Hill 2005 Moche Prisoner y FOUCAULT

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Style across the Disciplines

Art forArchaeologys

Sake

Material Culture and

Proceedings of the 33 rd Annual Chacmool Conference

Edited by

Andrea Waters-Rist, Christine Cluney,Calla McNamee and Larry Steinbrenner

CHACMOOL 2005THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY


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Art forArchaeologys Sake

Material Culture and Style across the

Disciplines

Proceedings of the Thirty-Third AnnualConference of the Archaeological Association of the

University of Calgary

Edited by

Andrea Waters-Rist, Christine Cluney,Calla McNamee and Larry Steinbrenner

The University of Calgary

Archaeological Association, 2005

ISBN 978-0-8895-293-9

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THE BODY INTACT, THE BODY IN PIECES:FOUCAULT AND THE MOCHE PRISONER

Erica HillAnthropology, Southern Illinois University

The work of French social theorist MichelFoucault (1926-1984) represents an underutilized resource for archaeologists and art historiansdealing with issues of space and artisticrepresentation. Below, I discuss Foucaultsdistinction between the modern and the premodern body. While the modern, disciplined

body is characterized by regulation throughsurveillance, the pre-modern body, which I argue

provides a model for certain categories of prehistoric bodies in the Americas, can bedescribed as spectacular , i.e., viewed as aspectacle. The prehistoric body-as-spectacle can

be identified in Peruvian art, specifically inrepresentations of Moche prisoners. The analysisof bodily space and depictions of spatial violationillustrate the micro-mechanics of bodily spectacleamong the Moche.

Foucault and the (Disciplined) BodyIn one of his most influential works, Discipline

and Punish (1977), Foucault discussed howmodern techniques of bodily surveillance and manipulation have been utilized to disciplineindividuals. By discipline, Foucault meant atype of power, a modality for its exercise,comprising a whole set of instruments,techniques, procedures, levels of application,[and] targets (1977:215). Such disciplinesconstitute the individual and regulate movement,gesture, behaviour, and speech. As Butler notes,[s]ubjection is, literally, the making of a subject,

the principle of regulation according to which asubject is formulated or produced. Suchsubjection is a kind of power that not onlyunilaterally acts on a given individual as a formof domination, but also activates or forms thesubject (Butler 1997:84, italics original). Thus,the individual subject is constituted through the

practice of and resistance to the imposition of disciplines or regulatory institutions.

Foucault contrasts the modern creation of docile bodies in the surveillance mode with premodern, spectacle-oriented torture and

punishment. The architecture of temples,theatres and circuses resulted in sensual

proximity (Foucault 1977:216)a jumble of bodies observing, as a unified whole, the physicalinscription of penalties in the form of pain and torture. To this end, scaffolds, pillories, and gallows were constructed in public squares and the bodies of the executed were exhibited (Foucault 1977:58). Traitors, for example, might

be publicly disemboweled and decapitated, their heads adorning pikes along thoroughfares(Finucane 1981).

In both modern and pre-modern modes, thearchitectural manipulation of bodies is a centralconcern. In the modern mode, surveillance and other disciplines divorce power from the body,increasing its aptitude through a network of embedded relations. This micro-physics of

power involves supervision, education, and schedulingit is the anatomy of detail, theconcerted distribution of bodies, surfaces, lights,[and] gazes (Foucault 1977:202). Indemonstrating how the modern disciplinarysystem functions, Foucault examines thearchitectural structure of the prison in detail.

His classic spatial example is the Panopticon,the carceral vision of Jeremy Bentham: [t]his

enclosed, segmented space, observed at every point, in which the individuals are inserted in afixed place, in which the slightest movements aresupervised, in which all events are recorded, inwhich each individual is constantly located,examined and distributed among the living

beings, the sick and the deadall this constitutes

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a compact model of the disciplinary mechanism(Foucault 1977:197). For Foucault, space isfundamental to the exercise of power because thecontrol of bodies is fundamental (Driver 1994:116). Although he discusses in detail thespatial components of the prison and their roles in

bodily discipline, Foucault leaves the pre-modernspace of the scaffold un-theorized (McCall 1999).His example of the punishment and execution of Damiens, the convicted regicide, serves only as acontrastive amplification of his interpretation of modern disciplinary systems.

