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KNOTT’S
HANDBOOK FOR
VEGETABLE GROWERS
FIFTH EDITION
Knott’s Handbook for Vegetable Growers, Fifth Edition. D. N. Maynard and G. J. Hochmuth© 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-73828-2
KNOTT’S
HANDBOOK FORVEGETABLE GROWERS
FIFTH EDITION
DONALD N. MAYNARD
University of FloridaWimauma, Florida
GEORGE J. HOCHMUTH
University of FloridaGainesville, Florida
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
This book is printed on acid-free paper. ��
Copyright � 2007 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New JerseyPublished simultaneously in Canada
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in anyform or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise,except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, withouteither the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of theappropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers,MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requeststo the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley &Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, e-mail:[email protected].
Limit of Liability / Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their bestefforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to theaccuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any impliedwarranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created orextended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies containedherein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional whereappropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any othercommercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or otherdamages.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:Maynard, Donald N., 1932–
Knott’s handbook for vegetable growers / Donald N. Maynard. George J.Hochmuth.—5th ed.
p. cm.Includes bibliographical references.ISBN-13: 978-0471-73828-2ISBN-10: 0-471-73828-X
1. Truck farming—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Vegetables—Handbooks,manuals, etc. 3. Vegetable gardening—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title:Handbook for vegetable growers. II. Hochmuth, George J. (George Joseph) III.Knott, James Edward, 1897– Handbook for vegetable growers. IV. Title.
SB321.M392 2006635—dc22
2006000893
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS
PREFACE xiii
PART 1—VEGETABLES AND THE VEGETABLEINDUSTRY 1
01 BOTANICAL NAMES OF VEGETABLESNAMES OF VEGETABLES IN NINELANGUAGES
02 EDIBLE FLOWERS
03 U.S. VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
04 CONSUMPTION OF VEGETABLES IN THEU.S.
05 WORLD VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
06 NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OFVEGETABLES
PART 2—PLANT GROWING AND GREENHOUSEVEGETABLE PRODUCTION 55
TRANSPLANT PRODUCTION
01 PLANT GROWING CONTAINERS
vi
02 SEEDS AND SEEDING
03 TEMPERATURE AND TIMEREQUIREMENTS
04 PLANT GROWING MIXES
05 SOIL STERILIZATION
06 FERTILIZING AND IRRIGATINGTRANSPLANTS
07 PLANT GROWING PROBLEMS
08 CONDITIONING TRANSPLANTS
09 ADDITIONAL TRANSPLANTPRODUCTION WEBSITES ANDREFERENCES
GREENHOUSE CROP PRODUCTION
10 CULTURAL MANAGEMENT
11 CARBON DIOXIDE ENRICHMENT
12 SOILLESS CULTURE
13 NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS
14 TISSUE COMPOSITION
15 ADDITIONAL SOURCES OFINFORMATION ON GREENHOUSEVEGETABLES
PART 3—FIELD PLANTING 103
01 TEMPERATURES FOR VEGETABLES
02 SCHEDULING SUCCESSIVE PLANTINGS
03 TIME REQUIRED FOR SEEDLINGEMERGENCE
vii
04 SEED REQUIREMENTS
05 PLANTING RATES FOR LARGE SEEDS
06 SPACING OF VEGETABLES
07 PRECISION SEEDING
08 SEED PRIMING
09 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
10 POLYETHYLENE MULCHES
11 ROW COVERS
12 WINDBREAKS
13 ADDITIONAL SOURCES OFINFORMATION ON PLASTICULTURE
PART 4—SOILS AND FERTILIZERS 143
01 NUTRIENT BEST MANAGEMENTPRACTICES
02 ORGANIC MATTER
03 SOIL-IMPROVING CROPS
04 MANURES
05 SOIL TEXTURE
06 SOIL REACTION
07 SALINITY
08 FERTILIZERS
09 FERTILIZER CONVERSION FACTORS
10 NUTRIENT ABSORPTION
11 PLANT ANALYSIS
viii
12 SOIL TESTS
13 NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES
14 MICRONUTRIENTS
15 FERTILIZER DISTRIBUTORS
PART 5—WATER AND IRRIGATION 249
01 SUGGESTIONS ON SUPPLYING WATERTO VEGETABLES
02 ROOTING OF VEGETABLES
03 SOIL MOISTURE
04 SURFACE IRRIGATION
05 OVERHEAD IRRIGATION
06 DRIP OR TRICKLE IRRIGATION
07 WATER QUALITY
PART 6—VEGETABLE PESTS AND PROBLEMS 309
01 AIR POLLUTION
02 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
03 SOIL SOLARIZATION
04 PESTICIDE USE PRECAUTIONS
05 PESTICIDE APPLICATION ANDEQUIPMENT
06 VEGETABLE SEED TREATMENT
07 NEMATODES
08 DISEASES
09 INSECTS
ix
10 PEST MANAGEMENT IN ORGANICPRODUCTION SYSTEMS
11 WILDLIFE CONTROL
PART 7—WEED MANAGEMENT 389
01 WEED MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
02 WEED IDENTIFICATION
03 NOXIOUS WEEDS
04 WEED CONTROL IN ORGANIC FARMING
05 COVER CROPS AND ROTATION IN WEEDMANAGEMENT
06 HERBICIDES
07 WEED CONTROL RECOMMENDATIONS
PART 8—HARVESTING, HANDLING,AND STORAGE 401
01 FOOD SAFETY
02 GENERAL POSTHARVEST HANDLINGPROCEDURES
03 PREDICTING HARVEST DATES ANDYIELDS
04 COOLING VEGETABLES
05 VEGETABLE STORAGE
06 CHILLING AND ETHYLENE INJURY
07 POSTHARVEST DISEASES
08 VEGETABLE QUALITY
09 U.S. STANDARDS FOR VEGETABLES
x
10 MINIMALLY PROCESSED VEGETABLES
11 CONTAINERS FOR VEGETABLES
12 VEGETABLE MARKETING
PART 9—VEGETABLE SEEDS 503
01 SEED LABELS
02 SEED GERMINATION TESTS
03 SEED GERMINATION STANDARDS
04 SEED PRODUCTION
05 SEED YIELDS
06 SEED STORAGE
07 VEGETABLE VARIETIES
08 VEGETABLE SEED SOURCES
PART 10—APPENDIX 541
01 SOURCES OF VEGETABLEINFORMATION
02 PERIODICALS FOR VEGETABLEGROWERS
03 U.S. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
04 CONVERSION FACTORS FOR U.S. UNITS
05 METRIC UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
06 CONVERSION FACTORS FOR SI ANDNON SI UNITS
07 CONVERSIONS FOR RATES OFAPPLICATION
xi
08 WATER AND SOIL SOLUTIONCONVERSION FACTORS
09 HEAT AND ENERGY EQUIVALENTS ANDDEFINITIONS
INDEX 565
PREFACE
The pace of change in our personal and business livescontinues to accelerate at an ever increasing rate.Accordingly, it is necessary to periodically updateinformation in a long-running reference such as Handbookfor Vegetable Growers. Our goal in this revision is to provideup-to-date information on vegetable crops for growers,students, extension personnel, crop consultants, and allthose concerned with commercial production and marketingof vegetables.
Where possible, information in the Fourth Edition hasbeen updated or replaced with current information. Newtechnical information has been added on World VegetableProduction, Best Management Practices, Organic CropProduction, Food Safety, Pesticide Safety, PostharvestDiseases, and Minimally Processed Vegetables. The Internethas become a valuable source of information since 1997.Hundreds of websites relating to vegetables are included inthis edition and are available online at www.wiley.com/college/Knotts.
We are grateful to our colleagues who have providedmaterials, reviewed portions of the manuscript, andencouraged us in this revision. We especially acknowledgethe assistance of Brian Benson, California Asparagus Seedand Transplants, Inc.; George Boyhan, University of Georgia;
xiv
Wallace Chasson, Florida Department of Agriculture andConsumer Services; Steve Grattan, University of California;Tim Hartz, University of California; Richard Hassell,Clemson University; Larry Hollar, Hollar and Company;Adel Kader, University of California; Tom Moore, Harris-Moran Seed Co.; Stu Pettygrove, University of California;Steven Sargent, University of Florida; Pieter Vandenberg,Seminis Vegetable Seeds; and Jim Watkins, Nunhems USA.
We appreciate the outstanding assistance provided byWiley editor Jim Harper, Senior Production Editor MillieTorres, and the attention to details and good humor in thepreparation of this manuscript by Gail Maynard.
We hope that Handbook for Vegetable Growers willcontinue to be the timely and useful reference for those withinterest in vegetable crops envisioned by Dr. J. E. Knottwhen it was first published in 1956. James E. Knott (1897–1977) was a Massachusetts native. He earned a B.S. degreeat Rhode Island State College and an M.S. and Ph.D. atCornell University. After distinguished faculty andadministrative service at Pennsylvania State College andCornell University he moved to the University of California,Davis, where he was administrator of the Vegetable CropsDepartment from 1940 to 1964. The department grew innumbers and stature to be one of the world’s best vegetablecenters. Dr. Knott was president of the American Society forHorticultural Science in 1948 and was made a Fellow in1965.
