair shops, warehouses and similar facilities, either poorly defended or commandedby officers sympathetic to Croatian cause. Major bases, commanded by die-hard officers and manned byreservists from Montenegro and Serbia, became the object of standoffs that usually ended with JNApersonnel and equipment being evacuated under supervision of EEC observers. This process wascompleted shortly after Sarajevo armistice in January 1992.

 All non-Serb population was ethnically cleansed  from controlled areas, notably the villages of  Škabrnja (Škabrnja massacre) and Kijevo. Croatian refugees, tens of thousands of them, found shelter in many of the Dalmatian coastal towns where they were placed in empty tourist facilities.

In 1991, the Dalmatian anti-Serb riots of May 1991  happened, in which up to 350 Serb  housing, mostnotably in Zadar and Trogir was destroyed by angry Croatian civilians.

By early 1992, the military positions were mostly entrenched, and further expansion of the RSK wasstopped. The Serbian forces continued terrorist actions by way of random shelling of Croatian cities, andthis continued occasionally over the next four years.

Besides the northern hinterland that bordered with Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Yugoslav People's Armyalso occupied sections of southern Dalmatia around Dubrovnik, as well as the islands of  Vis and Lastovo. These lasted until 1992.

The United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) was deployed throughout the UNPA zones, includingthose in northern Dalmatia, as well as on Prevlaka. 

The Croatian government gradually restored control over all of Dalmatia, in the following militaryoperations:

  September 1991: September War - successful defence of  Šibenik from JNA onslaught and takeover of JNA bases in the area.  May and July 1992: Operation Tigar , JNA was forced to retreat from Vis, Lastovo, Mljet and areasaround Dubrovnik.  July 1992: Miljevci Heights in Šibenik hinterland, near Drniš, were liberated   January 1993: Operation Maslenica, Croatian forces liberated Zadar and Biograd hinterland.  In August 1995 Croatian forces conducted Operation Storm, ending Krajina and restoring Croatiansovereignty to international recognised borders.

During Operation Storm majority of Serb population from Krajina has left their homes, while minority of those who stayed - mostly elderly people - were occasionally subjected to acts of murder. Homes left byethnic Serbs were taken over by ethnic Croatian refugees from Bosnia-Herzegovina with the help andencouragement of Croatian authorities. Through the past decade, number of ethnic Serb refugees have

returned and gradually reverted demographic results of war in certain areas, although it is very unlikely thattheir proportion in region's population will ever reach pre-war level.

Republic of Croatia (1995 on)

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Dalmatia has arguably suffered in war more than other Croatian regions, with its infrastructure ruined, whiletourism industry - previously the most important source of income - was deeply affected by negativepublicity and didn't properly recover until late 1990s. Dalmatian population in general suffered dramaticdrop in living standard which created chasm between Dalmatia and relatively more prosperous northernsections of Croatia. This chasm reflected in extreme nationalism enjoying visibly higher levels of support inDalmatia than in the rest of Croatia, which embraced more moderate course.

This phenomenon manifested not only in Dalmatia being reliable stronghold for  HDZ and other Croatian

right-wing parties, but also in mass protests against Croatian Army generals being prosecuted for allegedwar crimes. Indictment and against General Mirko Norac in early 2001 drew 150,000 people to the streetsof Split - which is arguably the largest protest in the history of modern Croatia.

References

1. ^ S. Čače, Ime Dalmacije u 2. i 1. st. prije Krista, Radovi Filozofskog fakulteta u Zadru, godište 40za 2001. Zadar, 2003, pages 29,45.2. ^ Charles George Herbermann, The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference (1913)3. ^ M. Zaninović, Ilirsko pleme Delmati , pages 58, 83-84.4. ^ D. Mandić, Crvena Hrvatska, pages 68-83

5. ^ J. Medini, Provincia Liburnia, Diadora, vol. 9, Zadar, 1980, page 4336. ^ C. Michael Hogan, "Diocletian's Palace", The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham, Oct 6, 2007 7. ^ Other Dalmatian cities at the time were: Tarsatica, Senia, Vegium,  Aenona,Iader ,Scardona,Tragurium,  Aequum,Oneum,Issa, Pharus, Bona,Corcyra Nigra,Narona, Epidaurus, Rhizinium,  Acruvium, Olcinium, Scodra, Epidamnus/Dyrrachium 8. ^  A. Stipčević, Iliri , Školska knjiga Zagreb, 1974, page 70 9. ^ I. Mužić, Hrvatska povijest devetoga stoljeća, Naklada Bošković, Split 2006 10. ^ History of Dalmatia: 614 to 802 AD 11. ^ Sedlar (1994), 37212. ^ http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/balkans/croat13011526.html History: 1301 to 1526 AD

 This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the  public domain. 

  RSK, Vrhovni savjet odbrane, Knin, 4. avgust 1995. , 16. 45 časova, Broj 2-3113-1/95. The faximileof this document was published in: Rade Bulat "Srbi nepoželjni u Hrvatskoj", Naš glas (Zagreb), br. 8. -9. ,septembar 1995. , p. 90. -96. (the faximile is on the page 93. ).

