HealthHealth

Social PsychologySocial PsychologyChapter 14Chapter 14

December 10, 2004December 10, 2004Class #14Class #14

Health PsychologyHealth Psychology

The application of psychology to the The application of psychology to the promotion of physical health and the promotion of physical health and the prevention and treatment of illnessprevention and treatment of illness– Social psychological principles now involved in Social psychological principles now involved in

health issues…that wasn’t always the casehealth issues…that wasn’t always the case– Modification of one’s lifestyle, outlook, and Modification of one’s lifestyle, outlook, and

behavior can lessen risk of such things as heart behavior can lessen risk of such things as heart disease, cancer, strokes, accidents, AIDS, etc.disease, cancer, strokes, accidents, AIDS, etc.

– From following slide you can view the change From following slide you can view the change in US insofar as leading causes of death in US insofar as leading causes of death

Leading Causes of Death, 1900-Leading Causes of Death, 1900-20002000

StressStress

The whole process by which we appraise The whole process by which we appraise and respond to events that threaten or and respond to events that threaten or challenge uschallenge us

An unpleasant state of arousal that arises An unpleasant state of arousal that arises when we perceive that the demands of an when we perceive that the demands of an event threaten our ability to cope effectivelyevent threaten our ability to cope effectively

Subjective appraisal of the situation Subjective appraisal of the situation determines:determines:– How we will experience the stressHow we will experience the stress– What coping strategies we will useWhat coping strategies we will use

Major Types of StressorsMajor Types of Stressors

CatastrophesCatastrophes– Unpredictable, large scale eventsUnpredictable, large scale events

Natural disasters Natural disasters – Cataclysmic eventsCataclysmic events

Sudden, without warningSudden, without warning– Ex: WTC tragedyEx: WTC tragedy

Significant Life ChangesSignificant Life Changes Daily HasslesDaily Hassles

Scarring Effects of Natural Scarring Effects of Natural DisastersDisasters

Krug et al. (1998)Krug et al. (1998)– These researchers analyzed These researchers analyzed

counties that had experienced counties that had experienced disasters disasters Before/after research revealed some Before/after research revealed some

alarming numbersalarming numbers See next slide See next slide

Krug et al. (1998)Krug et al. (1998)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Increase in

Suicide Rate

Floods Hurricances Earthquakes

Type of Natural Disaster

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)(PTSD)

Up to 70% of adults in U.S. have Up to 70% of adults in U.S. have experienced at least one major trauma experienced at least one major trauma (extreme stressor) in their lives… (extreme stressor) in their lives… – Examples:Examples:

serious accident/natural disasterserious accident/natural disaster rape or criminal assaultrape or criminal assault combat exposure combat exposure child sexual or physical abuse and/or child sexual or physical abuse and/or

severe neglect severe neglect hostage/imprisonment/ torturehostage/imprisonment/ torture sudden unexpected death of a loved sudden unexpected death of a loved

oneone

PTSD PTSD   

Five factors are necessary for Five factors are necessary for diagnosis:diagnosis:– The person must have experienced or The person must have experienced or

witnessed an extreme stressorwitnessed an extreme stressor– Re-experiencing of the traumatic eventRe-experiencing of the traumatic event– Avoidance and emotional numbingAvoidance and emotional numbing– Increased arousalIncreased arousal– Set of symptoms that have lasted at Set of symptoms that have lasted at

least one monthleast one month  

Significant Life ChangesSignificant Life Changes

Change itself may cause stress by Change itself may cause stress by forcing us to adapt to new forcing us to adapt to new circumstancescircumstances– Is change, positive or negative, Is change, positive or negative,

necessarily harmful?necessarily harmful? No support that positive “stressors” are as No support that positive “stressors” are as

harmful as negative stressorsharmful as negative stressors Impact of change depends on person and Impact of change depends on person and

how change is interpretedhow change is interpreted

The Hassles of Everyday The Hassles of Everyday LifeLife

Most common source of stress arises Most common source of stress arises from the daily hassles that irritate usfrom the daily hassles that irritate us– Ex: Environmental factorsEx: Environmental factors

““Microstressors” place a constant Microstressors” place a constant strain strain on uson us– The accumulation of daily hassles The accumulation of daily hassles

contributes more to illness than do contributes more to illness than do major life eventsmajor life events