Oscar A. Lorenz (1914–1994), senior author of the SecondEdition (1980) and the Third Edition (1988) of Handbook forVegetable Growers, was a native of Colorado. He earned aB.S. degree from Colorado State College and a Ph.D. fromCornell University before joining the University ofCalifornia, Davis faculty in 1941. For the next 41 years hewas an esteemed scientist and administrator at both theRiverside and Davis campuses. His research on vegetable
xv
crops nutrition was the first to establish the relationshipbetween soil fertility, leaf nutrient composition, and yield.This concept has been used successfully by growersthroughout the world. Oscar was recognized as a Fellow ofthe American Society for Horticultural Science and of theAmerican Society of Agronomy and Soil Science Society ofAmerica, and received numerous industry awards. He was afriend to all and a personal mentor to me. (DNM)
DONALD N. MAYNARDGEORGE J. HOCHMUTH
PART 1VEGETABLES AND THEVEGETABLE INDUSTRY
01 BOTANICAL NAMES OF VEGETABLESNAMES OF VEGETABLES IN NINE LANGUAGES
02 EDIBLE FLOWERS
03 U.S. VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
04 CONSUMPTION OF VEGETABLES IN THE U.S.
05 WORLD VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
06 NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES
Knott’s Handbook for Vegetable Growers, Fifth Edition. D. N. Maynard and G. J. Hochmuth© 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-73828-2
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osco
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ese
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ger
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izom
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oot
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US
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ris
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gsh
oot,
leaf
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S.
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reR
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Lea
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izoa
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RP
ET
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ED
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mcr
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um
L.
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plan
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eaf
Tet
rago
nia
tetr
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all.)
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ntz
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eala
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ach
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der
shoo
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dle
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anth
acea
eA
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RA
NT
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ILY
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ern
anth
era
phil
oxer
oid
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arti
us)
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seb.
All
igat
orw
eed,
Jose
ph’s
coat
You
ng
top
Alt
ern
anth
era
sess
ilis
(L.)
R.
Br.
Ses
sile
alte
rnan
ther
aYo
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gto
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7
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aran
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mar
anth
us,
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pala
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der
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af,
spro
ute
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elos
iasp
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ocks
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eaf
and
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der
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eae
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OT
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lica
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lica
L.
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geli
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rsh
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and
leaf
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geli
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i(M
iq.)
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nes
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rsh
oot
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leaf
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ill.)
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eler
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leaf
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um
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ns
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ill.)
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d.C
eler
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acac
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uvi
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ente
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tica
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icpe
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tL
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onC
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roph
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bero
us
cher
vil
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oria
nd
rum
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vum
L.
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ian
der
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fan
dse
edC
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otae
nia
japo
nic
aH
assk
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pan
ese
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nw
ort
Lea
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aucu
sca
rota
L.
subs
p.sa
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s(H
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rcan
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arro
tR
oot
and
leaf
Foe
nic
ulu
mvu
lgar
eva
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ler)
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ell.
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nel
Lea
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lce
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nce
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nel
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nia
litt
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m.
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Lea
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root
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tyle
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hor
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des
Lam
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gsh
oot
and
leaf
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rhis
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ata
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p.G
arde
nm
yrrh
Lea
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and
seed
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anth
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ica
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me)
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rien
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ry,
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ort
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oot
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leaf
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rose
lin
um
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pum
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l.)N
ym.
var.
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sley
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fP
etro
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nu
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m(M
ill.)
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bero
sum
Tu
rnip
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ted
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ley
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dle
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ill.)
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nu
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rsle
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AL
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ILY
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lia
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ata
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un
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OT
AN
ICA
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ES
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MM
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ME
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ND
ED
IBL
EP
AR
TS
OF
PL
AN
TS
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ED
AS
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Bot
anic
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ame
Com
mon
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eE
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lan
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art
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lia
elat
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ese
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gle
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ster
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OW
ER
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ren
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axim
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ai)
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un
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iden
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ng
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itlo
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ipsa
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im.)
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sum
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obou
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iR
oot
Cos
mos
cau
dat
us
Ku
nth
Cos
mos
Lea
fan
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gsh
oot
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ssoc
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alu
mbi
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iern
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oore
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rra
Leo
ne
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gni
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ng
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dle
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rass
ocep
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um
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idio
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th.)
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reH
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gsh
oot
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ara
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culu
sL
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ardo
onP
etio
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ynar
asc
olym
us
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bear
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oke
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atu
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ower
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ilia
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olia
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mil
ia,
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ctu
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ng
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dle
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arfu
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etio
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edia
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uco
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orn
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ican
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rian
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9
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ng
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ynu
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ng
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ild
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cc.)
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im.
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tter
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iole
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ymn
iaso
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ifol
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.&
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lym
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icu
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leaf
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us
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ula
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L.
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tted
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ica
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leaf
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chu
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lan
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rr.
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cres
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gle
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esci
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asca
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ng
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C.
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ang
You
ng
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oot
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uch
ium
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gan
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ora
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itte
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gsh
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ale
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gers
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ifol
ius
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sify
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ster
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gle
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ng
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ern
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amyg
dal
ina
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ile.
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ter
leaf
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ng
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aeB
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EL
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FA
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Y
10
TA
BL
E1.
1.B
OT
AN
ICA
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ES
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MM
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ME
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ND
ED
IBL
EP
AR
TS
OF
PL
AN
TS
US
ED
AS
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Bot
anic
alN
ame
Com
mon
Nam
eE
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lan
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art
Bas
ella
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L.
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alab
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inac
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ng
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t
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bero
sus
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ano
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uco
Tu
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agin
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OR
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EF
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ILY
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ago
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alis
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age
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iole
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phyt
um
offi
cin
ale
L.
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mon
com
frey
Lea
fan
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nde
rsh
oot
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phyt
um
�u
plan
dic
um
Nym
anR
uss
ian
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frey
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ng
leaf
and
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rass
icac
eae
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ST
AR
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ILY
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orac
iaru
stic
ana
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rtn
.,M
ey.,
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erb.
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sera
dish
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t,le
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spro
ute
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ill.)
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her
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plan
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ess
Lea
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nat
aA
.B
rau
nA
byss
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nm
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ard
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rass
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rnj.
&C
oss.
var.
capi
tata
Hor
t.C
apit
ata
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star
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Bra
ssic
aju
nce
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.)C
zern
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cau
lus
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enan
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ng
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boo
shoo
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ust
ard
Ste
m
Bra
ssic
aju
nce
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.)C
zern
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foli
aB
aile
yC
url
edm
ust
ard
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f
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ssic
aju
nce
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.)C
zern
j.&
Cos
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lios
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mal
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ust
ard
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f
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ssic
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nce
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.)C
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ifer
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ust
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11
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ssic
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nce
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.)C
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volu
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ng
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ite-
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ssic
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.)C
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lia
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em
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ard
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lon
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tiol
ata
Yan
g&
Ch
enL
ong-
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ole
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ssic
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nce
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.)C
zern
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rou
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oted
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star
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oot
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ssic
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nce
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.)C
zern
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ult
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ille
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ssic
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nce
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.)C
zern
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ult
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ssic
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nce
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.)C
zern
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Bai
ley
Bro
wn
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ust
ard
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Lea
f
Bra
ssic
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nce
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.)C
zern
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ata
Tse
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Lee
Str
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tem
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ssic
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.)C
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mid
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sen
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man
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Bra
ssic
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nce
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.)C
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Cos
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iP
endu
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ng
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ssic
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r.n
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rass
ica
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Ru
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ssic
an
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r.n
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eget
able
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us
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C.)
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over
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ssic
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igra
L.
Koc
h.
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ckm
ust
ard
Lea
fB
rass
ica
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acea
L.
var.
acep
hal
aD
C.
Kal
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llar
dsL
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12
TA
BL
E1.
1.B
OT
AN
ICA
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AM
ES
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MM
ON
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ME
S,A
ND
ED
IBL
EP
AR
TS
OF
PL
AN
TS
US
ED
AS
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Bot
anic
alN
ame
Com
mon
Nam
eE
dibl
eP
lan
tP
art
Bra
ssic
aol
erac
eaL
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r.al
bogl
abra
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ley
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ines
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leYo
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gfl
ower
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kan
dle
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var.
botr
ytis
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Imm
atu
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Cab
bage
Lea
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L.
var.
cost
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ortu
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onch
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age
Lea
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nce
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ssic
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eaL
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r.ge
mm
ifer
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tsA
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ary
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nck
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atu
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Mar
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Lea
fB
rass
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L.
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osa
Ale
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hou
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sis
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pr.)
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son
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choi
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ese
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ley)
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son
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para
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our.
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lsso
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age,
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C.)
Met
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ssic
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C.)
Met
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esen
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lm
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ard
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ng
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dam
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uck
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ng
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arta
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atu
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Wh
ite
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star
dL
eaf
and
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ng
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abia
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nic
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iq.)
Mat
sum
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i,Ja
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ese
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sera
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Rh
izom
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gsh
oot
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omba
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ILY
FA
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rase
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LL
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tle
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ER
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ome
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iske
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uit
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BL
E1.
1.B
OT
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ES
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MM
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ND
ED
IBL
EP
AR
TS
OF
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AN
TS
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ED
AS
VE
GE
TA
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ES
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tin
ued
)
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anic
alN
ame
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mon
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eE
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ryL
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ld.
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chra
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uss
ian
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tle
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gsh
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sola
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ng
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mon
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leaf
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ant
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ula
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BIN
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EE
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ILY
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icu
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hu
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ind
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omoe
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ong
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der
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dle
afIp
omoe
aba
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s(L
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am.
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eet
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oot
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ssu
lace
aeO
RP
INE
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YS
edu
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rmen
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mB
urg
eS
edu
mL
eaf
Cu
curb
itac
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GO
UR
DF
AM
ILY
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inca
sah
ispi
da
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un
b.)
Cog
n.
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gou
rdIm
mat
ure
/mat
ure
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it
15
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rull
us
lan
atu
s(T
hu
nb.
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atsu
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ater
mel
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ipe
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oid
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itro
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pres
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ruit
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is(L
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oigt
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raF
ruit
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oot,
leaf
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cum
erop
sis
man
nii
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din
Wh
ite-
seed
edm
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itan
dse
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ucu
mis
angu
ria
L.
