Hawthorne Studies

Background

The Hawthorne Studies is a specific type of research in which the people, being experimented,

adjust the way they behave merely because of the fact that they are being observed. It was a

series of studies which took place at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Company, from

1924 – 1932. The research was carried out by Elton Mayo, who was a faculty member and

consultant of Harvard, with the help of his associates.

The Conducted Experiments

A number of studies were accomplished at the Hawthorne plant. The first one revolved around

the relationship of productivity with the level of illumination. The study involved two groups of

workers whose productivity was compared, as the level of illumination was changed for one

group, whereas the other group faced no change. It was observed that increase in the

illumination level resulted in increase of productivity for both the groups. The process of

increasing productivity continued even when the level of illumination was decreased. The

productivity started to diminish only when the illumination attained the level of moonlight.

The second experiment involved with establishing a piecework incentive pay plan for a group of

men accumulating terminal banks for telephone exchanges. Although conventionally it was

assumed that each worker would try to produce as many units as possible, but it was practically

observed that, the group of workers unofficially established an average of output. Producing

either more or less than that average level was considered to be unexpected, so the workers

produced at the average pace, and started slacking off as they arrived close to the average

level.

Then there was another case where subjects were asked to choose group members under

supervision. It was noticed that productivity increased because of having the opportunity to

choose co workers, working as a group, being treated specially and having a sympathetic

supervisor.

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Analysis of the Experiments

In case of the first experiment, where light intensity was altered to examine its effect on worker

productivity, the results recognized the fact that the experimental groups responded to the fact

that they are provided with special attention and supervision, instead of responding to any

particular experimental manipulation. It was suggested that the productivity increased because

the workers were moved by the motivational effect of the interest being shown in them.

Although illumination research of workplace lighting formed the basis of the Hawthorne

studies, other changes such as maintaining clean work stations, clearing floors of obstacles, and

even relocating workstations resulted in increased productivity for short periods. Then in case

of piecework incentive pay plan, the assumptions of the researchers turned out to be wrong as

wage incentives were less important than social acceptance in determining output level. In

short, Elton Mayo and his associates came to the conclusion that, individual and social

processes play major role in shaping up worker behavior.

Criticism

A number of industrial/occupational psychology and organizational behavior textbooks refer to

the illumination studies. Evaluation of the Hawthorne Studies continues even today, although

some of the pioneers of management have seen it from a different angle. They have mentioned

some points which criticized the issue, for example H Mcllvaine parsons argues that in the

studies where subjects received feedback on their work rates, the results should be considered

biased by the feedback compared to the manipulation studies. He also argues that the rest

periods involved possible learning effects, and the fear that the workers had about the intent of

the studies may have biased the results.

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Explanation in Favour of the Experiment

Elton Mayo says Hawthorne Studies is to do with the fact that the workers felt better in the

situation, because of the sympathy and interest of the observers. He does say that this

experiment is about testing overall effect, not testing factors separately. He also discusses it not

really as an experimenter effect but as a management effect: how management can make

workers perform differently because they feel differently. A lot has to do with feeling free, not

feeling supervised but more in control as a group. The experimental manipulations were

important in convincing the workers to feel that conditions were really different.

Conclusion

Thus it can be concluded that, the Hawthorne Studies has been well established in the empirical

literature beyond the original studies. The concerned output was human effort and the results

can be expected to be similar. The experiments stand as a caution about simple experiments

which view human participants as if they were only material systems. There is less certainty

about the nature of the surprise factor, other than it certainly depended on the attributes of

the participants; like their knowledge, beliefs etc.

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Mary Parker Follett

Besides Lillian Gilbreth, Mary Parket Follett (3 September 1868 – 18 December 1933) was one

of the two female pioneers of classical management theory. Born in the United States of

America, she was an active social worker and consultant, contributing majorly in the sectors of

organizational theory and organizational behaviour. Some writers regard her as the mother of

management, as she has reproved of overmanaging employees, a process now known as

micromanaging, as “bossism”. Follett was one of the first women ever invited to address the

London School of Economics, where she spoke on cutting-edge management issues.

Areas of Specialization

She recognized the holistic nature of community and advanced the idea of "reciprocal

relationships" in understanding the dynamic aspects of the individual in relationship to others.

Follett promoted the principle of what she termed "integration," or non coercive power

sharing. Her ideas on negotiation, power and employee participation were highly influential in

the development of the fields of organizational studies, alternative dispute resolution, and

the human relations movement. She was also a pioneer in the establishment of community

centres.