Dormitory LifeDormitory Life

Baum & Valins (1977)– These researchers compared two layouts These researchers compared two layouts

of dormitory in university residences…of dormitory in university residences… One was based on a long corridor design, with One was based on a long corridor design, with

17 rooms opening off a single corridor, whereas 17 rooms opening off a single corridor, whereas the other was a suite of three rooms opening the other was a suite of three rooms opening off a communal areaoff a communal area

The total space per student was about the The total space per student was about the same in the two designs and the facilities were same in the two designs and the facilities were similar, but student s in the long corridor style similar, but student s in the long corridor style residence complained more about being residence complained more about being crowded and about having to avoid unwanted crowded and about having to avoid unwanted social contactsocial contact

They withdrew from social contact even when They withdrew from social contact even when they were away from the residencethey were away from the residence

Dormitory LifeDormitory Life

Baum & Valins (1977)– Traditional Traditional

dorms dorms appear to be appear to be more more stressful stressful than newer than newer suite stylesuite style

They demolished this They demolished this dorm…dorm…

In one case, a 26 floor, 1,300 student In one case, a 26 floor, 1,300 student residence, Sander Hall, was residence, Sander Hall, was demolished at the University of demolished at the University of Cincinnati in 1991 because of Cincinnati in 1991 because of persistent problems of violence and persistent problems of violence and vandalismvandalism

Karlin et al. (1979)Karlin et al. (1979)

Students who are accommodated 3 Students who are accommodated 3 to a room intended for 2 suffer less to a room intended for 2 suffer less contentment and lower gradescontentment and lower grades

Watch your Blood Watch your Blood Pressure…Pressure…

Evans (1979)Evans (1979) – Compared ten person groups of peopleCompared ten person groups of people– Some were in rooms 20 x 30 feet, while Some were in rooms 20 x 30 feet, while

others were in rooms 8 by 12 feetothers were in rooms 8 by 12 feet Results:Results:

– The people packed into small The people packed into small rooms had higher pulse rates and rooms had higher pulse rates and blood pressure blood pressure

Is noise stressful???Is noise stressful???

Research indicates that living in a Research indicates that living in a busy city, near a highway, airport, busy city, near a highway, airport, etc. can have detrimental effectsetc. can have detrimental effects

How Does Stress Affect the How Does Stress Affect the Body?Body?

Selye (1976)Selye (1976)– His General Adaptation Syndrome model His General Adaptation Syndrome model

illustrates the effects of stressillustrates the effects of stress– Selye felt that the body’s adaptive Selye felt that the body’s adaptive

response to stress was very general – response to stress was very general – like a burglar alarm that would sound off like a burglar alarm that would sound off no matter what intrudedno matter what intruded

– His model has three overlapping stages His model has three overlapping stages - alarm, resistance, and exhaustion- alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

The General The General Adaptation SyndromeAdaptation Syndrome

Phase 1: Alarm ReactionPhase 1: Alarm Reaction

Alarm reaction caused by a sudden activation of Alarm reaction caused by a sudden activation of your sympathetic nervous system (this is the part your sympathetic nervous system (this is the part of the autonomous nervous system that arouses of the autonomous nervous system that arouses the body (increases HR, BP, etc.) the body (increases HR, BP, etc.)

Mobilizes energy in stressful situationsMobilizes energy in stressful situations– So, your body recognizes danger and mobilizes So, your body recognizes danger and mobilizes

for a for a "fight-or-flight""fight-or-flight" situation… situation… System is activated but since you are in System is activated but since you are in

temporary shock – your resistance drops temporary shock – your resistance drops below normal – usually minor and short-termbelow normal – usually minor and short-term

Therefore, the person may show various Therefore, the person may show various symptoms of stress -- headaches, fever, symptoms of stress -- headaches, fever, fatigue, sore muscles, shortness of breath, fatigue, sore muscles, shortness of breath, diarrhea, upset stomach, etc.diarrhea, upset stomach, etc.