Vrhovni savjet odbrane RSK (The Supreme Council of Defense of Republic of Serb Krajina) brought adecision 4. August 1995 in 16. 45. This decision was signed by Milan Mart ić and later verified in Glavni štabSVK (Headquarters of Republic of Serb Krajina Army) in 17. 20.

  RSK, Republički štab Civilne zaštite, Broj: Pov. 01-82/95. , Knin, 02. 08. 1995. , HDA,

Dokumentacija RSK, kut. 265

This is the document of Republic headquarters of Civil Protection of RSK. In this document it was orderedto all subordinated headquarters of RSK to immediately give all reports about preparations for theevacuation, sheltering and taking care of evacuated civilians ("evakuacija, sklanjanje i zbrinjavanje") (thedeadline for the report was 3. August 1995 in 19 h).

  RSK, Republički štab Civilne zaštite, Broj: Pov. 01-83/95. , Knin, 02. 08. 1995. , Pripreme zaevakuaciju materijalnih, kulturnih i drugih dobara (The preparations for the evacuation of material, culturaland other goods), HDA, Dokumentacija RSK, kut. 265

This was the next order from the Republican HQ of Civil Protection. It was referred to all MunicipalHeadquarters of Civil Protection. In that document was ordered to all subordinated HQ's to implement thepreparation of evacuation of all material and all mobile cultural goods, archives, evidentions and materialsthat are highly confidential/top secret, money, lists of valuable stuff (?) ("vrednosni popisi") and referringdocumentations.

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  Drago Kovačević, "Kavez - Krajina u dogovorenom ratu" , Beograd 2003. , p. 93. -94.

  Milisav Sekulić, "Knin je pao u Beogradu" , Bad Vilbel 2001. , p. 171. -246. , p. 179.

  Marko Vrcelj, "Rat za Srpsku Krajinu 1991-95" , Beograd 2002. , p. 212. -222.

See also

  Dalmatia   History of Croatia   Hvar Rebellion   Medieval Dalmatian principalities 

External links

  WHKMLA History of Dalmatia   The 1908 Catholic Encyclopedia articles on Dalmatia: [1] [2]   http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=18696   http://www.gimnazija.hr/?200_godina_gimnazije:OD_1897._DO_1921.   http://www.hdpz.htnet.hr/broj186/jonjic2.htm   http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/issuedetails.aspx?issueid=e7d20823-99bf-4c13-8dfb-83f54075620a&articleId=1cea2aef-9cac-4ad5-b8f7-abdf9da9e558   Old postcards of Istria, Fiume, Quarnaro, Dalmatia (it.) 

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  Dictionnaire Des Sciences Naturelles 

During the Middle Ages, the southern part of  Dalmatia was ruled by the small Slavic Principalities of 

Pagania/ Narenta, Zahumlje/Hum, Travunia and Duklja. Pagania was a minor duchy between Cetina and

 Neretva. The territories of Zahumlje and Travunia probably spread much further inland and than the current

Dalmatia does. Duklja began south of Dubrovnik/Ragusa and spread down to the Skadar Lake. All of these

duchies were at the time self-ruled by their  Slavic  population that was, by religion, mixed  pagan and

Christian. Duklja, Zahumlje and Travunia were collectively referred to as Red Croatia  by De Regno

Sclavorum from 753, found in the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja from the late 12th century, while all four 

are referred to as Serbian lands, their people originating from White Serbia by De Administrando Imperio  by

the Byzantine Emperor  Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos from around 950. The core part of medieval

Croatia was called "White Croatia" and located northwest, between Drniš, Knin and Sinj. 

Contents

  1 Pagania 

  2 Zahumlje 

  3 Travunia 

  4 Duklja 

  5 References 

  6 See also 

Pagania 

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The Principality border with Zachlumia at the river of   Neretva. It was split on three lesser principalities

(Makarska, Rastočka/Rastok  [1], Dalenska). The Pagans also controlled the islands of  Mljet, Korčula [2], 

Brač, Hvar . The main cities in Pagania were: fortified Omiš, Vrulja, Makarska, Ostrog, Lavćen.

Pagania is described as a late baptised Serbian land.

The  pirate-like people of  Pagania/ Neretva (named after river Neretva) expressed their buccaneering

capabilities by pirateering the Venetian-controlled Adriatic between 827 and 828, while the Venetian fleet

was off-broad, in the Sicilian waters. As soon as the Fleet of the Venetian Republic returned, the Neretvians

fell back. The Neretvians were also known as  Pagans, because by the time of their  Christianization, all

Serbs already accepted Christianity. One of their leaders was  baptised in Venice. As soon as the chances

were good, the Neretvians would immediately embark on new raids. In 834 and 835, they have caught and

killed several Venetian traders returning from Benevent. To punish the Neretvians, the Venetian Doge had

launched a military expedition against them in 839. The war went on together with the Dalmatian Croats,

 but a truce was signed very soon, although, only with the Dalmatian Croats and some of the Pagan tribes. In

840, the Venetians had launched an expedition against the Neretvian Prince Ljudislav, but utterly failed. In

846, a new operation is launched that raided the Slavic land of  Pagania, destroying one of her most

important cities - Kaorle, although this did not end the Neretvian resistance, as they continued to bravely

oppose the Venetian occupators.

