Handling Commonly Used Radionuclides · 2019. 2. 4. · Monitoring for contamination Thin end-window Geiger-Muller detector (e.g. Mini Instruments type 900 counter with EP15 tube)

Handling Commonly Used Radionuclides

LR - 25

These sheets provide information about commonly used radioisotopes atUCL. Information includes half-life, emissions, shielding, monitoring, etc.as well as any special considerations.

The following isotopes are covered. Please let us know if you requireinformation about any other isotopes.

Download individual isotope sheets

Barium-133

Caesium-137

Calcium-45

Carbon-14

Chlorine-36

Chromium-51

Europium-152

Fluorine-18

Hydrogen-3

Indium-111

Iodine-123

Iodine-125

Iodine-131

Iron-59

Phosphorus-32

Phosphorus-33

Rubidium-86

Sodium-22

Sulphur-35

Tritium – seeHydrogen-3

Technitium-99m

Xenon-133

Zirconium-89

Barium-133 (Ba-133)

Radioactive half-life 10.5 years

Principal emission gamma (356 keV)

Monitoring for contamination Scintillation detector

Dose rate at 30cm from 1MBq point source 2.8 Sv.h-1 betas, 0.97 Sv.h-1gammas

Dose rate at 1m from 1MBq 10ml in vial 0.075 Sv.h-1

Contamination skin dose (dispersed 1cm2) 130 Sv.h-1 per kBq

Contamination skin dose (droplet 0.05ml) 38 Sv.h-1 per kBq

Maximum range in air n/a

Maximum range in water n/a

Beta Shielding required 0.7 mm Perspex (total betas)

Gamma First Half-value layer/thickness 1 mm lead

Gamma First Tenth-value layer/thickness 7 mm lead

Annual limit on intake for 6mSv 3.32 MBq

Caesium-137 (Cs-137)


Principal emission beta/gamma (512 keV/662 keV)

Monitoring for contamination Geiger or Scintillation

Dose rate at 30cm from 1MBq point source 210 Sv.h-1 betas, 1.1 Sv.h-1gammas


Contamination skin dose (dispersed 1cm2) 1.6 mSv.h-1 per kBq


Maximum range in air 390 cm (beta)

Maximum range in water 5 mm (beta)





Calcium-45 (Ca-45)

Radioactive half-life 163 days

Principal emission 257 keV (max.) beta

Monitoring for contamination End-window Geiger-Mullerdetector (e.g. Mini Instrumentstype 900 counter with EP15 tube)

Dose rate at 30cm from 1MBq point source background

Dose rate at 1m from 10ml 1MBq in vial background (n.b. Bremsstrahlung)

Contamination skin dose (dispersed 1cm2) 840 Svh-1per kBq

Contamination skin dose (droplet 0.05ml) 100 Svh-1 per kBq

Maximum range in air 52 cm

Maximum range in water 0.62 mm

Beta Shielding required 0.6 mm Perspex

Gamma First Half-value layer/thickness n/a

Gamma First Tenth-value layer/thickness n/a

Annual limit on intake for 6 mSv 2.24 MBq

Special Considerations

The majority of Calcium-45 is deposited in the bone and retained with along biological half-life.

Carbon-14 (C-14)

Radioactive half-life 5730 years


Monitoring for contamination Thin end-window Geiger-Mullerdetector (e.g. Mini Instrumentstype 900 counter with EP15 tube)


Dose rate at 1m from 1MBq 10ml in vial background (n.b. Bremsstrahlung)


Contamination skin dose (droplet 0.05ml) 2.7 Sv.h-1 per kBq



Beta Shielding required 0.3 mm Perspex/Plexiglas, 2mmglass. Thinner Perspex/Plexiglasdown to 3mm, although adequateto reduce doses, does not havegood mechanical properties.



Annual limit on intake for 6mSv (vapour) 10.4 MBq


There is a possibility that some organic compounds can be absorbedthrough gloves.

Care needs to be taken not to generate carbon dioxide in experimentalprocedures.

Experiments involving the use of activities in excess of 50 MBq should becarried out in a Controlled Radiation Area, and all other experiments in aSupervised Radiation Area.