Phase 2: ResistancePhase 2: Resistance Time to fight the challengeTime to fight the challenge

Your body responds to the challenge with an outpouring Your body responds to the challenge with an outpouring of stress hormones causing your temperature, blood of stress hormones causing your temperature, blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration all remain highpressure, heart rate, and respiration all remain high

Everything is in full force to help you cope with the Everything is in full force to help you cope with the stressorsstressors

As body defenses stabilize, the symptoms of alarm seem As body defenses stabilize, the symptoms of alarm seem to disappearto disappear

The adjustment to stress and the outward appearance of The adjustment to stress and the outward appearance of normality are maintained at high cost…normality are maintained at high cost…– During this During this resistance stageresistance stage, the body is more able , the body is more able

to cope with the original stressto cope with the original stress– However, its resistance to any other stress is loweredHowever, its resistance to any other stress is lowered

Phase 3: ExhaustionPhase 3: Exhaustion

During this phase, the individual During this phase, the individual reservoir of resources is becoming reservoir of resources is becoming depleteddepleted– The person is especially vulnerable to The person is especially vulnerable to

diseases and in extreme cases collapse diseases and in extreme cases collapse and death (immune system is being and death (immune system is being challenged by the long-term stress)challenged by the long-term stress) Example: Heart attack Example: Heart attack

What Stress Does to the What Stress Does to the HeartHeart

Type A Behavior Pattern:Type A Behavior Pattern: – Characterized by extremes of Characterized by extremes of

competitive striving for achievement, a competitive striving for achievement, a sense of time urgency, hostility, and sense of time urgency, hostility, and aggressionaggression

– A risk factor for coronary heart disease A risk factor for coronary heart disease (CHD)?(CHD)?

– Hostility appears to be the main toxic Hostility appears to be the main toxic ingredient in CHDingredient in CHD

How “Hostile” Is Your Pattern of How “Hostile” Is Your Pattern of Behavior?Behavior?

From Anger Kills: 17 Strategies by Redford B. Williams, M.D., and Virginia Williams, Ph.D. Used by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Specific Types of Specific Types of

Personalities…Personalities… Friedman & Rosenman (1959)Friedman & Rosenman (1959)

– Summarized years of research to come Summarized years of research to come up with the much publicized up with the much publicized Type A Type A and Type B personalitiesand Type B personalities

Type AType A

Has a chronic sense of time urgencyHas a chronic sense of time urgency– Rushed and hurried, this person is always Rushed and hurried, this person is always "on "on

edge"edge" Has quick and abrupt speechHas quick and abrupt speech

– Often interrupting others Often interrupting others Is very competitive Is very competitive

– Even in noncompetitive situations Even in noncompetitive situations Is a hard-driving, achievement-oriented, and Is a hard-driving, achievement-oriented, and

status-conscious person status-conscious person Frequently becomes hostile and aggressive Frequently becomes hostile and aggressive

Type BType B

This person has an easier-going This person has an easier-going lifestylelifestyle – Is much more able to sit back and relaxIs much more able to sit back and relax

Less competitiveLess competitive More understanding and More understanding and

forgivingforgiving Enjoy leisure and weekends Enjoy leisure and weekends

moremore

Some Differences…Some Differences…

The most important difference is that The most important difference is that Type A men are 2-3 times more likely Type A men are 2-3 times more likely to suffer angina, heart attacks, or to suffer angina, heart attacks, or sudden death than type B mensudden death than type B men

Type A smoke more, sleep less, drink Type A smoke more, sleep less, drink more coffee, walk faster, work later, more coffee, walk faster, work later, drink less milk, etc.drink less milk, etc.

Situational difference here as Situational difference here as well…well…

Interestingly, in relaxed situations, HR, BP, Interestingly, in relaxed situations, HR, BP, hormonal secretions, etc. are very similar…hormonal secretions, etc. are very similar…

But when harassed…watch out…But when harassed…watch out…– Given a difficult challenge, threatened with loss of Given a difficult challenge, threatened with loss of

freedom or control we see big differences…freedom or control we see big differences… Type A’s are much more physiologically reactive Type A’s are much more physiologically reactive

as HR, BP, hormonal secretions, etc. -- as HR, BP, hormonal secretions, etc. -- SOARSOAR!! Type B’s remain at moderate levelsType B’s remain at moderate levels

– Example: Example: Williams (1989)Williams (1989) Subjects asked to do simple math problemsSubjects asked to do simple math problems Type A’s stress-hormone levels rose to Type A’s stress-hormone levels rose to

more than double the Type B’smore than double the Type B’s

Why Is Hostility and CHD Why Is Hostility and CHD Linked?Linked?