The pre-modern spaces that Foucault neglects,however, are the primary sources of dataavailable to archaeologists and art historians,who, I suggest, are positioned to write the

prehistory of the spectacular body. We haveaccess to the architecture of spectacle, images of the body-as-spectacle, and the physical remains tocompare with iconographic evidence.Iconography, in particular, may provide a glimpseof the spectacular ideal . In other words, art and iconography produced under certain conditions such as elite control of ceramic productionmay

be used to represent the ideal subject. The idealsubject in the modern mode adheres todisciplinary norms, accedes to regulation, and

serves to reproduce existing institutions. A premodern ideal also exists. This ideal is thespectacular bodythe body as spectacle.

An example from the iconography of theMoche will illustrate this notion. The Mocheinhabited the arid river valleys that drained thewestern slopes of the Andes on the North Coastof Peru (ca. AD 100 to 800). They constructed massive irrigation systems as well as adobe

pyramid mounds such as those at the site of Sipn(Alva and Donnan 1993). However, the Moche

are perhaps best known for their production of finely-painted and modeled ceramics. Moche artis ritual in nature, depicting processions, combat,sacrifice, and burial. The iconography of theMoche is replete with images of bodilymanipulation, ranging from sexual acts tocombat, torture, and sacrifice. I argue that certain

forms of bodily manipulation, specifically thosedepicted in the iconography of Moche prisoners,represent the exertion of power in the pre-modernmode through the exhibition of the body in theform of spectacle.

The Spectacular Body of the (Moche) PrisonerEvidence for bodily manipulation among the

Moche comes primarily from two sources:iconographic and skeletal evidence. The detailed iconography of the Moche permits botharchaeologists and art historians to examine howspace is represented in a multitude of ways. Work on the relationship between the individual Moche

body and architectural spaces on the ground, i.e.,within the household or the site, remains to bedone.

Below I examine the pre-modern, spectacular body of the prisoner as it is depicted vis--visother humans and objects, such as the rope and the rack. In this discussion, I focus on the spatialorientation of the prisoners body 1) intact, as a

physically complete, yet subject individual, and 2) in pieces, fragmented, and dismembered. Inaddition to imagery, the remains of the bodiesthemselves provide evidence of physicalmanipulation, including intentional

dismemberment and fragmentation, ostensibly practiced in a ritual context (e.g., Verano 1997,2001, Verano et al. 1999).

Representations of human figures, perhapsespecially those of prisoners, feature explicithierarchical relationships. Status hierarchies aredepicted visually in several ways: 1) relative size(Donnan 1978; Hill 1998); 2) dress and accoutrements (Benson 1982); and 3) associationof individuals with certain architectural features,such as platforms and gabled roof structures

(Donnan 1978). Other possible indicators of highstatus include: the association of an individualwith a live feline, the transport of high-statusindividuals in litters (Donnan 1978:34), and the

placement of the most important human figures[at] the top of the vessel body (Benson1982:204). The Paamarca mural (Donnan 1978:

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suggested, for example, that medieval European body-part reliquaries serve as representations of the idealthe intact, the complete, the restored (Bynum 1995:211-212; Bynum and Gerson1997), in contrast to the decay and corruption of human flesh. Moche iconography may alsorepresent an ideal, but one that is quite differentfrom that of the medieval saint. Rather, thespectacular ideal of the prisoner is one in whichthe body has been emptied of its potential for individual action. The ideal body, in this case, isone that has been made vulnerable to profound violation and brought into line with theinstitutional agenda. As Judith Butler observes,

bodily disciplines force the subject toapproximate an ideal, a norm of behavior, amodel of obedience (Butler 1997:85).

