Higher Education and academic research in Africa: Achievements – problems –

prospects

Vorträge/Higher education Africa PPT.ppt/139.6.2014

Max Haller Department of Sociology,

University of Graz

Lecture at the Conference “Higher education, migration and mobility in and out of Africa”

Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, June 19-21, 2014

Overview

1. Introduction 2. Start from scratch and rapid expansion of higher education in SSA: Can it contribute in a significant way to socio-economic development or is it a “luxury” for Africa?

3. Equal opportunities or reproduction of privilege? The function of higher education in a context of high socio-economic inequality 4. A conflict between African and Western values. Implications of the high ethnic and linguistic diversity of SSA 5. Governmental politics and the higher education system: From external intervention to autonomous academic development 6. Concluding remarks

For essential services of higher education and scientific research for society

• Provision of highly skilled workers for society, economy, and politics

• Carrying out of research in many areas of nature and technology, society and culture

• Advancement of critical participation in civic, public and political life

• Contribution to the spread of modern, human and effective human ways of thinking, social habits and forms of acting

Table 1: Gross (GER) and Net school enrolment ratios (NER) by continents and subcontinents (2012) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ School level Primary secondary tertiary ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ High income countries GER 103 100 73 NER 96 90 * Europe & Central Asia GER 101 92 48 NER 94 85 * Latin America & Caribbean GER 113 90 41 NER 94 76 * Middle East & North Africa GER 105 75 31 NER 93 68 * South Asia GER 110 59 16 NER 88 * * Sub-Saharan Africa GER 100 41 8 NER 76 * * ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Source: World Development Indicators 2014, Table 2.11 Participation in Education; The World Bank Notes: GER: Total number of pupils of any age who are enrolled in the respective schools as a percentage of the total number of children of the respective official school age population NER: Number of children of corresponding official school age who are enrolled in the corresponding schools as a percentage of the total number of children of this school age * Data not given

Figure 1: The education pyramid in Tanzania (Number of pupils by educational institutions and gender)

(Source: Burton L.M. Mwamila, Mainstreaming agricultural innovation system into the public sector, University of Dar es Salaam)

Figure 2: The educational pyramids of Germany (1970), the United States (1977), and Austria (1971 and 2001)

Figure 3: Gross tertiary enrolment ratios in three macro-regions

(Source: A. Sawyerr, „Challenges facing African universities: Selected issues,“ African Studies Review, 2004, vol.47, p.13)

Figure 4: The number of universities in Africa, 1960 - 2002 (Source: A. Sawyerr, „Challenges facing African universities: Selected issues,“ African Studies Review, 2004, vol.47, p.16)

A (incomplete) list of actual problems of African universities

• High pressure from demand of students

• Lack of qualified teachers

• Decrease in the quality of academic teaching

• Deficits in university infrastructure

• Weak scientific output (research reports, publications)

• Problems of financing the expenses

• Introduction of student fees and other cost-contributions

• Rise of private universities of varying quality

• Rising unemployment and brain drain among/of graduates

• Inefficient university administrations

• Political/ governmental interventions into academic life

Table 2: Expenditures for tertiary education in Sub-Saharan African countries (2010) in % of GDP/ capita (2011) compared with selected other countries ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Sub-Saharan Africa Other countries ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------- Total public expenditures Total ex- Total public expenditure Total ex- per student as % of GDP p.c. pend. ($) per stud. ( % of GDP p.c.) penditures ($) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------- Benin 94.4 1416 Austria 39.3 16623 Burundi 386,4 2316 France 38.4 13824 Cameroon 29.5 678 UK 25.5 9511 Central African Republic 96.1 768 Sweden 41.8 17054 Chad 207.4 496 Ghana 147.9 4732 USA 20.9 10742 Mauritania 198.7 3974 Japan 25.3 9006 Niger 436.3 3490 Argentina 18.4 3312 Rwanda 191.0 2674 Brazil 28.4 3260 Senegal 193.5 3870 India 68.7 2610 Tanzania (870.9) (13934) Togo 83.4 917 Egypt 17.7 1168 Uganda 108.5 1627 Morocco 82.3 4279 Zimbabwe 78.9 394 Tunisia 49.4 4693 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Source: The World Bank. Expenditures per student in tertiary education (http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TERT.PC.ZS/countries)

How do you

estimate your

chances in Tanzania

after graduating

from SAUT?