Cardiovascular system becomes Cardiovascular system becomes overworkedoverworked

Hostile people are less health Hostile people are less health consciousconscious

Hostile people are physiologically Hostile people are physiologically reactivereactive– In tense social situations they exhibit In tense social situations they exhibit

more intense cardiovascular reactionsmore intense cardiovascular reactions

What Stress Does to the What Stress Does to the Immune SystemImmune System

Stress compromises the body’s Stress compromises the body’s immune systemimmune system

Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI): A Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI): A subfield of psychology that examines subfield of psychology that examines the links among psychological the links among psychological factors, the brain and nervous factors, the brain and nervous system, and the immune systemsystem, and the immune system

Stress and the Immune Stress and the Immune SystemSystem

The immune system is the body’s first line The immune system is the body’s first line of defense against invading substances of defense against invading substances and microorganismsand microorganisms– Stress can impair or suppress the immune Stress can impair or suppress the immune

systemsystem Social support and other stress-mediating Social support and other stress-mediating

factors can help sustain one’s immune factors can help sustain one’s immune systemsystem– Social support may prevent illness by providing Social support may prevent illness by providing

an outlet for the person under stressan outlet for the person under stress

Social SupportSocial Support

Quality of social support can influence Quality of social support can influence one’s ability to cope with stress…one’s ability to cope with stress…– Those who have close relationships with Those who have close relationships with

friends, relatives, religious organizations, self-friends, relatives, religious organizations, self-help groups, etc. usually benefit and can be help groups, etc. usually benefit and can be helped through a tough timehelped through a tough time

– This type of support is crucial for trauma This type of support is crucial for trauma victimsvictims Posttraumatic Stress DisorderPosttraumatic Stress Disorder

Having too much support or the wrong Having too much support or the wrong kind of support can be as bad as not kind of support can be as bad as not having enough supporthaving enough support– How can this be?How can this be?

Effects of Severe Effects of Severe Stress…Stress…

Occurs when demands are too Occurs when demands are too intense for our coping techniques (or intense for our coping techniques (or if we perceive them to be too if we perceive them to be too intense)…intense)…– Lowering of Adaptive EfficiencyLowering of Adaptive Efficiency– ““Wear and Tear”Wear and Tear”

Lowering of Adaptive Lowering of Adaptive EfficiencyEfficiency

Physiological LevelPhysiological Level– Severe stress can impair the body’s ability to fight off Severe stress can impair the body’s ability to fight off

invading bacteria and virusesinvading bacteria and viruses– We get the fluWe get the flu

Psychological LevelPsychological Level– Makes it difficult or impossible for an individual to see a Makes it difficult or impossible for an individual to see a

situation objectively or to perceive the alternatives that are situation objectively or to perceive the alternatives that are actually availableactually available

– Suicide attemptsSuicide attempts

When we use all our resources to combat one severe stressor, When we use all our resources to combat one severe stressor, we have less of a tolerance for otherswe have less of a tolerance for others

““Wear and Tear”Wear and Tear”

After we are exposed to a stressful After we are exposed to a stressful experience, can rest completely experience, can rest completely restore us to normal levels of restore us to normal levels of functioning?functioning?– Selye (1976): says noSelye (1976): says no

Indelible scar is leftIndelible scar is left Every period of stress adds upEvery period of stress adds up

Stress and the common Stress and the common cold…cold…

Cohen (1993)Cohen (1993)– The participants supplied information about The participants supplied information about

three things:three things: Numbers of negative life events they had Numbers of negative life events they had

experienced in the last 12 monthsexperienced in the last 12 months Perceived stress. A questionnaire measure of Perceived stress. A questionnaire measure of

how unpredictable, uncontrollable and how unpredictable, uncontrollable and overloading the individuals found their lives overloading the individuals found their lives

Negative emotions. Ratings of the extent to Negative emotions. Ratings of the extent to which they had felt 15 emotions over the last which they had felt 15 emotions over the last week; distressed, nervous, sad, angry, week; distressed, nervous, sad, angry, dissatisfied with self, calm, guilty, scared, dissatisfied with self, calm, guilty, scared, angry at self, upset, irritated, depressed, angry at self, upset, irritated, depressed, hostile, shaky and contenthostile, shaky and content

Cohen (1993)Cohen (1993)

The volunteers were then exposed to The volunteers were then exposed to common cold viruses. Two types of common cold viruses. Two types of outcome were examined:outcome were examined:– Infection.Infection. Detection of the virus or a significant Detection of the virus or a significant

rise in levels of virus-specific antibodies in nasal rise in levels of virus-specific antibodies in nasal samples 2- 6 days after exposure. (It is possible samples 2- 6 days after exposure. (It is possible to be infected without becoming ill.) to be infected without becoming ill.)