Writings of Mary Parker Follett

The first book by Mary Parker Follett was The Speaker of the House of Representatives, which

was appreciated by many, including the then president of the U.S, Theodore Roosevelt, as the

best study of this type ever done till that period. The book was a result of her extensive

research on the government policies.

The second book by Follett was The New State, which centered around the human side of

government, democracy and the role of local community. This book can be termed as the

continuation of her thoughts when she had turned most of her attention to writing for a wider

public regarding what the social centers had taught her about democracy.

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Then in 1924, Follett published her third book, Creative Experience, which addresses more directly

the creative interaction of people through an on-going process of circular response.

Another of her book is Dynamic Administration, which was a collection of speeches and short

articles published posthumously.

Management Theories by Mary Parker Follett

Apart from being addressed as the mother of management, Follett is also termed as the

Prophet of management. Her influence on management has been so significant that, a noted

pioneer of her times, Warren Bennis has said, "Just about everything written today about

leadership and organizations comes from Mary Parker Follett's writings and lectures." Unlike

managers of today, Follett did not emphasis on profit, but rather on the dynamics of

organizations. The principles that stand out in the theories of management by Mary Parker

Follett are discussed below :

Conflict resolution through Integration often results in a win-win situation. For example,

identifying and meeting each party's underlying and often compatible need, as opposed

to attempting to meet the frequently-incompatible expressed desire of each.

Genuine power is not coercive but coactive. That means, power does not mean ruling

over people, but to rule with the help of their support.

True leaders create group power, rather than expressing personal power.

Pioneers Whose Work Has Been Facilitated by Mary Parker Follett

The emphasis of Mary Parker Follett on the humanitarian side paralleled the work of Elton

Mayo at Western Electric's Hawthorne Plant, and signified the rise of the Human Relations

Movement, through the work of figures as Abraham Maslow, Kurt lewin, Douglas

McGregor, Chris Argyris, Dick Beckhard and other breakthrough contributors to the field of

organizational development. Follett’s influence can also be seen indirectly perhaps in the work

of Ron Lippitt, Ken Benne, Lee Bradford, Edie Seashore and others.

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Conclusion

Thus, Mary Follett's work laid down the foundation for a creation of effective, progressive

changes in management philosophy, style and practice, revolutionizing and humanizing the

workplace. Follett postulated insightful ideas on negotiation, conflict resolution and power

sharing which helped shape modern management theory. A conclusion can be drawn by saying

that, Mary Parker Follett’s postulated insightful ideas on negotiation, conflict resolution and

power sharing which helped shape modern management theory.

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Theory Z

The Theory Z is not a specific theory, but a cluster of three distinctly different psychological

theories. One was developed by Abraham H Maslow in his paper Theory Z and the other one is

built up by Dr. William Ouchi, popularly known as "Japanese Management" style, accepted

during the Asian economic boom of the 1980s. The third was developed by W J Reddin, in the

analysis of Managerial Effectiveness. Three basic ideologies can be accumulated by studying the

theories developed by the three above mentioned pioneers of management, which are stated

below :

Human beings get motivated by reasons or explanations

Interdependence is human beings’ most important mode of communication

Interaction is human beings’ social unit of importance.

Evolution of Theory Z

Abraham Maslow, a psychologist and the first theorist to develop a theory of motivation based

upon human needs, produced a theory, which classified needs in the following way :

1. Physiological needs

2. Safety needs

3. Belongingness and love needs

4. The esteem needs – self-confidence

5. The need for self-actualization – the need to reach your full potential

Douglas McGregor developed Theory X and theory Y, based on the hierarchy of needs by

Maslow. By understanding the needs, managers are then able to get the most out of

production.

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Then again, the works of William Ouchi is inspired by the principles of Dr. W Edward Deming.

Deming’s management and motivation theories were used in Japan based organizations in case

of competitive position.

Enlightenment of Theory Z

Theory Z focuses on increasing employee loyalty to the company by providing a job for life with

a strong focus on the well-being of the employee, both on and off the job. The reason behind

the success of organizations opting this theory is a special way of managing people, which

focuses on a strong company philosophy, a distinct corporate culture, long-range staff

development, and consensus decision-making. Theory Z makes certain assumptions about

workers, like they tend to build happy and intimate working relationships with those that they

work for and with, as well as the people that work for them. Then again, Theory Z workers have

a high need to be supported by the company, and highly value a working environment in which

such things as family, cultures and traditions, and social institutions are regarded as equally

important as the work itself. These types of workers have a very well developed sense of order,

discipline, a moral obligation to work hard, and a sense of cohesion with their fellow workers.