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tIn
dian
gher
kin
Imm
atu
refr
uit
Cu
cum
ism
elo
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talo
upe
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sgr
oup
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talo
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itC
ucu
mis
mel
oL
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hit
ogr
oup
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goF
ruit
Cu
cum
ism
elo
L.
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omon
grou
pO
rien
tal
pick
lin
gm
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You
ng
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itC
ucu
mis
mel
oL
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lexu
osu
sgr
oup
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nes
ecu
cum
ber,
snak
em
elon
Imm
atu
refr
uit
Cu
cum
ism
elo
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oru
sgr
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eyde
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elon
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saba
mel
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ruit
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oup
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skm
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upe
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Rip
efr
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cum
ism
etu
life
rus
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din
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ican
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issa
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ma
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ber
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it
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nt
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ter
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Mat
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ed
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ita
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uch
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uit
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atu
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lan
ther
ape
dat
a(L
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chra
der
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ped
ata
Pep
ino
Imm
atu
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uit
16
TA
BL
E1.
1.B
OT
AN
ICA
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AM
ES
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MM
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ME
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ND
ED
IBL
EP
AR
TS
OF
PL
AN
TS
US
ED
AS
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Bot
anic
alN
ame
Com
mon
Nam
eE
dibl
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lan
tP
art
Lag
enar
iasi
cera
ria
(Mol
.)S
tan
dl.
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tle
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rd,
cala
bash
gou
rdIm
mat
ure
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it,
ten
der
shoo
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dle
afL
uff
aac
uta
ngu
la(L
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oxb.
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gled
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uff
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iaca
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ler
Sm
ooth
loof
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spon
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urd
Imm
atu
refr
uit
and
leaf
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ord
ica
char
anti
aL
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itte
rgo
urd
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lsam
pear
Imm
atu
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uit
and
you
ng
leaf
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ecit
rull
us
fist
ulo
sus
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cks)
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g.S
quas
hm
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itS
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ium
edu
le(J
acq.
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tz.
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ayot
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ton
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ble
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it,
ten
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ican
aod
orif
era
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l.)N
audi
nC
asab
anan
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mat
ure
/mat
ure
fru
itT
elfa
iria
occi
den
tali
sH
ook.
f.F
lute
dgo
urd
,flu
ted
pum
pkin
See
d,le
af,
ten
der
shoo
tT
elfa
iria
ped
ata
(Sm
ith
exS
ims)
Hoo
k.O
yste
rn
ut
See
dT
rich
osan
thes
cucu
mer
ina
L.
var.
angu
inea
(L.)
Hai
nes
Sn
ake
gou
rdIm
mat
ure
fru
it,
leaf
,an
dte
nde
rsh
oot
Tri
chos
anth
escu
cum
eroi
ds
(Ser
.)M
axim
.Ja
pan
ese
snak
ego
urd
Imm
atu
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uit
Tri
chos
anth
esd
ioic
aR
oxb.
Poi
nte
dgo
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Imm
atu
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uit
,te
nde
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oot
Eu
phor
biac
eae
SP
UR
GE
FA
MIL
Y
17
Cn
idos
colu
sac
onit
ifol
ius
(Mil
ler)
Joh
nst
onC
hay
aL
eaf
Cn
idos
colu
sch
ayam
ansa
Mc
Vau
ghn
Ch
aya
Lea
fC
odia
eum
vari
egat
um
(L.)
Blu
me
Cro
ton
You
ng
leaf
Man
ihot
escu
len
taC
ran
tzY
uca
,ca
ssav
a,m
anio
cR
oot
and
leaf
Sau
ropu
san
dro
gyn
us
(L.)
Mer
r.C
omm
onsa
uro
pus
Lea
fFa
bace
aeP
EA
FA
MIL
YA
rach
ish
ypog
aea
L.
Pea
nu
t,gr
oun
dnu
tIm
mat
ure
/mat
ure
seed
Bau
hin
iaes
cule
nta
Bu
rch
ell
Mar
ama
bean
Imm
atu
repo
dan
dro
otC
ajan
us
caja
n(L
.)H
uth
.C
ajan
pea,
pige
onpe
aIm
mat
ure
pod
/lea
fC
anav
alia
ensi
form
is(L
.)D
C.
Jack
bean
,hor
sebe
anIm
mat
ure
seed
Can
aval
iagl
adia
ta(J
acq.
)D
C.
Sw
ord
bean
,h
orse
bean
Imm
atu
rese
edC
icer
arie
tin
um
L.
Gar
ban
zo,c
hic
kpea
See
dC
yam
posi
ste
trag
onol
oba
(L.)
Tau
b.C
lust
erbe
an,
guar
Imm
atu
repo
dan
dse
edF
lem
ingi
ave
stit
aB
enth
.ex
Bak
.F
lem
ingi
aT
ube
rG
lyci
ne
max
(L.)
Mer
r.S
oybe
anIm
mat
ure
and
spro
ute
dse
edL
abla
bpu
rpu
rus
(L.)
Sw
eet.
Hya
cin
thbe
anIm
mat
ure
seed
Lat
hyr
us
sati
vus
L.
Ch
ickl
ing
pea
Imm
atu
repo
d/s
eed
Lat
hyr
us
tube
rosu
sL
.G
rou
ndn
ut
Tu
ber
Len
scu
lin
aris
Med
iku
sL
enti
lIm
mat
ure
pod,
spro
ute
dse
edL
upi
nu
ssp
p.L
upi
nS
eed
Mac
roty
lom
age
ocar
pum
(Har
ms)
Mar
ech
alan
dB
aude
tH
ausa
grou
ndn
ut
See
d
Mac
roty
lom
au
nifl
oru
m(L
am.)
Ver
dc.
Hor
segr
amS
eed
18
TA
BL
E1.
1.B
OT
AN
ICA
LN
AM
ES
,CO
MM
ON
NA
ME
S,A
ND
ED
IBL
EP
AR
TS
OF
PL
AN
TS
US
ED
AS
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Bot
anic
alN
ame
Com
mon
Nam
eE
dibl
eP
lan
tP
art
Med
icag
osa
tiva
L.
Alf
alfa
,lu
cern
eL
eaf,
you
ng
shoo
t,sp
rou
ted
seed
Mu
cun
apr
uri
ens
(L.)
DC
.B
uff
alo
bean
,ve
lvet
bean
See
dN
eptu
nia
oler
acea
Lou
r.W
ater
mim
osa
Lea
fan
dte
nde
rsh
oot
Pac
hyr
hiz
us
ahip
a(W
edd.
)P
arod
iYa
mbe
anR
oot
Pac
hyr
hiz
us
eros
us
(L.)
Urb
anJi
cam
a,M
exic
anya
mbe
anR
oot,
imm
atu
repo
d,an
dse
edP
ach
yrh
izu
stu
bero
sus
(Lam
.)S
pren
gel
Pot
ato
bean
Roo
tan
dim
mat
ure
pod
Ph
aseo
lus
acu
tifo
liu
sA
.G
ray
Tep
ary
bean
See
d,im
mat
ure
pod
Ph
aseo
lus
cocc
ineu
sL
.S
carl
etru
nn
erbe
anIm
mat
ure
pod
and
seed
Ph
aseo
lus
lun
atu
sL
.L
ima
bean
Imm
atu
rese
ed,
mat
ure
seed
Ph
aseo
lus
vulg
aris
L.
Gar
den
bean
,sn
apbe
anIm
mat
ure
pod
and
seed
Pis
um
sati
vum
L.
ssp.
sati
vum
Pea
,ga
rden
pea
Imm
atu
rese
ed,
ten
der
shoo
tP
isu
msa
tivu
mL
.ss
p.sa
tivu
mf.
mac
roca
rpon
Sn
owpe
a,ed
ible
-pod
ded
pea
Imm
atu
repo
dP
soph
ocar
pus
tetr
agon
olob
us
(L.)
DC
.G
oabe
an,
win
ged
bean
Imm
atu
repo
d,se
ed,
leaf
,ro
ot
19
Pu
erar
ialo
bata
(Wil
ld.)
Oh
wi
Ku
dzu
Roo
t,le
af,
ten
der
shoo
tS
phen
osty
lis
sten
ocar
pa(H
och
st.
ex.
A.
Ric
h.)
Har
ms.
Afr
ican
yam
bean
Tu
ber
and
seed
Tet
rago
nol
obu
spu
rpu
reu
sM
oen
chA
spar
agu
spe
a,w
inge
dpe
aIm
mat
ure
pod
Tri
gon
ella
foen
um
-gra
ecu
mL
.F
enu
gree
kL
eaf,
ten
der
shoo
t,im
mat
ure
pod
Vic
iafa
baL
.Fa
vabe
an,
broa
dbe
an,
hor
sebe
anIm
mat
ure
seed
Vig
na
acon
itif
olia
(Jac
q.)
Mar
ech
alM
oth
bean
Imm
atu
repo
dan
dse
edV
ign
aan
gula
ris
(Wil
ld.)
Oh
wi
&O
has
hi
Adz
uki
bean
See
dV
ign
am
un
go(L
.)H
eppe
rB
lack
gram
,u
rdIm
mat
ure
pod
and
seed
Vig
na
rad
iata
(L.)
Wil
cz.
Mu
ng
bean
Imm
atu
repo
d,sp
rou
ted
seed
,se
edV
ign
asu
bter
ran
ea(L
.)V
erdn
.M
adag
asca
rgr
oun
dnu
tIm
mat
ure
/mat
ure
seed
Vig
na
um
bell
ata
(Th
un
b.)