Agree

strongly

agree disagree Disagree

strongly

Don’t

know

Total

It will be difficult to

get a job

% 16 41 11 7 25 100

My income will be

quite good

% 11 24 25 14 26 100

Table 3: Expectations concerning the job and income situation after graduation among university students in Tanzania

Source: B. Müller/ M. Haller, “The situation of students in Sub-Saharan Africa: A case study of St. Augustine University of Tanzania,” International Studies in Sociology of Education 22:169-189

GINI West Europe East Europe America, Australia

Africa Asia

65 + South Africa Namibia

60 Angola

55 Haiti, Bolivia Zimbabwe

50 Chile, Brazil, Peru

Botswana Lesotho

Hongkong

45 Mexico, Argentina

Kenya, Nigeria Congo

Thailand, Philippines

40 Russia Turkey

Venezuela Uganda, Ghana Mali, Tunisia

Iran, China Jordan, Bangla D.

35 Portugal UK, Italy

Macedonia Estonia

USA Senegal, Burundi, Algeria, Tunisia

Vietnam, Israel, Laos, India, Mongolia

30 Spain, Germ., France

Polan Hungary

Canada, Australia

Ethiopia Taiwan, Japan, Korea

25 Austria, NL, Sweden Norway

Czech Rep. Slovakia

Table 4: Economic inequality within selected countries around the world

Table 5: Education of fathers and mothers of SAUT students, compared with the Tanzanian population as a whole (in %) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Educational level SAUT students All Tanzanians, 15-49 Father Mother Men Women ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- No complete education 11 15 36,3 42,2 Primary education completed 25 33 52,4 49,2 Sum 36 48 88,7 91,4 Middle school 13 13 - - Secondary school and more 51 40 11,2 8,6 Sum 64 53 11,2 8,6 Total 100 101 99,9 100 (n) (483) (458) (2635) (10329) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Sources: Fathers of students: SAUT student survey 2009 (Müller/ Haller 2012) All Tanzanian men: Tanzania - Demographic and Health Survey 2004-2005

Do we need a specific „African philosophy of higher education“?

„In the general African ethos, ‚to be is necessary in relation‘ to others and the centre is the human being who is free and at the same time highly dependent upon others, on the memory of the past, and on emphasizing the balance between natur and culture.“

N‘dri T. Assié-Lumumba

Also: P. Hountondji, African Philosophy, Myth and Reality 1983

Do we need a specific „African philosophy of higher education“? Cont.

Three arguments

• There exist universal values which are shared by people in all cultures and which may partly also require a coming off traditional African values

• The are in fact many processes and structures specific for African societies (e.g., forms of land ownership and use, democratic participation)

• Africa‘s unique linguistic diversity should also be recognized in higher education and the public dissemination of results of social research

Figure 4: The languages in Africa

GI

NI

Western

Europe

Eastern

Europe

America,

Australia

New Zealand

Africa Asia

65

64.8 South

Africa

64.3 Namibia

60 58.1 Angola

55

54.6 Haiti

53.1 Bolivia

54.7 Zimbabwe

50

51.9 Honduras

51.6 Jamaica

51.5 Guatemala

51.1 Colombia

Ecuador

51.0 Peru

50.9 Paraguay

50.0 Panama

49.8 Papua New

Guin.

49.6 Nicaragua

49.2 Chile

48.8 Brazil

48.5 Suriname

47.4 Dominican

Rep.