Thus, the limitation of gesture and movementin Moche art is a spatial expression of the

prisoners position within the Moche socialsystem. The rope is also a visible marker, asymbol of defeat, of passivityof the wholesaleappropriation of the body (Foucault 1977:137).The modeled vessel in Figure 1 (drawn from

photo in Donnan 1978: Fig. 148) represents the prisoner naked, tied to a scaffold. Through suchmeasures, the body is rendered a spectacle. The

external surface of the body, the last protective boundary of bodily space, has been exposed ontwo levels: 1) to the gaze of the viewers and, 2) tocorporeal violation of the bodys surface.

The public executions discussed by Foucaultserve as analogous caseslarge crowds gathered to witness corporal punishment in a public forum.The space of the scaffold or the gallows and the

presence of an executioner served tosimultaneously restrain and exhibit. In Moche art,the condition of the naked prisoner is dramatized

by the presence of a fully costumed captor representative of the Moche elite in all its ritualglory. Likewise, the prisoners body is restrained

by the captor, the rope, and/or the rack. Each of these forms of restraint expose the body to viewand simultaneously facilitate violation. The

spatial autonomy of the individual body has beencompromised (Schneider 1996).

The bodies of prisoners are not alwaysdepicted intact. In several cases, the fragmented

body is representedthe body in parts, organsand limbs removed from their proper positions inspace and time. The dismembered bodyrepresents the violation of bodily space taken toextremes: not only has the space surrounding the

body been breached through the use of restraint(rope, rack, or grasping of hair), but the bodyscorporeal intactness has been completelyannihilated. In Moche art, the body of the

prisoner is routinely depicted being dismembered,with heads, arms, legs and genitalia separated from the torso. The Moche routinely depicted decapitation (Cordy-Collins 1992; Moser 1974),

perhaps most prominently in the complex imagecalled the Presentation Theme. Severalelaborately dressed figures adorn the upper register, while two prisoners in the lower register are represented in the process of having their throats slit (Donnan 1975: Fig. 1).

Although the Moche are noted for their attention to the human headthe Moche

produced portrait vessels and may have utilized human crania as drinking cups (Verano 2001,

Verano et al . 1999)they also represented other body parts removed from the bodily context:specifically arms, legs and genitalia. In Figures 2and 3, trophy heads appear, respectively, aboveand to the left, while legs and arms hover nearby.These examples demonstrate clearly that the

bodies of the prisoners are the source of these parts. In Figure 2, the prisoner is shown intact,attempting to flee (Moser 1974; see also Donnanand McClelland 1999: Fig. 4.85). The body partssurrounding him may be interpreted as

representative of his condition in the near future.As I have suggested elsewhere, the Mocherepresent before and after within the sameimage. In other words, the prisoner is shown

before and after his own dismemberment in asingle representation. This use of image is

particularly effective given the medium of Moche

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painted pottery, in which events are depicted inthe round.

In addition to representing entire scenes of dismemberment, the Moche also produced modeled pottery. Three modeled vessels in thecollection of the Museo Rafael Larco Herrerarepresent body parts divorced from their bodilycontext: one modeled arm and two lower legs.Longbones protrude from the stumps of the twolegs. These vessels may represent the bloated limbs of a prisoner, severed from his body. In allof these imagesthose of the prisoners, naked and exposedand in the modeled representationsof disembodied limbs, the Moche demonstrate anacute preoccupation with the body and itsmanipulation. In particular, the severed,decapitated head is a recurring motif.

Among the Iron Age Celts of northern and central Europe, the decapitated head has beeninterpreted in terms of synecdochethat is, the

part is understood to represent the whole (Petres1972:379). In other words, the head symbolizesthe whole person and embodies the desired traits,whether they be supernatural powers or prowessin warfare. Nasca presents a Peruvian analogue tothe Celtic head cult. Helaine Silverman,integrating Nasca iconography with

archaeological evidence, has suggested that Nasca trophy heads may have been obtained inritual combat (Silverman 1993:224; see alsoBrowne et al . 1993; DeLeonardis 2000). Theremoval and curation of the head may havefunctioned as a form of confirmation or legitimation of warrior status.