Oh
wi
&O
has
hi
Ric
ebe
anS
eed
Vig
na
un
guic
ula
ta(L
.)W
alp.
subs
p.cy
lin
dri
ca(L
.)V
anE
selt
.ex
Ver
dn.
Cat
jan
gIm
mat
ure
pod
and
seed
Vig
na
un
guic
ula
ta(L
.)W
alp.
subs
p.se
squ
iped
alis
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arag
us
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ong
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Imm
atu
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dan
dse
edV
ign
au
ngu
icu
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(L.)
Wal
p.su
bsp.
un
guic
ula
ta(L
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outh
ern
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cow
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atu
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dan
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edG
net
acea
eG
NE
TU
MF
AM
ILY
Gn
etu
mgn
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L.
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cko
Lea
f,te
nde
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oot
and
fru
itH
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agac
eae
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TE
RM
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MIL
Y
20
TA
BL
E1.
1.B
OT
AN
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AM
ES
,CO
MM
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ME
S,A
ND
ED
IBL
EP
AR
TS
OF
PL
AN
TS
US
ED
AS
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Bot
anic
alN
ame
Com
mon
Nam
eE
dibl
eP
lan
tP
art
Myr
ioph
yllu
maq
uat
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m(V
ello
zo)
Ver
dc.
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rot’s
feat
her
Sh
oot
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Icac
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eae
ICA
CIN
AF
AM
ILY
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ina
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egal
ensi
sA
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ss.
Fals
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mT
ube
rL
amia
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MIN
TF
AM
ILY
Lyc
opu
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us
Tu
rcz.
Sh
iny
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ome
Men
tha
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giu
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enn
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alm
int
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icat
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arle
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and
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ores
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um
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s.H
oary
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lYo
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gle
aves
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gan
um
vulg
are
L.
Mar
jora
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low
erin
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ant
and
infl
ores
cen
ceP
eril
lafr
ute
scen
s(L
.)B
ritt
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ispa
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un
b.)
Dea
ne
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illa
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fan
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ed
Ple
ctra
nth
us
escu
len
tus
N.E
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r.K
affi
rpo
tato
Tu
ber
Sat
ure
jah
orte
nsi
sL
.S
avor
y,su
mm
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vory
Lea
fan
dyo
un
gsh
oot
Sol
enos
tem
onro
tun
dif
oliu
s(P
oir.
)J.
K.
Mor
ton
Hau
sapo
tato
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ber
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chys
affi
nis
Bu
nge
Japa
nes
ear
tich
oke,
Ch
ines
ear
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oke
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ber
Mal
vace
aeM
AL
LO
WF
AM
ILY
Abe
lmos
chu
ses
cule
ntu
s(L
.)M
oen
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mat
ure
fru
itA
belm
osch
us
man
ihot
(L.)
Med
iku
sH
ibis
cus
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Lea
fan
dte
nde
rsh
oot
21
Hib
iscu
sac
etos
ella
Wel
.ex
Hie
rnFa
lse
rose
lle
You
ng
leaf
and
shoo
tH
ibis
cus
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arif
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can
sorr
elC
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and
leaf
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varo
tun
dif
olia
L.
Mal
low
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fan
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un
gsh
oot
Mor
acea
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UL
BE
RR
YF
AM
ILY
Hu
mu
lus
lupu
lus
L.
Hop
sT
ende
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oot
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um
bon
acea
eL
OT
US
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elu
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raG
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us
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izom
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gin
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RO
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ILY
Mir
abil
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pan
sa(R
uiz
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aron
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tan
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kaT
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ymph
aeac
eae
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ILY
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ury
ale
fero
xS
alis
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oxn
ut
See
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oot,
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Nym
phae
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ouch
ali
Bu
rm.
f.W
ater
lily
Rh
izom
e,fl
ower
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k,se
edO
nag
race
aeE
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NIN
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SE
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MIL
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enot
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abi
enn
isL
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ven
ing
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fan
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oot
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chac
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BR
OO
MR
AP
EF
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ILY
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che
cren
ata
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sska
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room
rape
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oot
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lida
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AL
ISF
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ILY
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ina
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aT
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ILY
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ora
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ora
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ower
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oot,
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ng
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ower
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alia
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PE
DA
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MF
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ILY
Ses
amu
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um
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onn
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ogor
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gsh
oot
Ph
ytol
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PO
KE
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ED
FA
MIL
Y
22
TA
BL
E1.
1.B
OT
AN
ICA
LN
AM
ES
,CO
MM
ON
NA
ME
S,A
ND
ED
IBL
EP
AR
TS
OF
PL
AN
TS
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ED
AS
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Bot
anic
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ame
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mon
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eE
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lan
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Ph
ytol
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acin
osa
Rox
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dian
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un
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oot
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ytol
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ican
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oke
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ytol
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ytol
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nd
raL
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eaf
and
you
ng
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lan
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nac
eae
PL
AIN
TA
INF
AM
ILY
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nta
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ron
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sL
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uck
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anta
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ygon
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AT
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YR
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hu
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Ru
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enti
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ock
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um
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uta
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L.
Fre
nch
sorr
elL
eaf
Por
tula
cace
aeP
UR
SL
AN
EF
AM
ILY
Mon
tia
perf
olia
ta(D
onn
.ex
Wil
ld.)
How
ell
Win
ter
purs
lan
e,m
iner
’sle
ttu
ceL
eaf
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tula
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eaL
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urs
lan
eL
eaf
and
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ng
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alin
um
pan
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m(J
acq.
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aert
n.
Fla
mefl
ower
You
ng
shoo
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alin
um
tria
ngu
lare
(Jac
q.)
Wil
ld.
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erle
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ura
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inac
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eaf
Res
edac
eae
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NO
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TT
EF
AM
ILY
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eda
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ata
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fan
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ower
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acea
eR
OS
EF
AM
ILY
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gari
a�
An
anas
saD
uch
esn
e.S
traw
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ruit
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rura
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LIZ
AR
D’S
-TA
ILF
AM
ILY
Hou
ttu
ynia
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ata
Th
un
b.S
auru
ris,
tsi
Lea
f
23
Sol
anac
eae
NIG
HT
SH
AD
EF
AM
ILY
Cap
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man
nu
um
L.
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ssu
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itC
apsi
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mL
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ongu
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enn
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ile
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lpe
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ute
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sL
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abas
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pper
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itC
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sR
uiz
&P
avon
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oto
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oman
dra
beta
cea
(Cav
.)S
endt
ner
Tam
aril
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ree
tom
ato
Rip
efr
uit
Lyc
ium
chin
ense
Mil
l.B
oxth
orn
Lea
fL
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ersi
con
escu
len
tum
Mil
l.T
omat
oR
ipe
fru
itL
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pin
elli
foli
um
(L.)
Mil
l.C
urr
ant
tom
ato
Rip
efr
uit
Ph
ysal
isal
keke
ngi
L.
Ch
ines
ela
nte
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ant
Rip
efr
uit
Ph
ysal
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ocar
paB
rot.
exH
orn
em.
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atil
loU
nri
pefr
uit
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ysal
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ana
L.
Cap
ego
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erry
Rip
efr
uit
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anu
mae
thio
picu
mL
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olde
nap
ple
Fru
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dle
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olan
um
amer
ican
um
Mil
l.A
mer
ican
blac
kn
igh
tsh
ade
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der
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t,le
af,
un
ripe
fru
itS
olan
um
gilo
Rad
diG
ilo,
jilo
You
ng
shoo
tS
olan
um
inca
nu
mL
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arde
neg
gU
nri
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uit
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anu
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tegr
ifol
ium
Poi
r.S
carl
eteg
gpla
nt,
tom
ato
eggp
lan
tIm
mat
ure
fru
it
Sol
anu
mm
acro
carp
onL
.A
fric
aneg
gpla
nt
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fan
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uit
Sol
anu
mm
elon
gen
aL
.E
ggpl
ant,
aube
rgin
eIm
mat
ure
fru
itS
olan
um
mu
rica
tum
Ait
.P
epin
o,sw
eet
pepi
no
Rip
efr
uit
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anu
mn
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lack
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hts
had
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atu
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uit
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um
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seL
am.
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anu
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mS
war
tzP
eaeg
gpla
nt
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der
shoo
t,im
mat
ure
fru
it
24
TA
BL
E1.
1.B
OT
AN
ICA
LN
AM
ES
,CO
MM
ON
NA
ME
S,A
ND
ED
IBL
EP
AR
TS
OF
PL
AN
TS
US
ED
AS
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Bot
anic
alN
ame
Com
mon
Nam
eE
dibl
eP
lan
tP
art
Sol
anu
mtu
bero
sum
L.
Pot
ato
Tu
ber
Til
iace
aeB
AS
SW
OO
DF
AM
ILY
Cor
chor
us
olit
oriu
sL
.Je
w’s
mar
row
Lea
fan
dte
nde
rsh
oot
Tra
pace
aeW
AT
ER
CH
ES
TN
UT
FA
MIL
YT
rapa
bico
rnis
Osb
eck
Wat
erch
estn
ut
See
dT
rapa
nat
ans
L.
Wat
erch
estn
ut
See
dT
ropa
cola
ceae
NA
ST
UR
TIU
MF
AM
ILY
Tro
paeo
lum
maj
us
L.
Nas
turt
ium
Lea
f,fl
ower
Tro
paeo
lum
tube
rosu
mR
uiz
&P
avon
Tu
bero
us
nas
turt
ium
Tu
ber
Urt
icac
eae
NE
TT
LE
FA
MIL
YP
ilea
glab
erri
ma
(Blu
me)
Blu
me
Pil
eaL
eaf
Pil
eatr
iner
via
Wig
ht
Pil
eaL
eaf
Urt
ica
dio
ica
L.