– Clinical colds.Clinical colds. A clinician's judgment of cold A clinician's judgment of cold severity based on symptom checklists, body severity based on symptom checklists, body temperature, and numbers of tissues used per temperature, and numbers of tissues used per day.day.

Cohen (1993)Cohen (1993)

Overall, 82% became infected and 46% Overall, 82% became infected and 46% developed colds (symptoms)developed colds (symptoms)

Important findings:Important findings:– High stress participants: 53% developed High stress participants: 53% developed

coldscolds– Low stress participants: 40% developed Low stress participants: 40% developed

coldscolds Perceived stress and negative affect were Perceived stress and negative affect were

associated with infection associated with infection Stressful life events were associated with Stressful life events were associated with

development of clinical colds, given development of clinical colds, given infection.infection.

Cohen (1998): Cohen (1998): Stress Duration and IllnessStress Duration and Illness

Attributional and Explanatory Attributional and Explanatory StylesStyles

Seligman (1975):Seligman (1975):– Depression results Depression results

from learned from learned helplessnesshelplessness

Abramson et al. Abramson et al. (1989): (1989): – Depression is a Depression is a

state of state of hopelessness hopelessness brought on by the brought on by the negative self-negative self-attributions people attributions people make for failure.make for failure.

– Depressive Depressive explanatory styleexplanatory style

Hardiness Personality Hardiness Personality StyleStyle

Individuals exhibit three Individuals exhibit three characteristics:characteristics:– CommitmentCommitment– ChallengeChallenge– ControlControl

Hardiness serves as a buffer against Hardiness serves as a buffer against stressstress– Perception of control is most important Perception of control is most important

factorfactor

Perception of ControlPerception of Control

The expectation that our behaviors The expectation that our behaviors can produce satisfying outcomes.can produce satisfying outcomes.

Self-efficacySelf-efficacy: Feelings of competence: Feelings of competence– A state of mind that varies from one A state of mind that varies from one

specific task and situation to another.specific task and situation to another.

Optimism and HopeOptimism and Hope

Optimism is a generalized tendency Optimism is a generalized tendency to expect positive outcomesto expect positive outcomes– Characterized by a nondepressive Characterized by a nondepressive

explanatory styleexplanatory style Health can spring from optimism, as Health can spring from optimism, as

evident by the placebo effectevident by the placebo effect

Pollyanna’s HealthPollyanna’s Health

Positive thinking cannot guarantee Positive thinking cannot guarantee good healthgood health– Victims of illness do not just have a “bad Victims of illness do not just have a “bad

attitude”attitude” Limits to positive thinking…Limits to positive thinking…

– Especially if it leads us to see ourselves Especially if it leads us to see ourselves and events in ways that are not realisticand events in ways that are not realistic

Coping StrategiesCoping Strategies

Problem-focused copingProblem-focused coping Emotion-focused copingEmotion-focused coping Proactive copingProactive coping

Problem-Focused CopingProblem-Focused Coping

In dealing with essential tasks, it is In dealing with essential tasks, it is better to confront and control than to better to confront and control than to avoidavoid

Problem-Focused Coping Problem-Focused Coping StagesStages

AssessmentAssessment– Identify the sources and effects of stressIdentify the sources and effects of stress

Goal SettingGoal Setting– List the stressors and stress responses to be List the stressors and stress responses to be

addressed addressed – Designate which stressors are and are not Designate which stressors are and are not

changeablechangeable PlanningPlanning

– List the specific steps to be taken to cope with List the specific steps to be taken to cope with stressstress

Problem-Focused Coping Problem-Focused Coping StagesStages

ActionAction– Implement coping plansImplement coping plans

EvaluationEvaluation– Determine the changes in stressors and Determine the changes in stressors and

stress responses that have occurred as stress responses that have occurred as a result of coping methodsa result of coping methods

AdjustmentAdjustment– Alter coping methods to improve results, Alter coping methods to improve results,

if necessaryif necessary

Problem-Focused might not Problem-Focused might not always a beneficial approach???always a beneficial approach???