Chlorine-36 (Cl-36)

Radioactive half-life 300,000 years


Monitoring for contamination Geiger

Dose rate at 30cm from 1MBq point source 110 Sv.h-1

Dose rate at 1m from 1MBq 10ml in vial Bremsstrahlung










36Cl beta particles have sufficient energy to penetrate gloves and skin, donot work over open containers when aliquoting or working with 37MBqquantities. It is recommended that users wear wrist and finger monitors.

Chromium-51 (Cr-51)

Radioactive half-life 27.7 days

Principal emission 320 keV gamma


Dose rate at 30cm from 1MBq point source 0.06 Sv.h-1






Beta Shielding required n/a





Chromium-51 in the form of chromate is not selectively absorbed by anyorgan in the body.

Europium-152 (Eu-152)







Contamination skin dose (droplet 0.05ml) 240 Sv.h-1per kBq







Fluorine-18 (F-18)

Radioactive half-life 1.83 hours (109.8 minutes)

Principal emission 634 keV beta+, 511 keV gamma


Dose rate at 30cm from 1MBq point source 120 Sv.h-1betas, 1.8 Sv.h-1gammas

Dose rate at 1m from 1MBq 10ml in vial 0. 158 Sv.h-1

Contamination skin dose (dispersed 1cm2) 1.95 mSv. h-1

Contamination skin dose (droplet 0.05ml) 0.788 mSv. h-1


Maximum range in water 0.23 cm




Annual limit on intake for 6mSv 410 MBq

Gallium-68 (Ga-68)

Radioactive half-life 1.13 hours (68 minutes)

Principal emission 1899 keV beta+, 511 keV gamma



Dose rate at 1m from 1MBq 10ml in vial 0. 16 Sv.h-1

Contamination skin dose (dispersed 1cm2) 1.81 mSv. h-1

Contamination skin dose (droplet 0.05ml) 1.25 mSv. h-1







Hydrogen-3 (Tritium, H-3)


Principal emission 19.0 keV (max.) beta

Monitoring for contamination swabs counted by liquidscintillation



Contamination skin dose (dispersed 1cm2) negligible

Contamination skin dose (droplet 0.05ml) negligible

Maximum range in air 6 mm

Maximum range in water 6 x 10-3 mm

Beta Shielding required none



Annual limit on intake for 6mSv (water) 333.2 MBq


Tritium, because of its low beta-energy, cannot be monitored directly;therefore regular monitoring by counting swabs should be undertaken inareas where this nuclide is used.

Appropriate gloves should be worn. DNA precursors e.g. tritiatedthymidine are regarded as more toxic than tritiated water partly becausethe activity is concentrated into cell nuclei.

Experiments involving the use of activities in excess of 50 MBq should becarried out in a Controlled Radiation Area, and all other experiments in aSupervised Radiation Area.

It should be noted that tritium is highly labile and will readily exchange withhydrogen in other materials. In particular, the ice build-up infridges/freezers containing tritiated compounds should be regularlychecked for tritium content. The fridges/freezers should be regularly de-frosted and any contaminated melt-water disposed of down a sinkdesignated for the disposal of aqueous radioactive waste and recordedappropriately. The long-term storage of tritiated compounds in plasticmaterials is not recommended since tritium may exchange with thehydrogen in the plastic.

Indium-111 (In-111)


Principal emission 171 keV, 245 kEV gamma


Dose rate at 30cm from 1MBq point source 0.994 Sv.h-1 gammas






Gamma First Half-value layer/thickness <1 mm lead



Iodine-123 (I-123)

Radioactive half-life 13.2 hours

Principal emission gamma (159 keV/)

Monitoring for contamination Scintillation

Dose rate at 30cm from 1MBq point source 516 Sv.h-1 gammas

Dose rate at 100 cm from 1MBq 10ml in vial 0.034 Sv.h-1









Iodine-125 (I-125)



Monitoring for contamination Scintillation detector: 44B/900

Dose rate at 30cm from 1MBq point source 0.39 Sv.h-1







Gamma First Half-value layer/thickness 1mm lead

Gamma First Tenth-value layer/thickness 1mm lead



Volatilization of iodine is the most significant problem with this isotope.Merely opening a vial of sodium iodide at high radioactive concentrationcan cause minute droplets of up to 100Bq to become airborne. Solutionscontaining iodide ions should not be made acidic nor stored frozen: bothlead to formation of volatile elemental iodine.