Sti
ngi
ng
net
tle
Lea
fV
aler
ian
acea
eV
AL
ER
IAN
FA
MIL
YV
aler
ian
ella
erio
carp
aD
esv.
Ital
ian
corn
-sal
adL
eaf
Val
eria
nel
lalo
cust
a(L
.)L
ater
rade
em.
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cke
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rope
anco
rn-s
alad
Lea
fV
iola
ceae
VIO
LE
TF
AM
ILY
Vio
latr
icol
orL
.V
iole
t,pa
nsy
Flo
wer
,le
afV
itac
eae
GR
AP
EF
AM
ILY
Cis
sus
java
na
DC
.K
anga
roo
vin
eL
eaf,
you
ng
shoo
t
Ada
pted
from
S.J
.K
ays
and
J.C
.S
ilva
Dia
s,C
ult
ivat
edV
eget
able
sof
the
Wor
ld(A
then
s,G
a.:
Exo
n,
1996
).U
sed
wit
hpe
rmis
sion
.
25
TA
BL
E1.
2.N
AM
ES
OF
CO
MM
ON
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
INN
INE
LA
NG
UA
GE
S
En
glis
hD
anis
hD
utc
hF
ren
chG
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nP
ortu
gues
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pan
ish
Sw
edis
h
Art
ich
oke
arti
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sch
aut
Art
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carc
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cach
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kron
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kock
aA
spar
agu
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perg
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parg
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para
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parr
ago
spar
ris
Bro
adbe
anh
este
bøn
ne
tuin
boon
feve
Pu
ffbo
hn
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va mag
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aba
bon
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Sn
apbe
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nn
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onh
aric
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ino
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ote
Ru
bebi
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ade
mes
abe
tabo
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occo
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oli
Bro
kkol
ica
volo
broc
colo
broc
ulo
broc
uli
broc
coli
Bru
ssel
ssp
rou
tsro
sen
kal
spru
itko
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oude
Bru
xell
esR
osen
koh
lca
volo
diB
ruxe
lles
cou
vede
Bru
xela
sco
lde
Bru
sela
sbr
ysse
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Cab
bage
kal
kool
chou
Koh
lca
volo
cou
veco
lka
lC
arro
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rott
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cen
oura
zan
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iam
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Cau
lifl
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blom
kal
bloe
mko
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ou-fl
eur
Blu
men
koh
lca
volfi
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cou
rve-
flor
coli
flor
blom
kal
Cel
ery
sell
eri
seld
erij
cele
riS
chn
itts
elle
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dan
oda
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sell
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Cel
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lder
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-rav
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seda
no
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nab
oro
tsel
leri
Ch
icor
yci
kori
eci
chor
eich
icor
eeZ
ich
orie
nw
urz
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cori
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cafe
ach
icor
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raiz
ciko
ria
Ch
ines
eca
bbag
eki
nes
isk
kal
Ch
ines
eko
olch
oude
Ch
ine
Ch
ines
isch
erK
ohl
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nes
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uve
daC
hin
aco
lde
Ch
ina
Sal
ladk
al
Sw
eet
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cre
Zu
cker
mai
sm
ais
dolc
em
ilh
odo
cem
aiz
dulc
eso
cker
maj
s
26
TA
BL
E1.
2.N
AM
ES
OF
CO
MM
ON
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
INN
INE
LA
NG
UA
GE
S(C
onti
nu
ed)
En
glis
hD
anis
hD
utc
hF
ren
chG
erm
anIt
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nP
ortu
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eS
pan
ish
Sw
edis
h
Cu
cum
ber
agu
rkko
mko
mm
erco
nco
mbr
eG
urk
ece
trio
lin
ope
pin
ope
pin
ogu
rka
Egg
plan
tae
gpla
nte
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rgin
eau
berg
ine
Au
berg
ine
mel
anza
na
beri
nge
labe
ren
jen
aag
gpla
nta
En
dive
endi
vie
andi
jvie
chic
oree
fris
eeE
ndi
vie
indi
via
chic
oria
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rola
endi
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alla
t
Hor
sera
dish
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mie
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tel
raif
ort
Mee
rret
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barb
afon
tera
ban
oru
stic
ora
ban
ape
ppar
rot
Kal
egr
ønka
lbo
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chou
vert
Gru
nko
hl
cavo
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fogl
iari
ccia
cou
ve gale
gafr
izad
a
berz
aen
ana
gron
kal
Koh
lrab
ikn
ude
kal
kool
rabi
chou
-rav
eK
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abi
cavo
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cou
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raba
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:E
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rmis
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28
02E
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29
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31
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32
TA
BL
E1.
3.B
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hit
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ron
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us
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wit
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us,
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ltic
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ets
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latr
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.Jo
hn
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hit
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olet
s
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pted
from
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.B
ader
tsh
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dS
.E.
New
man
,Ed
ible
Flo
wer
s(C
olor
ado
Coo
pera
tive
Ext
ensi
on),
htt
p://
ww
w.e
xt.c
olos
tate
.edu
/pu
bs/g
arde
n/0
7237
.htm
l.
Use
ful
refe
ren
ce:
Jean
ne
Mac
kin
,Cor
nel
lB
ook
ofH
erbs
and
Ed
ible
Flo
wer
s(I
thac
a,N
.Y.:
Cor
nel
lC
oope
rati
veE
xten
sion
).
33
03U.S. VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
TABLE 1.4. U.S. VEGETABLE PRODUCTION STATISTICS:LEADING FRESH MARKET VEGETABLE STATES, 20041
Rank
Harvested Acreage
State% ofTotal
Production
State% ofTotal
Value
State% ofTotal
1 California 43.4 California 48.8 California 52.92 Florida 9.5 Florida 9.1 Florida 11.83 Georgia 7.0 Arizona 8.4 Arizona 8.74 Arizona 6.7 Georgia 4.5 Georgia 3.95 New York 4.0 Texas 3.7 Texas 3.5
Adapted from Vegetables, 2004 Summary (USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service Vg 1–2,2005), http: / / jan.mannlib.cornell.edu / reports / nassr / fruit / pvg-bban / vgan0105.pdf.1 Includes data for artichoke, asparagus, * lima bean, snap bean, broccoli, * Brussels sprouts, cabbage,carrot, cauliflower, * celery, cantaloupe, cucumber, eggplant, escarole / endive, garlic, honeydew melon,lettuce, onion, bell pepper, spinach, sweet corn, tomato, and watermelon.* Includes fresh market and processing.
34
TABLE 1.5. IMPORTANT STATES IN THE PRODUCTION OF U.S.FRESH MARKET VEGETABLES BY CROP VALUE, 2004
Crop First Second Third
Artichoke1 California — —Asparagus1 California Washington MichiganBean, snap Florida California GeorgiaBroccoli1 California Arizona —Cabbage California Texas New YorkCantaloupe California Arizona TexasCarrot California Texas MichiganCauliflower1 California Arizona New YorkCelery California Michigan —Cucumber Florida Georgia CaliforniaGarlic California Oregon NevadaHoneydew melon California Arizona TexasLettuce, head California Arizona ColoradoLettuce, leaf California Arizona —Lettuce, romaine California Arizona —Mushroom1 Pennsylvania California FloridaOnion California Texas OregonPepper, bell California Florida New JerseyPepper, chile California New Mexico TexasPumpkin New York Pennsylvania CaliforniaSpinach California Arizona TexasSquash California Florida New YorkStrawberry California Florida North CarolinaSweet corn California Florida New YorkTomato California Florida TexasWatermelon California Florida Texas
Adapted from Vegetables, 2004 Summary (USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service Vg 1–2,2005), http: / / jan.mannlib.cornell.edu / reports / nassr / fruit / pvg-bban / vgan0105.pdf.1 Includes fresh market and processing.
35
TABLE 1.6. HARVESTED ACREAGE, PRODUCTION, AND VALUEOF U.S. FRESH MARKET VEGETABLES, 2002–2004AVERAGE
Crop AcresProduction(1000 cwt)
Value($1000)
Artichoke1 7,633 925 71,716Asparagus1 58,833 1,086 176,870Bean, snap 94,733 5,840 277,141Broccoli1 133,300 19,520 119,995Cabbage 75,460 23,967 316,398Cantaloupe 88,583 21,608 356,867Carrot 85,400 26,577 518,266Cauliflower1 40,533 6,612 218,110Celery1 27,300 18,932 260,904Cucumber 55,357 10,005 202,636Garlic1 33,133 5,705 151,452Honeydew melon 23,100 5,133 93,235Lettuce, head 185,400 78,785 1,282,088Lettuce, leaf 55,100 13,461 422,747Lettuce, romaine 72,000 22,649 534,087Onion 165,153 74,702 870,217Pepper, bell1 54,167 16,196 511,813Pepper, chile1 29,700 4,223 110,460Pumpkin1 41,657 8,878 90,867Spinach 36,393 5,543 203,619Squash1 51,867 8,078 207,571Strawberry1 49,200 20,847 1,336,008Sweet corn 246,243 28,031 559,580Tomato 125,707 37,094 1,309,213Watermelon 147,733 38,207 328,342
Adapted from Vegetables, 2004 Summary (USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service Vg 1–2,2005), http: / / jan.mannlib.cornell.edu / reports / nassr / fruit / pvg-bban / vgan0105.pdf.1 Includes fresh market and processing.