 Neretvia was subjected to Serbian rulers like Petar Gojniković throughout the 9th century. Neretvians then

aligned themselves with King Tomislav of Croatia in the first half of the 10th century. After King Trpimir's

death, Pagania would eventually be incorporated directly into the Serbian Realm of Prince Časlav of Klonimir  from the House of Vlastimir  in 927-931. The Serbian period marked Neretvia's Golden Age. In

945 King Krešimir of Croatia died, and Civil War erupted. The Neretvians used Prince Časlav's annexationsof Croatian territories and took  Kaz, Vis and Lastovo; also managing to defend their own islands of  Mljet, 

Korčula, Brač and Hvar . In 948, Venetian Doge Pietro III Candiano of  Crete dispatched 33 galleys against

the Neretvians, but the military attempt ended so drastically, that since that moment Venetia had to pay taxes

regularly to the Neretvian Princes and their supreme rulers.

The Venetian Doge Peter II Orseolo finally defeated them in 998 and self-proclaimed himself the Duke of 

the Dalmatians ( Dux Dalmatianorum), though without prejudice to Byzantine suzerainty. In 1050, the

 Neretvians agreed to join the Kingdom of Croatia under King Stjepan I. The arisal of  Duklja, and its

reconstruction of the Serbian realm to the east would bring the occupation of Pagania, and eventual

incorporation as a part of  Zahumlje. 

Zahumlje 

Zahumlje got its name from the mountain of   Hum near Bona, where the river of  Buna comes out. There

there were two very old cities: Bona and Hum. Zahumlje's ruling dynasty Višević or Vušević originated from

the strims of the river of  Visla, somewhere in western White Serbia. They were referred to as Red Croats,  but by the time of  Byzantine Emperor  Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos's reign, they were Serbs. Zahumlje

decisively resisted all attempts to be controlled from the Serbian Grand Princes to the north, and eventually

its rulers asserted the Grand Princely title themselves. The land of Zahumlje spread eastwards to Kalinovik 

and the Fields of Gatak, where it bordered with Travunia. The actual border went along the Zachlumian line

Popovo-Ljubinje-Dabar  and the Byzantine enclave of  Ragusa. 

  The largest Zachlumoi cities in Zahumlje were: Ošlje, Ston, Dabar , Mokriski, Glumainik 

  Zahumlje was split onto 9 lesser principalities: Ston, Popovo, Dubrava, Luka, Dabar , Veljake,

Večenik near   Neretva 

Zahumlje was divided into two Duchies: Upper Zahumlje and Lower Zahumlje by the Serbian rulers for easier control. Upper Zahumlje would soon be incorporated directly into Serbia, while lower would continue

to exist. Zahumlje would pass through a period of vassalization to King Tomislav of Croatia, become

dependent of the reconstructed Serbian realm under  Duklja. After numerous dynastic struggles in the former 

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Serbian lands, before which Zahumlje fully annexed Pagania, Zahumlje would become a direct part of the

Grand Principality of   Rascia. 

Prince Peter of  Zahumlje was elected Count of  Split. 

Travunia 

Travunia or Terbounia has been a vassalaged dependent part of Serbia. It was described as part of aentity

called Red Croatia. Thus, it was inhabiten by Red Croats or Serbs. In the middle of the 9th century, GrandPrince Vlastimir gave his daughter to marry Prince  Krajina of Travunia, giving him full independence.

Although, after that, Travunia became a direct part of Serbia. After the Serbian realm of Prince Časlav of Klonimir of Vlastimir  crumbled in the second half of the 10th century, Travunia was directly incorporated

into Duklja. 

Duklja 

Duklja was a Serbian medieval state with hereditary lands roughly encompassing the territories of the Zeta

River , Skadar Lake and the Boka  bay and bordering with Travunia at Kotor . Duklja was at first a semi-

independent part of the Grand Principality (Zhupanate) of  Raška which was a vassal of the Eastern Roman

Empire and later directly under Byzantine suzerainty until it won its independence in the mid-11th century,ruled by the House of Voislav (Vojislavljević). After a large fall, Duklja was incorporated into the unified

Serbian state, where it remained until its last remains' falling to Ottoman hands.

  Duklja's cities were: Gradac,  Novi Grad, Lontodoclea

  Duklja's capitals were: Ston,Skadar  

  Duklja was split into županates: Luška, Podlužje, Gorska,Kučeva with Budva, Kupelnik, Oblik , 

Prapatna (between today's Bar  and Ulcinj), Crmnica, Grbalj.

  Continental Doclea, or Submontana (Podgoria), which was between the rivers of  Rama and Morača, 

was consisted of:  Nikšić, Morača, Komarnica, Piva, Gacko,  Nevesinje, Viševa, Kom, Debar , 

 Neretva, Rama. 

References

1.  ^ from Imotski to Ljuboten 

2.  ^ which was at times controlled by Zahumlje