51.6 Botswana

50.1 Lesotho

49.6 Burkina

Faso

48.4 Zambia

48.3 Swaziland

47.5 Gambia

48.4 Hong Kong

45

46.2 Mexico

45.6 Argentina

45.1 Costa Rica

44.9 El Salvador

43.5 Fiji

42.9 Uruguay

46.1 Kenya

45.4 Côte

D’Ivoire

44.8 Sierra

Leone

44.6 Rwanda

Madagascar

44.1 Nigeria

43.8 Central

Africa

43.2 Niger

43.0 Congo,

Dem. Rep.

42.9 Congo,

Rep.

42.8

Mozambique

46.2 Nepal

44.5 Sri Lanka

44.2 Thailand

42.9 Philippines

42.8 Cambodia

40

42.1 Russian

Fed.

41.3 Moldova

41.0 Turkey

39.0 Georgia

41.9 Venezuela

41.0 Guyana D.

37.5 Trinidad &

Tobago

42.3 Cameroon

42.4 Uganda

41.3 Liberia

41.2 Gabon

40.6 Guinea

40.5 Malawi

Morocco

39.9 Ghana

39.3 Djibouti

38.5 Mali

38.1 Tunisia

41.4 Iran

40.7 Singapore

Turkmenistan

40.6 China

40.2 Mauritius

40.1 Timor Leste

39.9 Jordan

39.8 Malaysia

37.8 Bangladesh

35

35.9 Portugal

34.6 United

Kingdom

33.6 Italy

33.1 Greece

37.3

Macedonia

36.1 Latvia

33.8 Lithuania

33.7 Estonia

33.1 Serbia

36.9 United

States

32.7 New

Zealand

37.4 Senegal

36.4 Benin

36.2 Guinea-

Bissau

35.9 Mauritania

35.6 Burundi

34.9 Algeria

34.7 Tanzania

34.2 Togo

32.8 Egypt

37.4 Viet Nam

37.1 Armenia

36.8 Syria

36.3 Yemen

36.0 Uzbekistan

35.8 Israel

35.6 Laos

35.3 Indonesia

34.4 Iraq

33.5 Kyrgyzstan

33.4 Kazakhstan

33.1 India

32.7 Mongolia

32.6 Tajikistan

30

31.5 Spain

31.0 Ireland

28.8

Switzerland

28.6 Germany

28.0 Malta

27.7

Luxembourg

27.6 France

31.8 Romania

31.4 Bosnia &

Herzeg.

31.0 Poland

30.4 Albania

28.5 Ukraine

28.4 Hungary

28.2 Bulgaria

28.1 Croatia

31.8 Canada

31.4 Australia

30.5 Ethiopia

32.3 Pakistan

32.2 Azerbaijan

31.0 Korea, Rep.

30.9 Taiwan

30.4 Japan

29.0 Cyprus

25

26.8 Austria

26.7

Netherlands

25.4 Belgium

25.3 Finland

24.6 Norway

23.7 Denmark

22.9 Sweden

26.7 Iceland

26.1 Belarus

Czech

Rep.

24.3 Slovakia

23.3 Slovenia

n 18 22 29 42 35

Figure 5: Do we need African methods of survey research?

Figure 5: Do we need African methods of survey research? Cont.

Eight criteria for “good governance” of universities (The World Bank, Higher Education in Developing Countries (2000:59.62):

(1) Academic freedom, the right of scholars to pursue their research and teaching without restraints from outside

(2) shared governance between ministries of education, faculty and university management in shaping national educational policies

(3) clearly defined mutual rights and responsibilities of all these bodies (4) meritocratic selection and promotion of faculty, administrators and

students (5) financial stability to permit orderly workings and development of the

universities; (6) accountability of the educational institutions toward their sponsors or

financing institutions (7) regular testing of standards of quality by those who are responsible for

governance (8) close cooperation and compatibility between the different levels of

steering and administration

Concluding remarks: What we academics ourselves could contribute

• Strengthening inter-university and international collaborations in teaching and research

• Arousing of interest among European academic teachers, scientists and students to learn and to work in Africa

• Focus social research in Africa on the most pressing issues of this continent (socio-economic inequality, ethnic-cultural diversity, migration and iss consequences health and aging problems, good governance, efficiency of university administration and academic work)

Many thanks for your

attention!