36
TABLE 1.7. AVERAGE U.S. YIELDS OF FRESH MARKETVEGETABLES, 2002–2004
Crop Yield (cwt /acre)
Artichoke1 122Asparagus1 31Bean, snap 62Broccoli1 146Cabbage 317Cantaloupe 244Carrot 311Cauliflower1 163Celery1 693Cucumber 181Garlic1 172Honeydew melon 223Lettuce, head 371Lettuce, leaf 244Lettuce, romaine 315Onion 452Pepper, bell1 299Pepper, chile1 142Pumpkin1 211Spinach 152Squash1 156Strawberry1 423Sweet corn 114Tomato 295Watermelon 259
Adapted from Vegetables, 2004 Summary (USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service Vg 1–2,2005), http: / / jan.mannlib.cornell.edu / reports / nassr / fruit / pvg-bban / vgan0105.pdf.1 Includes fresh market and processing.
37
TABLE 1.8. LEADING U.S. PROCESSING VEGETABLE STATES,20041
Rank
Harvested Acreage
State% ofTotal
Production
State% ofTotal
Value
State% ofTotal
1 California 24.1 California 67.8 California 51.22 Minnesota 16.0 Washington 6.3 Wisconsin 7.03 Wisconsin 15.0 Wisconsin 5.7 Minnesota 6.94 Washington 11.0 Minnesota 5.7 Washington 6.85 Oregon 5.0 Oregon 2.4 Michigan 4.1
Adapted from Vegetables, 2004 Summary (USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service Vg 1–2,2005), http: / / jan.mannlib.cornell.edu / reports / nassr / fruit / pvg-bban / vgan0105.pdf.1 Includes lima bean, snap bean, carrot, sweet corn, cucumber for pickles, pea, spinach, and tomato.
TABLE 1.9. HARVESTED ACREAGE, PRODUCTION, AND VALUEOF U.S. PROCESSING VEGETABLES, 2002–2004AVERAGE
Crop AcresProduction
(tons)Value
($1000)
Bean, lima 46,267 59,757 25,854Bean, snap 196,600 781,630 122,141Carrot 15,770 426,300 32,081Cucumber 116,700 616,907 168,149Pea, green 215,833 402,540 101,186Spinach 12,640 118,140 13,354Sweet corn 416,500 3,100,640 217,495Tomato 302,247 11,252,313 658,516
Adapted from Vegetables, 2004 Summary (USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service Vg 1–2,2005), http: / / jan.mannlib.cornell.edu / reports / nassr / fruit / pvg-bban / vgan0105.pdf.
38
TABLE 1.10. IMPORTANT STATES IN THE PRODUCTION OF U.S.PROCESSING VEGETABLES BY CROP VALUE, 2004
Crop First Second Third
Bean, snap Wisconsin Oregon New YorkCarrot California Washington WisconsinCucumber Michigan Florida North CarolinaPea, green Minnesota Washington WisconsinSpinach California — —Sweet corn Minnesota Washington WisconsinTomato California Indiana Ohio
Adapted from Vegetables, 2004 Sumary (USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service Vg 1–2, 2005),http: / / jan.mannlib.cornell.edu / reports / nassr / fruit / pvg-bban / vgan0105.pdf.
TABLE 1.11. AVERAGE U.S. YIELDS OF PROCESSINGVEGETABLES, 2002–2004
CropYield
(tons /acre)
Bean, lima 1.29Bean, snap 3.97Carrot 27.02Cucumber 5.07Pea, green 1.86Spinach 9.44Sweet corn 7.44Tomato 37.20
Adapted from Vegetables, 2004 Summary (USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service Vg 1–2,2005), http: / / jan.mannlib.cornell.edu / reports / nassr / fruit / pvg-bban / vgan0105.pdf.
39
TABLE 1.12. U.S. POTATO AND SWEET POTATO PRODUCTIONSTATISTICS: HARVESTED ACREAGE, YIELD,PRODUCTION, AND VALUE, 2002–2004 AVERAGE
Crop AcresYield
(cwt /acre)Production(1000 cwt)
Value($1000)
Potato 1,227,533 373 457,449 2,765,300Sweet Potato 89,400 168 15,029 269,176
Adapted from Vegetables and Melons Outlook VGS-307 (USDA Economic Research Service, 2005),http: / / www.ers.usda.gov / publications / vgs / Feb05 / vgs307.pdf.
TABLE 1.13. IMPORTANT U.S. STATES IN POTATO AND SWEETPOTATO PRODUCTION BY CROP VALUE, 2003
Rank Potato Sweet Potato
1 Idaho North Carolina2 Washington California3 California Louisiana4 Wisconsin Mississippi5 Colorado Alabama
Adapted from Vegetables and Melons Outlook VGS-307 (USDA Economic Research Service, 2005),http: / / www.ers.usda.gov / publications / vgs / Feb05 / vgs307.pdf.
40
TABLE 1.14. UTILIZATION OF THE U.S. POTATO CROP, 2001–2003AVERAGE
Item
Amount
1000 cwt % of Total
A. Sales 413,227 911. Table stock 129,936 292. Processing 256,808 57
a. Chips 52,825 12b. Dehydration 46,845 10c. Frozen french fries 126,033 28d. Other frozen products 25,473 6e. Canned potatoes 4,651 1f. Starch and flour 981 �1
3. Other sales 26,483 6a. Livestock feed 2,848 �1b. Seed 23,634 5
B. Nonsales 37,992 81. Seed used on farms where grown 5,516 12. Shrinkage 32,476 7
Total production 451,219
Adapted from Vegetables and Melons Outlook VGS-307 (USDA Economic Research Service, 2005),http: / / www.ers.usda.gov / publications / vgs / Feb05 / vgs307.pdf.
41
04VEGETABLE CONSUMPTION
TABLE 1.15. TRENDS IN U.S. PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OFVEGETABLES
Year
Amount (lb)1
Fresh Processed Total
1971 171 189 3601975 180 187 3671980 172 184 3561985 187 198 3851990 198 212 4101995 210 223 4332000 228 222 4502004 227 219 446
Adapted from Vegetables and Melons Outlook VGS-307 (USDA Economic Research Service, 2005),http: / / www.ers.usda.gov / publications / vgs / Feb05 / vgs307.pdf.1 Fresh weight equivalent.
42
TABLE 1.16. U.S. PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OFCOMMERCIALLY PRODUCED VEGETABLES, 2004
Vegetable
Amount (lb)
Fresh Canned Frozen Total
Artichoke, all — — — 0.7Asparagus 1.1 0.2 0.10 1.4Bean, dry, all — — — 6.7Bean, snap 2.1 3.5 1.9 7.4Broccoli 5.8 — 2.4 8.2Cabbage 7.9 1.1 — 9.0Cantaloupe 11.0 — — 11.0Carrot 8.4 1.5 1.7 11.5Cauliflower 1.7 — 0.5 2.2Celery 6.2 — — 6.2Cucumber 6.3 4.9 — 11.2Eggplant, all — — — 0.7Escarole /endive 0.2 — — 0.3Garlic, all — — — 2.8Honeydew melon 2.2 — — 2.2Lettuce, head 21.3 — — 21.3Lettuce, leaf & romaine 10.0 — — 10.0Mushroom, all 2.6 1.6 — 4.2Onion 19.3 — — 20.81
Pea, green — 1.3 1.9 3.3Pea and lentil, dry, all — — — 0.6Pepper, bell 7.2 — — 7.2Pepper, chile — 5.7 — 5.7Potato 45.6 33.82 56.6 136.0Spinach, all — — — 1.8Strawberry 5.4 — 1.7 7.1Sweet corn3 9.7 8.8 9.5 27.8Sweet potato, all — — — 4.3Tomato 19.1 69.8 — 88.9Watermelon 14.0 — — 14.0Other vegetables, all — — — 12.1
Adapted from Vegetables and Melons Outlook VGS-307 (USDA Economic Research Service, 2005),http: / / www.ers.usda.gov / publications / vgs / Feb05 / vgs307.pdf.1 Includes fresh and dehydrated onion.2 Other processed potato.3 On-cob basis.
43
TABLE 1.17. TRENDS IN U.S. PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OFPOTATO, SWEET POTATO, DRY BEAN, AND DRYPEA
Period
Amount (lb)
Potato1 Sweet Potato2 Dry Bean Dry Pea
1947–1949 average 114 13 6.7 0.61957–1959 average 107 8 7.7 0.61965 108 6 6.6 0.41970 118 6 5.9 0.31975 122 5 6.5 0.41980 116 5 5.4 0.41985 122 5 7.1 0.51990 128 5 6.4 0.51995 139 4 7.4 0.52000 139 4 7.6 0.92004 136 4 6.7 0.6
Adapted from Vegetable Outlook and Situation Report TVS-233 (1984); Vegetables and SpecialtiesTVS-260 (1993); Vegetables and Specialties TVS-265 (1995); and Vegetables and Melons Outlook VGS-307 (USDA Economic Research Service, 2005), http: / / www.ers.usda.gov / publications / vgs / Feb05 /vgs307.pdf.1 Includes fresh and processed potato.2 Includes fresh and processed sweet potato.
44
05WORLD VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
TABLE 1.18. IMPORTANT VEGETABLE-PRODUCING COUNTRIES,2004
Crop First Second Third
Artichoke Italy Spain ArgentinaAsparagus China Peru United StatesBean, snap United States France MexicoCabbage China India Russian FederationCantaloupe China Turkey United StatesCarrot China United States RussiaCauliflower China India ItalyCucumber China Turkey IranEggplant China India TurkeyGarlic China India South KoreaLettuce China United States SpainMushroom China United States NetherlandsOkra India Nigeria PakistanOnion China India United StatesPea, green India China United StatesPepper China Mexico TurkeyPotato China Russian Federation IndiaPumpkin China India UkraineSpinach China United States JapanStrawberry1 United States Spain JapanSweet corn United States Nigeria FranceSweet potato China Uganda NigeriaTomato China United States TurkeyWatermelon China Turkey IranAll China India United States
Adapted from Vegetables and Melons Situation and Outlook Yearbook VGS-2005 (USDA, EconomicResearch Service, 2005), http: / / www.ers.usda.gov / publications / vgs / JulyYearbook2005 / VGS2005.pdf.1 http: / / usda.mannlib.cornell.edu / data-sets / specialty / 95003 /.