Do not store radio-isotopes in refrigerators or freezers located in corridors.

All gamma emitters must be properly shielded at all times. Lead containersand shields must be used and stored away from other work areas andoffices. The back and sides of the working area must be shielded as well asthe front and care must be taken to ensure that the shielding is of adequateheight.

As some iodo-compounds can penetrate surgical rubber gloves it isadvisable to wear two pairs. When dispensing radioiodine into labellingreactions, the outer pair should be discarded after the containers havebeen resealed or if you suspect the outer pair is contaminated.

In the event of suspected or actual significant contamination of personnelthe thyroid should be monitored; see LR - Neck Uptake Measurements onWorkers Using 125I for Protein Labelling.

Tracer radioiodine work, (RIA kits are usually <370 kBq), should always becarried out in designated radiation areas over a tray lined with absorbentdisposable material to provide containment in the event of a spillage.

Clothing and exposed skin must be monitored at frequent intervals duringan experiment to ensure that there has been no radioactive contamination.Contaminated gloves must be changed immediately and hands monitoredbefore resuming work. If laboratory coats, skin or any part of personalclothing becomes contaminated, the RPS must be informed immediately.To minimise the spread of possible contamination, avoid touching doorhandles, phones, skin, taps, pens or other articles to be taken out of thelaboratory whilst handling the radionuclide.

Before leaving the work area at the end of an experiment, contaminationmonitoring must be carried out, to ensure no spills have occurred. Spillsmust be dealt with immediately. To render any spilled iodine-125chemically stable, the area of the spill should be treated with alkalinesodium thiosulphate solution prior to commencing decontamination.

Iodine-131 (I-131)

Radioactive half-life 8 days



Dose rate at 30cm from 1MBq point source 86 Sv.h-1 betas, 0.73 Sv.h-1

gammas




Maximum range in air 165 cm (beta)

Maximum range in water 2.2 mm (beta) approx.






Volatilization of iodine is the most significant problem with this isotope.Merely opening a vial of sodium iodide at high radioactive concentrationcan cause minute droplets of up to 100Bq to become airborne. Solutionscontaining iodide ions should not be made acidic nor stored frozen: bothlead to formation of volatile elemental iodine.

As some iodo-compounds can penetrate surgical rubber gloves it isadvisable to wear two pairs. When dispensing radioiodine into labellingreactions, the outer pair should be discarded after the containers havebeen resealed or if you suspect the outer pair is contaminated.

Iron-59 (Fe-59)



Monitoring for contamination Scintillation or Geiger-Mullerdetector

Dose rate at 30 cm from 1 MBq point source 34.6 µSv.h-1 betas, 1.9 Sv.h-1gammas

Dose rate at 1 m from 1 MBq 10 ml in vial 0.16 µSv.h-1

Contamination skin dose (dispersed 1 cm2) 0.97 mSv.h-1 per kBq

Contamination skin dose (droplet 0.05 ml) 0.30 mSv.h-1 per kBq

Maximum range in air 150 cm betas

Maximum range in water 1.6 mm betas

Beta shielding required 1.6 mm Perspex (total betas)

Gamma first half-value layer/thickness 15 mm lead

Gamma first tenth-value layer/thickness 45 mm lead

Annual limit on intake for 6 mSv 3.3 MBq (ingestion)


Avoid skin contamination, use double gloves – all direct contact with Fe-59must be avoided.

Use lead shielding to minimise exposure whilst handling Fe-59. A Perspexbeta shield will provide no protection from the gamma emissions.

Use tools (e.g. tongs, forceps) to remotely handle and manipulate Fe-59sources.

The beta dose rate at 30 cm from 1 MBq is the skin dose rate, the gammadose rate is the deep

Phosphorus-32 (P-32)



Monitoring for contamination Geiger-Muller detector

Dose rate at 30cm from 1MBq point source 120 Svh-1

Dose rate at 1m from 1MBq 10ml in vial 0.0013 Svh-1

Contamination skin dose (dispersed 1cm2) 1.9 mSvh-1per kBq

Contamination skin dose (droplet 0.05ml) 1.3 mSvh-1 per kBq


Maximum range in water 0.8 cm






Phosphorus-32 is the highest energy radionuclide commonly encounteredin research laboratories and therefore requires special care. Avoidexposure e.g. hold tubes containing even small quantities of 32P with tongsor forceps or use a stand.