Finally the workers can be trusted to do their jobs to their utmost ability, so long as

management can be trusted to support them and look out for their well being.

Implication of the Theory

One of the most important pieces of this theory is that management must have a high degree

of confidence in its workers in order for this type of participative management to work. This

theory assumes that workers will be participating in the decisions of the company to a great

degree. Ouchi explains that the employees must be very knowledgeable about the various

issues of the company, as well as possessing the competence to make those decisions. He also

points out; however, that management sometimes has a tendency to underestimate the ability

of the workers to effectively contribute to the decision making process. But for this reason,

Theory Z stresses the need for the workers to become generalists, rather than specialists, and

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to increase their knowledge of the company and its processes through job rotations and

constant training. Actually, promotions tend to be slower in this type of setting, as workers are

given a much longer opportunity to receive training and more time to learn the ins and outs of

the company's operations. The desire, under this theory, is to develop a work force, which has

more of a loyalty towards staying with the company for an entire career, and be more

permanent than in other types of settings. It is expected that once an employee does rise to a

position of high level management, they will know a great deal more about the company and

how it operates, and will be able to use Theory Z management theories effectively on the

newer employees.

Conclusion

Many assumptions are made in the work place, based on observations of the workers, and their

relationship with management. The types of tasks being performed, as well as the types of

employees which make up a particular organization can set the stage for the types of leadership

roles which will be assumed by managers. Many companies have successfully integrated similar

economic and human principles in a management style from Theory’s Y and Z. Most managers

however do not see themselves as using this type of management style until given the

opportunity to see how their employees actually feel about the management style that is being

used. Then will an effort be made to look further into a different, possibly more successful style

of managing.

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Motion Study

Motion study, popularly known as Time and Motion Study; or Time-Motion Study, is a

technique to achieve efficiency in business, developed by combining the Time Study work of

Frederick W Taylor and Motion Study work of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth. Since this study has

been originated, it is considered to be a major part of scientific management. Time study

developed in the direction of establishing standard times, while Motion study evolved into a

technique for improving work methods. The two techniques became incorporated and refined

into a widely accepted method applicable to the improvement and upgrading of work systems.

it is applied today to industrial as well as service organizations, including banks, schools and

hospitals. Time study is a direct and continuous observation of a task, using a timekeeping

device (e.g., decimal minute stopwatch, computer-assisted electronic stopwatch, and videotape

camera) to record the time taken to accomplish a task and it is often used when :

There are repetitive work cycles of different length

There is divergence in the type of task performed

The control elements of the process constitute a part of the cycle

History of Time and Motion Study

The Gilbreths, Frank and Lillian, were the first to conduct time and motion studies. They

illustrated the importance of the total working environment by reducing unnecessary

motions.The Gilbreth's best known experiment involved bricklaying Through carefully

scrutinizing a bricklayer's job, Frank Gilbreth reduced the number of motions in laying a brick

from 18 to about 5. Hence the bricklayer both increased productivity and decreased fatigue.The

Gilbreths developed what they called “therbligs”, being "Gilbreth” spelled in the other

direction, a classification scheme comprising 18 basic hand motions.

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Objective of the Study

The main objective of a time and motion study is to determine reliable time standards for the

efficient and effective management of operations. Through the establishment of reliable and

accurate time standards, companies can better define their capacity or output, thus increasing

the efficiency of equipment and obtaining optimum utilization of the workforce. Time standards

can be used to investigate the difference between actual and standard performance and take

appropriate action where necessary. It can also be used to facilitate job design as a basis for

comparing different work methods, introducing sound production controls, designing an

efficient workplace layout, and balancing between work schedules and available manpower.

Other benefits include budgetary control, development of incentive plans, and ensuring that

quality specifications are met.

Method of Time and Motion Study

Mikell Groover assembled some steps which can be termed as the stages of time and motion

study, which are mentioned below :

Defining a regular method and preparing an article of that

Dividing the task into work elements

These are the foremost steps that make the analyst acquainted with the task and allow the

analyst to attempt to improve the work procedure before defining the standard time.

Confine the work elements within a time limit, so that the time needed to perform the

task can be observed

Evaluating the worker’s speed of performance compared to the regular standard, in

order to determine the average time.

Applying an allowance to the normal time for computing the standard time. The

allowance factors that are needed in the work, are then added to compute the standard

time for the task.