45
TABLE 1.19. WORLD VEGETABLE PRODUCTION, 2001–2003AVERAGE
CountryProduction
(million cwt) (%)
China 8,988.1 48.9India 1,697.3 9.2United States 823.6 4.5Turkey 552.5 3.0Russian Federation 326.0 1.7Italy 325.5 1.7Others 5,622.5 31.0World 18,351.3 100.0
Adapted from Vegetables and Melons Situation and Outlook Yearbook VGS-2005 (USDA, EconomicResearch Service, 2005), http: / / www.ers.usda.gov / publications / vgs / JulyYearbook2005 / VGS2005.pdf.
46
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52
TA
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.
PART 2PLANT GROWING AND
GREENHOUSE VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
TRANSPLANT PRODUCTION
01 PLANT GROWING CONTAINERS
02 SEEDS AND SEEDING
03 TEMPERATURE AND TIME REQUIREMENTS
04 PLANT GROWING MIXES
05 SOIL STERILIZATION
06 FERTILIZING AND IRRIGATING TRANSPLANTS
07 PLANT GROWING PROBLEMS
08 CONDITIONING TRANSPLANTS
09 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION SOURCES ON TRANSPLANTPRODUCTION
GREENHOUSE CROP PRODUCTION
10 CULTURAL MANAGEMENT
11 CARBON DIOXIDE ENRICHMENT
12 SOILLESS CULTURE
13 NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS
14 TISSUE COMPOSITION
15 ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON GREENHOUSEVEGETABLES
Knott’s Handbook for Vegetable Growers, Fifth Edition. D. N. Maynard and G. J. Hochmuth© 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-73828-2
56
TRANSPLANT PRODUCTION
Vegetable crops are established in the field by direct seeding or by use ofvegetative propagules (see Part 3) or transplants. Transplants are producedin containers of various sorts in greenhouses, protected beds, and openfields. Either greenhouse-grown containerized or field-grown bare-roottransplants can be used successfully. Generally, containerized transplantsget off to a faster start but are more expensive. Containerized transplants,sometimes called ‘‘plug’’ transplants have become the norm for melons,pepper, tomato, and eggplant.
Transplant production is a specialized segment of the vegetable businessthat demands suitable facilities and careful attention to detail. For thesereasons, many vegetable growers choose to purchase containerized or field-grown transplants from production specialists rather than grow themthemselves.
TABLE 2.1. RELATIVE EASE OF TRANSPLANTING VEGETABLES(referring to bare-root transplants)1
Easy Moderate Require Special Care2
Beet Celery Sweet cornBroccoli Eggplant CantaloupeBrussels sprouts Onion CucumberCabbage Pepper Summer squashCauliflower WatermelonChardLettuceTomato
1 Although containerized transplant production is the norm for most vegetables, information on bare-root transplants is available at http: / / pubs.caes.uga.edu / caespubs / pubs / PDF / B1144.pdf (2003).2 Containerized transplants are recommended.
57
Organic Vegetable Transplants
Organically grown vegetable transplants are not readily available from mostcommercial transplant producers. A good source of information on organictransplant production is at http: / /attra.ncat.org /attra-pub /plugs.html.
For information on organic seed production and seed handling, see J.Bonina and D. J. Cantliffe, Seed Production and Seed Sources of OrganicVegetables (University of Florida Cooperative Extension Service), http: / /edis.ifas.ufl.edu/hs227.
58
01P
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NT
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S
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BL
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59
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pted
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ugh
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mer
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etab
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ran
spla
nts
(Nor
thC
arol
ina
Agr
icu
ltu
ral
Ext
ensi
onS
ervi
ce-
337,
1984
).
60
02SEEDS AND SEEDING
SEEDING SUGGESTIONS FOR GROWING TRANSPLANTS
1. Media. Field soil alone usually is not a desirable seeding mediumbecause it may crust or drain poorly under greenhouse conditions.Adding sand or a sand and peat mix may produce a good seedingmixture. Many growers use artificial mixes (see page 65) because ofthe difficulty of obtaining field soil that is free from pests andcontaminating chemicals.
A desirable seeding mix provides good drainage but retainsmoisture well enough to prevent rapid fluctuations, has good aeration,is low in soluble salts, and is free from insects, diseases, and weedseeds.
2. Seeding. Adjust seeding rates to account for the stated germinationpercentages and variations in soil temperatures. Excessively thickstands result in spindly seedlings, and poor stands are wasteful ofvaluable bench or bed space. Seeding into containerized trays can bedone mechanically using pelletized seeds. Pelletized seeds are seedsthat have been coated with a clay material to facilitate planting bymachine. Pelletized seeds also allow for easier singulation (one seedper cell in the tray).
Carefully control seeding depth; most seeds should be planted at1 /4 to 1 /2 in. deep. Exceptions are celery, which should only be 1 /8in. deep, and the vine crops, sweet corn, and beans, which can beseeded 1 in. or deeper.
3. Moisture. Maintain soil moisture in the desirable range by thoroughwatering after seeding and careful periodic watering as necessary. Acombination of spot watering of dry areas and overall watering isusually necessary. Do not overwater.
4. Temperature. Be certain to maintain the desired temperature. Coolerthan optimum temperatures may encourage disease, and warmertemperatures result in spindly seedlings. Seeded containerized trayscan be placed in a germination room where temperature and humidityare controlled. Germination rate and germination uniformity areenhanced with this technique. Once germination has initiated, movethe trays to the greenhouse.
5. Disease control. Use disease-free or treated seed to prevent earlydisease problems. Containers should be new or disease free. Adisease-free seeding medium is essential. Maintain a strict sanitationprogram to prevent introduction of diseases. Carefully control
61
watering and relative humidity. Use approved fungicides as drenchesor sprays when necessary. Keep greenhouse environment as dry aspossible with air-circulation fans and anti-condensate plasticgreenhouse covers.
6. Transplanting. Start transplanting when seedlings show the first trueleaves so the process can be completed before the seedlings becomelarge and overcrowded. Seedlings in containerized trays do not requiretransplanting to a final transplant growing container.
7. Fertilization. Developing transplants need light, water, andfertilization with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium to develop astocky, vigorous transplant, ready for the field. Excessive fertilization,especially with nitrogen, leads to spindly, weak transplants that aredifficult to establish in the field. Excessive fertilization of tomatotransplants with nitrogen can lead to reduced fruit yield in the field.Only 40–60 ppm nitrogen is needed in the irrigation solution fortomato. Many commercial soilless transplant mixes have a starternutrient charge, but this charge must be supplemented with anutrient solution after seedlings emerge.
62
TABLE 2.3. APPROXIMATE SEED REQUIREMENTS FOR PLANTGROWING
VegetablePlants /oz
Seed
Seed Required toProduce 10,000
Transplants
Asparagus 550 11⁄4 lbBroccoli 5,000 2 ozBrussels sprouts 5,000 2 ozCabbage 5,000 2 ozCantaloupe 500 11⁄4 lbCauliflower 5,000 2 ozCelery 15,000 1 ozSweet corn 100 61⁄4 lbCucumber 500 11⁄4 lbEggplant 2,500 4 ozLettuce 10,000 1 ozOnion 4,000 3 ozPepper 1,500 7 ozSummer squash 200 31⁄4 lbTomato 4,000 3 ozWatermelon 200 31⁄4 lb
To determine seed requirements per acre:
Desired plant population� seed required for 10,000 plants
10,000
Example 1: To grow enough broccoli for a population of 20,000 plants /acre:
20,000� 2 � 4 oz seed
10,000
Example 2: To grow enough summer squash for a population of 3600 plants /acre:
3600 1 1� 3 ⁄4 � 1 ⁄4 lb approximately10,000
63
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04PLANT GROWING MIXES
SOILLESS MIXES FOR TRANSPLANT PRODUCTION
Most commercial transplant producers use some type of soilless media forgrowing vegetable transplants. Most such media employ various mixtures ofsphagnum peat and vermiculite or perlite, and growers may incorporatesome fertilizer materials as the final media are blended. For small growersor on-farm use, similar types of media can be purchased premixed andbagged. Most of the currently used media mixes are based on variations ofthe Cornell mix recipe below:
TABLE 2.5. CORNELL PEAT-LITE MIXES
Component Amount (cu yd)
Spagnum peat 0.5Horticultural vermiculite 0.5
Additions for Specific Uses (amount /cu yd)
AdditionSeedling or
Bedding Plants
Greenhouse Tomatoes
LiquidFeed
Slow-releaseFeed
Ground limestone (lb) 5 10 1020% superphosphate (lb) 1–2 2.5 2.5Calcium or potassium nitrate (lb) 1 1.5 1.5Trace element mix (oz) 2 2 2Osmocote (lb) 0 0 10Mag Amp (lb) 0 0 5Wetting agent (oz) 3 3 3
Adapted from J. W. Boodley and R. Sheldrake Jr., Cornell Peat-lite Mixes for Commercial PlantGrowing, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Station Agriculture Information Bulletin43 (1982).
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05SOIL STERILIZATION
TABLE 2.6. STERILIZATION OF PLANT GROWING SOILS
Agent Method Recommendation
Heat Steam 30 min at 180�FAerated steam 30 min at 160�FElectric 30 min at 180�F
Chemical Chloropicrin 3–5 cc / cu ft of soil. Cover for 1–3 days.Aerate for 14 days or until no odor isdetected before using.