Why?Why?– Can be physiologically taxingCan be physiologically taxing– Can lead to development of an over-Can lead to development of an over-

controlling, stress-inducing Type A controlling, stress-inducing Type A pattern of behaviorpattern of behavior

Emotion-Focused Coping: Emotion-Focused Coping: Shutting DownShutting Down

One way to react to stress is by shutting One way to react to stress is by shutting down and trying to deny or suppress the down and trying to deny or suppress the unpleasant thoughts and feelingsunpleasant thoughts and feelings

Distraction can be an adaptive form of Distraction can be an adaptive form of avoidance copingavoidance coping

Concealing one’s innermost thoughts and Concealing one’s innermost thoughts and feelings can be physiologically taxingfeelings can be physiologically taxing– Sometimes can lead to “ironic Sometimes can lead to “ironic

processes”processes” See next slide See next slide

““Try not to think of that little white Try not to think of that little white bear”bear”

Wegner (1994)Wegner (1994)– People just couldn’t keep that image People just couldn’t keep that image

from popping into their headfrom popping into their head– The harder they tried the more difficult The harder they tried the more difficult

it becameit became

Emotion-Focused Coping: Emotion-Focused Coping: Opening UpOpening Up

Two aspects to opening up as an Two aspects to opening up as an emotional means for coping with stress:emotional means for coping with stress:– One must acknowledge and understand One must acknowledge and understand

one’s emotional reactions to important one’s emotional reactions to important eventsevents

– One must express those inner feelings to One must express those inner feelings to themselves and othersthemselves and others

Why might opening up be helpful?Why might opening up be helpful?– Cathartic experience?Cathartic experience?– Helps to gain insight into the problem?Helps to gain insight into the problem?

Proactive Coping: Social Proactive Coping: Social SupportSupport

The helpful coping resources The helpful coping resources provided by friends and other peopleprovided by friends and other people– Has therapeutic effects on both our Has therapeutic effects on both our

psychological and physical healthpsychological and physical health Social support and contact related to Social support and contact related to

longevitylongevity

Being Popular…Being Popular…

• Hamrick, Cohen, and Rodriguez (2002)

• For those under low stress, social connections didn’t matter (no differences)

• For those under high stress it did (those with more social connections got sick more often)

• See next slide

Being Popular doesn’t always Being Popular doesn’t always Promote HealthPromote Health

Hamrick, N.S. Cohen, and M.S.Rodriguez (2002)

How Should Social Support Be How Should Social Support Be Defined?Defined?

Simple social contact modelSimple social contact model– How many social contacts does a person How many social contacts does a person

have?have? Intimacy modelIntimacy model

– Does the person have a close Does the person have a close relationship with a significant other?relationship with a significant other?

Perceived availabilityPerceived availability– Does the person believe that ample Does the person believe that ample

support is available when needed?support is available when needed?

Social Support: Social Support: The Religious ConnectionThe Religious Connection

Religion provides an important Religion provides an important source of social and emotional source of social and emotional support for manysupport for many– Only 15-20% of world’s population have Only 15-20% of world’s population have

no religious affiliationno religious affiliation There appears to be a link between There appears to be a link between

religiosity and health?religiosity and health?– Religious individuals tend to outlive their Religious individuals tend to outlive their

non-religious counterparts…non-religious counterparts… But be careful…But be careful…

Maybe, its time to get on Maybe, its time to get on that stair climber again…that stair climber again…

Many recent studies indicate that Many recent studies indicate that aerobic exercise (exercise that aerobic exercise (exercise that increases heart and lung fitness) can increases heart and lung fitness) can help reduce stresshelp reduce stress

McCann and Holmes (1984)McCann and Holmes (1984)– Mildly depressed female college studentsMildly depressed female college students

Group 1: Aerobic exerciseGroup 1: Aerobic exercise Group 2: Relaxation exerciseGroup 2: Relaxation exercise Group 3: No treatmentGroup 3: No treatment

– After 10 week program, the clearly the best After 10 week program, the clearly the best results were reported by those in Group 1results were reported by those in Group 1

Treatment: Treatment: The “Social” IngredientsThe “Social” Ingredients

All healers provide social supportAll healers provide social support All therapies offer a ray of hopeAll therapies offer a ray of hope