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Conclusion

Thus, it can be concluded by saying that, Time and motion study have to be used together in

order to achieve rational and reasonable results. It is particularly important that effort be

applied in motion study to ensure equitable results when time study is used. In fact, much of

the difficulty with time study is a result of applying it without a thorough study of the motion

pattern of the job. Motion study can be considered the foundation for time study. The time

study measures the time required to perform a given task in accordance with a specified

method and is valid only so long as the method is continued. Once a new work method is

developed, the time study must be changed to agree with the new method.

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Managerial Principles of Peter Drucker

Peter Ferdinand Drucker (November 19, 1909 – November 11, 2005) was a writer, management

consultant, and self-described “social ecologist.” His books and scholarly and popular articles

explored how humans are organized across the business, government and the nonprofit sectors

of society. He is one of the best-known and most widely influential thinkers and writers on the

subject of management theory and practice. His writings have predicted many of the major

developments of the late twentieth century, including privatization and decentralization; the

rise of Japan to economic world power; the decisive importance of marketing; and the

emergence of the information society with its necessity of lifelong learning. In 1959, Drucker

coined the term “knowledge worker" and later in his life considered knowledge work

productivity to be the next frontier of management. A mentionable work of Peter Drucker is the

famous distinction between efficiency and effectiveness. The first means ‘doing things right’,

while the second means ‘doing the right things’.

The Managerial Principles of Peter Drucker

Peter Drucker realized life principles because he understood how individuals are fearfully and

wonderfully made with perpetuity in mind. He thus developed some principles for attaining

success and more importantly significance in life, which are discussed below :

1. Find Out Who You Are

Whenever people are on the road to success, they tend to think of repositioning as something

they do if they’re a failure. But its more important to reposition when one has achieved

success, because that’s when one can afford it.” But no one can reposition for significance

without first knowing who they are and where they belong.

2. Reposition Yourself For Full Effectiveness And Fulfillment

Early in their careers, people tend to have a fairly limited timeframe. They can’t visualize what

comes after that. By the time they achieve some measure of success, however, the timeframe

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expands. Suddenly they begin to think about options that are much ahead of them. Such a long

view often brings clarity where none existed before.

3. Find Your Existential Core

There’s a strong correlation between high achievement and the ability to come to terms with

life’s basic questions. The most successful people are those who have a strong faih, that there is

a very substantial correlation between religious faith, religious commitment, and success as

doers in the community.

4. Make Your Life Your Last Option

The only worthy goal is to make a meaningful life out of an ordinary one. The journey will be

demanding but worth the effort, when one sets his vision on achievements that really matter,

and will definitely make a difference in the world,

5. Planning doesn’t Work

Opportunity comes rarely, and one has to be flexible, ready to seize the right opportunities

when they come. According to Drucker, too much planning can make you deaf to opportunity.

Man needs to be prepared for utilizing the opportunity.

6. Know Your Values

Drucker stated that, if one do not have respect for his job, not only will he be misfit for it, but it

will also corrupt him. Knowing the right values and the right level of satisfaction can refrain man

from doing unwanted deeds.

7. Define What You Mean By A Perfect Conclusion

A perfect conclusion is defined in various ways by different individuals. According to some,

achieving the worldy goals is sufficient, while some may think that it is far more important to

get himself remembered, with the help of his deeds, even after he has expired.

8. Know The Difference Between Harvesting And Planting

One needs to know the difference between the two, as they are different issues. According to

Peter Drucker, harvesting is more important than planting, as it is considered as the foundation

of planting. The level of satisfaction depends on the extent of harvesting.

9. Good Intentions Aren’t Enough: Define The Results You Want

The number of non-profits and charitable organizations has exploded in the past several years,

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but many of them get poor results, because they don’t ask about results, and they don’t know

what results they want in the first place. Drucker said, people must ask the right questions and

then partner with others who have the expertise, knowledge, and discipline to get the right

results.

10. Recognize The Downside To “No Longer Learning, No Longer Growing.”

Peter Drucker has divided successful managers into three groups. One group who retires and

usually don’t live very long. The second group keeps on doing what they’ve been doing, but

they lose their enthusiasm. The third group keeps doing what they’ve been doing, but they’re

looking for ways to make a contribution. They want to be involved, to help other people in a

more positive way.” And they’re the ones, according to Drucker, who finish well.

Conclusion

Although Peter Drucker founded a number of winning principles in case of management, but it

should be kept in mind that these principles depend on the uniqueness of the situations on

which these are going to be applied. There is no unique way of management, as each state of

affairs is exclusive and particular. Therefore, we need to analyze the situation and the

consequences of the applied principles, and then implement the necessary steps, to achieve

utmost success.

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