If quantities greater than a few tens of MBq are used finger dosimetersshould be worn, body badges alone may fail to indicate high dose to thefinger tips. Even with low-density materials (for example,Perspex/Plexiglas) the absorption of the beta-particles gives rise torelatively high energy Bremsstrahlung which may require some leadshielding when quantities greater than a few hundred MBq are beinghandled.

Phosphorus-33 (P-33)



Monitoring for contamination Geiger-Muller detector (e.g. MiniInstruments type 900 counterwith EP15 tube)

Dose rate at 30cm from 1MBq point source 0 mSv.h-1

Dose rate at 1m from 1MBq 10ml in vial 0 mSv.h-1 (n.b. Bremsstrahlung)




Maximum range in water 0.6 mm (approx)

Beta Shielding required 0.5 mm plastic


Gamma First-Tenth value layer/thickness n/a

Annual limit on intake for 6mSv 4.4MBq

Rubidium-86 (Rb-86)


Principal emission beta 1774 keV, gamma 1077 keV

Monitoring for contamination Geiger preferred, Scintillation willwork




Contamination skin dose (droplet 0.05ml) 1.2 mSv.h-1 per kBq

Maximum range in air 640 cm beta

Maximum range in water 8 mm beta






The dose rates due to energetic beta radiation can be much higher thatdose rates due to gamma radiation from unshielded 86Rb, the betas causeBremsstrahlung therefore place perspex inside the lead shielding. Avoiddirect eye exposure by interposing transparent shields (perspex) or indirectviewing.

However if a Perspex lining is not available, use of the above lead shieldingshould be sufficient to reduce betas as well as the gammas.

Sodium-22 (Na-22)




Dose rate at 30cm from 1MBq point source 100 Sv.h-1 (betas), 3.6 Sv.h-1

(gammas)




Maximum range in air 140 cm (betas)

Maximum range in water 1.85 mm (approx)





Sulphur-35 (S-35)



Monitoring for contamination Thin end-window Geiger-Mullerdetector. (e.g. Mini Instrumentstype 900 counter with EP15 tube)



Contamination skin dose (dispersed 1cm2) 350 Svhr-1 per kBq

Contamination skin dose (droplet 0.05ml) 4.1 Svhr-1 per kBq



Beta Shielding required 3 mm Perspex





35S may be difficult to distinguish from 14C because the beta emissions areof a similar energy, if they are being used in the same area you will need toestablish controls to prevent confusion.

Care needs to be taken not to generate sulphur dioxide or hydrogensulphide which could be inhaled.

PCR/thermal-cycling procedures may cause 35S to migrate through thereaction tubes from whence it may contaminate the thermal cyclingequipment and/or be released as a vapour.

Vials should be opened and used in ventilated enclosures.

Technetium-99m (Tc-99m)



Monitoring for contamination Scintillation

Dose rate at 30cm from 1MBq point source 261Svhr-1

Dose rate at 1m from 1MBq 10ml in vial 2.2Svhr-1background

Contamination skin dose (dispersed 1cm2) 246 Svhr-1 per kBq

Contamination skin dose (droplet 0.05ml) 8.8 Svhr-1 per kBq



Beta Shielding required 3 mm Perspex

Gamma First Half-value layer/thickness <1

Gamma First Tenth-value layer/thickness 1


Xenon-133 (Xe-133)


Principal emission 346 keV beta, 81 keV and 31 keVgamma

Monitoring for contamination Geiger



Contamination skin dose (dispersed 1cm2) n/a

Contamination skin dose (droplet 0.05ml) n/a


Maximum range in water 1 mm





Zirconium-89 (Zr-89)







Contamination skin dose (droplet 0.05ml) 240 Sv.h-1per kBq







Safety Services Reference(s):

Commonly used Radionuclides

First Published January 1999

Reviewed November 2016

Documents

Handling Commonly Used Radionuclides · 2019. 2. 4. · Monitoring for contamination Thin end-window Geiger-Muller detector (e.g. Mini Instruments type 900 counter with EP15 tube)