– All therapies communicate and instill All therapies communicate and instill positive expectationspositive expectations

Patients can make meaningful Patients can make meaningful choices about the treatmentchoices about the treatment

PreventionPrevention

Getting the message across that Getting the message across that some behaviors are very unhealthysome behaviors are very unhealthy– Ex: AIDS, smoking, etcEx: AIDS, smoking, etc

Fear appealsFear appeals Use of celebritiesUse of celebrities

Aiming for Good Aiming for Good HealthHealth

Subjective Well-BeingSubjective Well-Being

One’s happiness, or life satisfaction, One’s happiness, or life satisfaction, as measured by self-reportas measured by self-report

In self-reports, 75% of American In self-reports, 75% of American adults describe themselves as happyadults describe themselves as happy

What predicts happiness?What predicts happiness?– Social relationshipsSocial relationships– Employment statusEmployment status– Physical healthPhysical health

Income doesn’t seem to matter Income doesn’t seem to matter much…much…

Increase in income does not lead to increase in Increase in income does not lead to increase in subjective well being subjective well being – Most people define themselves as being happy Most people define themselves as being happy

or not happy, regardless of their material wealth or not happy, regardless of their material wealth

Why Doesn’t Money Why Doesn’t Money Contribute More to Subjective Contribute More to Subjective

Well-Being?Well-Being? Perceptions of wealth are not Perceptions of wealth are not

absolute but relative to certain absolute but relative to certain standardsstandards– Social comparison theory revisitedSocial comparison theory revisited

People use their own recent past as a People use their own recent past as a basis of comparisonbasis of comparison– Adaptation-level theoryAdaptation-level theory

Adaptation-Level Adaptation-Level PhenomenonPhenomenon

This is our tendency to judge various stimuli This is our tendency to judge various stimuli relative to those we have previously relative to those we have previously experiencedexperienced

Whatever it is that's going on in our life, we Whatever it is that's going on in our life, we immediately adapt to it and then that immediately adapt to it and then that becomes neutralbecomes neutral

So if you get a big promotion and raise, you'll So if you get a big promotion and raise, you'll think that's wonderful -- for probably a few think that's wonderful -- for probably a few weeks, and then it becomes neutral... and weeks, and then it becomes neutral... and eventually not enough eventually not enough – What once gave pleasure such as a raise in salary, What once gave pleasure such as a raise in salary,

loses its effect loses its effect

Campbell (1975)Campbell (1975)

He felt there was no such thing as an He felt there was no such thing as an emotional utopia…emotional utopia…– Well, maybe for awhile but the adaptation Well, maybe for awhile but the adaptation

principle prevents this from being long-principle prevents this from being long-termterm For example: million-dollar lottery For example: million-dollar lottery

winners return to their earlier level of winners return to their earlier level of happiness happiness

Who is happier…Silver medallists Who is happier…Silver medallists or bronze medallists?or bronze medallists?

Our feelings are influenced strongly be Our feelings are influenced strongly be how we appraisehow we appraise our situations…our situations…– Medvec, Madey, & Gilovich (1995)Medvec, Madey, & Gilovich (1995)

These researchers analyzed films These researchers analyzed films from 1992 Olympics, and found that from 1992 Olympics, and found that athletes who won Bronze medals athletes who won Bronze medals were happier than those who won were happier than those who won Silver medalsSilver medals

A Set Baseline Level of A Set Baseline Level of Happiness?Happiness?

Personality more important than the Personality more important than the situation???situation???– Ratings of happiness are higher among Ratings of happiness are higher among

identical twins than among fraternal twinsidentical twins than among fraternal twins Suggests a genetic linkSuggests a genetic link

– Fluctuations in mood that accompany Fluctuations in mood that accompany positive and negative life events wear off positive and negative life events wear off over timeover time

– Happiness levels are relatively stable over Happiness levels are relatively stable over time and placetime and place

Do you feel any differently now Do you feel any differently now than you did 15 weeks ago?than you did 15 weeks ago?

We’ve discussed a variety of We’ve discussed a variety of situational influences…situational influences…

We’ve also looked at personality and We’ve also looked at personality and how it interacts with the situation…how it interacts with the situation…

What's more influential insofar as What's more influential insofar as prediction of a person’s behavior is prediction of a person’s behavior is concerned?concerned?