The analysis of the available Moche evidencesuggests a similar interpretation. Thoseindividuals represented being decapitated aregenerally male. They are consistently shown

juxtaposed with warriors in elaborate costumes.The removal and curation of the head, indicated

by the rope passed through the mouth and theforamen magnum at the base of the skull,suggests that the head retained its value after separation from the body.

A second interpretation of these images of dismemberment is that the prisoner, as anindividual, is being destroyed and dispersed inlesser form. Thus, by dismembering the body, the

powerful essence of the individual is beingfragmented, effectively neutralizing the threat tothe status quo posed by the individual as warrior.However, the individual subject has already beendepersonalized through the removal of clothingand in the uniformity of prisoner representation(Hill 2000). For example, the life-size mural atthe Huaca El Brujo complex in the ChicamaValley represents prisoners as members of andepersonalized and anonymous group. Nomarkers of status are apparent to distinguish onefrom another. If we assume, following Foucault,that the dismemberment of the body fulfilled aninstitutional imperative, then bodilyfragmentation does not represent an attempt todestroy the power, strength, or essence of the

prisoner. Rather, fragmentation is a re-casting of the body in a new role. Dismemberment fulfills atransformative function. As with the bodiessubjected to torture and execution in pre-modernEurope (Merback 1999; Smith 1996; Spierenburg1984), the body of the Moche prisoner becomes aspectacle. This transformative aspect of power is

perhaps its most profound feature, for thesubjects own body both provides and becomesthe spectacle.

Dismemberment is thus the wholesaleconversion of the body of the prisoner into rawmaterial for institutional discourse, theconversion of the individual into an ideal subjectand the utilization of body parts to fulfillinstitutional objectives. One such objective mayhave been communication with the supernatural.Body parts may have formed a very special

medium of exchangethe sacrificial offering.Thus, through dismemberment, Mocheinstitutions created a subject in pieces, on display,fragmented and spectacular.

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ConclusionsI have suggested here that Foucaults insights

into subjectivity, power, and bodily discipline provide the basis for an analysis of archaeologicaland art historical evidence. Although Foucaultfocused on the formation of the modern, docile,disciplined body, he also provided a contrast inthe pre-modern, spectacular body. It is this latter subject that I suggest archaeologists and arthistorians must dissect. In particular, two avenuesof inquiry are especially promising: theexploration of the body in space and theiconography of the ideal, spectacular subjectthesubject exposed, vulnerable, and violable. TheMoche example presented here has employed Foucaults work as a heuristic point of departure(McCall 1999:19) in an effort to begin writing the

prehistory of the spectacular body. Painted and modeled Moche vessels depicting the body tied and restrained illustrate how the control of movement, gesture, and behaviour meetsinstitutional objectives through exposuretheviolation of bodily space. A more extreme formof the spectacular (Moche) body is created through radical violation of bodily boundaries inthe severing of the throat, decapitation, and dismemberment. In conclusion, by exploiting the

dynamic interplay between art and archaeology,we may begin to examine the spatial componentsof our bodily evidence: the body intact, the bodyin pieces, the body transformed.

Figure 1. Moche captive displayed on a scaffold. Drawn by

Steven Wallace from a photo of a modeled vessel inDonnan (1978: Fig. 148). Vessel is housed at the Museumfr Vlkerkunde Berlin, Staatliche Museen Prussicher Kulturbesitz.

Figure 2. After Moser 1974:33.

Figure 3. After Moser 1974:33.

Acknowledgements

I thank Garth Bawden and John McCall for their insightsinto Foucault. Steven Wallace drafted Figure 1, and JonHageman assisted with Figures 2 and 3. Thanks also go toGeoff McCafferty, who encouraged me to participate in the2000 Chacmool Conference.

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Documents

Hill 2005 Moche Prisoner y FOUCAULT