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Part OneAccess and Equity in Higher EducationHigher Education and Development Part Two Country Profiles – All SADC countries except Angola, DRC and Malawi Part ThreeCommon Themes, Good Practices, Possible Lessons
Access in African Higher Education
Defining HE or ‘tertiary’ educationParticipation rates in SSA generally
low, around 5%GER varies from 0.4% in Malawi to
34% in MauritiusDeveloped countries: 60-70%Developing countries: 16%
Equity
Gender Socio-economic statusLocation
These 3 stratifying factors skew
participation in favour of males
richer families, and urban households
Barriers to Access
Poor and inadequate schooling
NER in secondary schooling
Developed: 92%
Developing: 53%
SSA: 25%
Contd.
Public commitment to HE spending - varies in terms of both % of national income
and of the budget- Where HE exp. is low, there are various
reasons1) Educ. exp. is low generally;2) Schooling is a priority3) Inter-sectoral competition for resources4) HE is a low priority
Higher education and development
The role of higher education is changing with increased globalization
HE is now as important for developing, poor countries as it is for rich countries
Why?1) Social returns to HE underestimated2) Developing countries have multi-modal patterns
of economic development3) HE critical for economic growth and
technological absorption
HE Funding: Key Questions
Public Commitment to HE spendingImpact on Access and EquityFunding Mechanisms – institutions,
studentsBudgeting and Planning ProcessesEfficiency and Effectiveness of HE
FinancingSpecial Initiatives
Country Profile: Botswana
Expenditure as % of GDP high (9%)HE has been “free’ in practiceScholarships to students in private HEIsNew university being established on PPP
basisLoan system ineffective and inefficient
Country Profile: Lesotho
High level of govt. funding of HEGovernment provides very large proportion of
institutional fundingGovt. funds students thru’ loan/grant schemeNo recovery of loans so far but some plans now
underwayHigh level of bursary expenditure on students
outside country
Country Profile: Madagascar
Low expenditure on HE even though education takes up 25% of budget
High level of government funding of HEIsNominal tuition feesNo funding formula for institutions –
allocations on an incremental budgeting basis
Country Profile: Mauritius
Govt. spending only 25% of all HE expenditureDifferentiated government funding modelNo funding formula – incremental budgeting
used by institutions55% of funding for HE goes from private HHs to
overseas HEIsNo national student loan scheme but private ones
Country Profile: Mozambique
High level of exp. on HEMinimal cost sharing – nominal feesGovt. finances quality improvement
initiatives in both public and private HEIsHEI funding on the basis of inputs (student
numbers)High dependence on donor fundingProvincial scholarships for equity
Country Profile: Namibia
High exp. on education and HE gets 15%National loan scheme benefits relatively
few studentsNo clear criteria for funding allocationsCost sharing (fees) introducedUnit costs of HE are high indicating
systemic inefficiency
Country Profile: South Africa
High commitment to public spending on HEVery effective loan schemeClose link between planning and fundingFunding formula redistributed to achieve
government’s HE objectivesSubstantial cost-sharingSerious, quality, efficiency and equity issues
Country Profile: Swaziland
High level of education expenditure – 20% of budget; 6% of GDP
High level of government funding of HE (80%) Also relatively high level of tuition fees (20%) No funding formula – govt. assesses
institutional budgets Substantial student support – grants and loans
Country Profile - Tanzania
Educ. exp. as % of budget is highGovt. main funder of HE – institutions and loansLimited cost sharingSignificant donor involvementLoans to students in private HEIsNo cost recovery of loansTEA provides “soft” loans to both public and
private HEIs
Country Profile - Zambia
Higher education budget is high Poor oversight of HE by MoENo funding formula Dual track tuition with govt.-sponsored
and fee-paying studentsHuge institutional debtsNew university – state-established but
expected to be self-financing
Country profile - Zimbabwe
Economic crisis – public HEIs not fully developed
State funding of infrastructure affected by inflation and currency crisis
95% of recurrent expenditure from statePrevious full govt-sponsorship of students
replaced by parallel programmeSome means-tested grants to needy students
Common Themes
HE financing is often INADEQUATE, and almost everywhere, INEQUITABLE and INEFFICIENT
Enrolments are growing everywhereSerious financial constraints
Common Themes (contd.)
Responses:Cost-sharing – Namibia, Swaziland,
Zambia, Zimbabwe (in some cases, dual-track)
Expansion of private higher education sector
Common themes (contd.)
Private Higher Education in SADCSerious equity questionsQuestionable quality – Mozambique;
Tanzania; ZambiaAbsence of regulatory framework to
effectively monitor both local and overseas providers
Common themes (contd.)
Efficiency of HE ExpenditureInefficient because of poor planning and
budgeting – Mozambique; Namibia; Tanzania; Madagascar; Zambia
Inefficient because of no cost recovery of loans – Botswana; Lesotho; Tanzania
No systematic funding mechanism such as funding formula
Common Themes (contd.)
Inadequacy of Higher Educ. Expenditure• Reasons alluded to earlier• But also because of weak departments of
higher education within Ministries of Ed.• Significant involvement of donors in
Mozambique and Tanzania, for example – sustainability implications
Good practices
Financing policies that address
inadequacy of public expenditure
1. Public-private partnerships – Botswana; Zambia
2. Differentiated funding model in Mauritius
3. Cost-sharing – Namibia, Swaziland, Zambia, Tanzania, South Africa
Good practices (contd.)
Financing polices that promote equity1. Provincial scholarships – Mozambique2. Loans to students in private HEIs –
Botswana, Tanzania3. Loan scheme to address equity and
access – South Africa4. Funding formula to promote equity –
South Africa
Good Practices (contd.)
Funding policies to promote efficiency
1. Linking HE planning to budgeting –
South Africa
2. Funding to improve quality of provision
- Mozambique
Some Possible Lessons
1. Cost Sharing CS is necessary in most countries in the
light of serious public resource constraints
CS can take a number of forms Number of advantages and disadvantages
to CS Form of CS must minimise impact on
equity/inequity
Possible Lessons (contd.)
2. Developing efficient and equitable loan scheme
Look at South African and Kenyan examples
Encouraging signs in Namibia but not anywhere else in SADC
Successful loan schemes need some necessary pre-conditions – e.g. efficient tax system