Vapam 1 qt /100 sq ft. Allow 7–14 days before use.Methyl bromide The phase-out of methyl bromide:
http: / /www.epa.gov /spdpublc /mbr /
Caution: Chemical fumigants are highly toxic. Follow manufacturer’s recommendations on thelabel.
Soluble salts, manganese, and ammonium usually increase after heat sterilization. Delay usingheat-sterilized soil for at least 2 weeks to avoid problems with these toxic materials.
Adapted from K. F. Baker (ed.), The UC System for Producing Healthy Container-grown Plants,California Agricultural Experiment Station Manual 23 (1972).
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TABLE 2.7. TEMPERATURES REQUIRED TO DESTROY PESTS INCOMPOSTS AND SOIL
Pests 30-min Temperature (�F)
Nematodes 120Damping-off organisms 130Most pathogenic bacteria and fungi 150Soil insects and most viruses 160Most weed seeds 175Resistant weeds and resistant viruses 212
Adapted from K. F. Baker (ed.), The UC System for Producing Healthy Container-grown Plants,California Agricultural Experiment Station Manual 23 (1972).
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06FERTILIZING AND IRRIGATING TRANSPLANTS
TABLE 2.8. FERTILIZER FORMULATIONS FOR TRANSPLANTFERTILIZATION BASED ON NITROGEN ANDPOTASSIUM CONCENTRATIONS
Fertilizer
N and K2O Concentrations (ppm)
50 100 200 400
oz /100 gal1
20-20-20 3.3 6.7 13.3 26.715-0-15 4.5 8.9 17.8 35.620-10-20 3.3 6.7 13.3 26.7Ammonium nitrate 1.4 2.9 5.7 11.4
� potassium nitrate 1.5 3.0 6.1 12.1Calcium nitrate 3.0 6.0 12.0 24.0
� potassium nitrate 1.5 3.0 6.0 12.0Ammonium nitrate 1.2 2.5 4.9 9.9
� potassium nitrate 1.5 3.0 6.0 12.0� monoammonium phosphate 0.5 1.1 2.2 4.3
Adapted from P. V. Nelson, ‘‘Fertilization,’’ in E. J. Holcomb (ed.). Bedding Plants IV: A Manual on theCulture of Bedding Plants as a Greenhouse Crop (Batavia, Ill.: Ball, 1994), 151–176. Used withpermission.1 1.0 oz in 100 gal is equal to 7.5 g in 100 L.
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TABLE 2.9. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (EC) IN SOIL ANDPEAT-LITE MIXES
Mineral Soils(mS)1
Peat-liteMixes(mS)1 Interpretations
2.0� 3.5� Excessive Plants may be severely injured.1.76–2.0 2.25–3.5 Very high Plants may grow adequately, but
range is near danger zone,especially if soil dries.
1.26–1.75 1.76–2.25 High Satisfactory for establishedplants. May be too high forseedlings and cuttings.
0.51–1.25 1.0–1.76 Medium Satisfactory for general plantgrowth. Excellent range forconstant fertilization program.
0.0–0.50 0.0–1.0 Low Low EC does no harm but mayindicate low nutrientconcentration.
Adapted from R. W. Langhans and E. T. Paparozzi, ‘‘Irrigation’’ in E. J. Holcomb (ed.), Bedding PlantIV: A Manual on the Culture of Bedding Plants as a Greenhouse Crop (Batavia, Ill.: Ball, 1994), 139–150. Used with permission.1 EC of soil determined from 1 part dry soil to 2 parts water. EC of mix determined from level tsp drymix to 40 mL water.
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TABLE 2.10. MAXIMUM ACCEPTABLE WATER QUALITY INDICESFOR BEDDING PLANTS
Variable Plug Production Finish Flats and Pots
pH1 (acceptable range) 5.5–7.5 5.5–7.5Alkalinity2 1.5 me/L (75 ppm) 2.0 me/L (100 ppm)Hardness3 3.0 me/L (150 ppm) 3.0 me/L (150 ppm)EC 1.0 mS 1.2 mSAmmonium-N 20 ppm 40 ppmBoron 0.5 ppm 0.5 ppm
Adapted from P. V. Nelson, ‘‘Fertilization,’’ in E. J. Holcomb (ed.), Bedding Plants IV: A Manual on theCulture of Bedding Plants as a Greenhouse Crop (Batavia, Ill.: Ball, 1994), 151–176. Used withpermission.1 pH not very important alone; alkalinity level more important.2 Moderately higher alkalinity levels are acceptable when lower amounts of limestone are incorporatedinto the substrate during its formulation. Very high alkalinity levels require acid injection into watersource.3 High hardness values are not a problem if calcium and magnesium concentrations are adequate andsoluble salt level is tolerable.
IRRIGATION OF TRANSPLANTS
There are two systems for application of water (and fertilizer solutions) totransplants produced in commercial operations: overhead sprinklers andsubirrigation. Sprinkler systems apply water or nutrient solution byoverhead water sprays from various types of sprinkler or emitterapplicators. Advantages of sprinklers include the ability to apply chemicalsto foliage and the ability to leach excessive salts from media. Disadvantagesinclude high investment cost and maintenance requirements. Chemical andwater application can be variable in poorly maintained systems, andnutrients can be leached if excess amounts of water are applied. One type ofsubirrigation uses a trough of nutrient solution in which the transplanttrays are periodically floated, sometimes called ebb and flow or the floatsystem. Water and soluble nutrients are absorbed by the media and moveupward into the media. Advantages of this system include uniformapplication of water and nutrient solution to all flats in a trough or basin.Subirrigation with recirculation of the nutrient solution minimizes thepotential for pollution because all nutrients are kept in an enclosed system.
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Challenges with subirrigation include the need for care to avoidcontamination of the entire trough with a disease organism. In addition,subirrigation systems restrict the potential to vary nutrient needs ofdifferent crops or developmental stages of transplants within a specificsubirrigation trough.
With either production system, transplant growers must exercise care inapplication of water and nutrients to the crop. Excessive irrigation can leachnutrients. Irrigation and fertilization programs are linked. Changes in oneprogram can affect the efficiency of the other program. Excessivefertilization can lead to soluble salt injury, and excessive nitrogenapplication can lead to overly vegetative transplants. More information ontransplant irrigation and the float system is available from:
http: / /pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs /pubs /PDF/B1144.pdf (2003)http: / /www.utextension.utk.edu/publications /pbfiles /PB819.pdf (1999)
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07PLANT GROWING PROBLEMS
TABLE 2.11. DIAGNOSIS AND CORRECTION OF TRANSPLANTDISORDERS
Symptoms Possible Causes1 Corrective Measures
1. Spindly growth Shade, cloudy weather,excessive watering,excessive temperature
Provide full sun, reducetemperature, restrictwatering, ventilate orreduce night temperature,fertilize less frequently,provide adequate space.
2. Budless plants Many possible causes; noconclusive cause
Maintain optimumtemperature andfertilization programs.
3. Stunted plants Low fertility Apply fertilizer frequentlyin low concentration.
A. Purple leaves Phosphorus deficiency Apply a soluble,phosphorus-rich fertilizerat 50 ppm P everyirrigation for up to 1week.
B. Yellow leaves Nitrogen deficiency Apply N fertilizer solutionat 50–75 ppm eachirrigation for 1 week.Wash the foliage withwater after application.
C. Wilted shoots Pythium root rot,flooding damage,soluble salt damage toroots
Check for Pythium or otherdisease organism. Reduceirrigation amounts andreduce fertilization.
D. Discoloredroots
High soluble salts fromoverfertilization; highsoluble salts from poorsoil sterilization
Leach the soil by excesswatering. Do not sterilizeat temperatures above160�F. Leach soils beforeplanting when soil testsindicate high amounts ofsoluble salts.
E. Normal roots Low temperature Maintain suitable day andnight temperatures.
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TABLE 2.11. DIAGNOSIS AND CORRECTION OF TRANSPLANTDISORDERS (Continued )
Symptoms Possible Causes1 Corrective Measures
4. Tough, woodyplants
Overhardening Apply starter solution (10-55-10 or 15-30-15 at 1 oz /gal to each 6–12 sq ftbench area) 3–4 daysbefore transplanting.
5. Water-soaked anddecayed stemsnear the soilsurface
Damping off Use a sterile, well-drainedmedium. Adjust wateringand ventilation practicesto provide a less moistenvironment. Useapproved fungicidaldrenches.
6. Poor root growth Poor soil aeration; poorsoil drainage; low soilfertility; excess solublesalts; lowtemperature; residuefrom chemicalsterilization; herbicideresidue
Determine the cause andtake corrective measures.
7. Green algae ormosses growingon soil surface
High soil moisture,especially in shade orduring cloudy periods
Adjust watering andventilation practices toprovide a less moistenvironment. Use abetter-drained medium.
1 Possible causes are listed here; however, more than one factor may lead to the same symptom.Therefore, plant producers should thoroughly evaluate all possible causes of a specific disorder.
SUGGESTIONS FOR MINIMIZING DISEASES IN VEGETABLETRANSPLANTS
Successful vegetable transplant production depends on attention to diseasecontrol. With the lack of labeled chemical pesticides, growers must focus oncultural and greenhouse management strategies to minimize opportunitiesfor disease organisms to attack the transplant crop.
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Greenhouse environment: Transplant production houses should be located atleast several miles from any vegetable production field to avoid the entryof disease-causing agents in the house. Weeds around the greenhouseshould be removed and the area outside the greenhouse maintained freeof weeds, volunteer vegetable plants, and discarded transplants.
Media and water: All media and irrigation water should be pathogen free. Ifmedia are to be blended on site, all mixing equipment and surfaces mustbe routinely sanitized. Irrigation water should be drawn from pathogen-free sources. Water from ponds or recycling reservoirs should be avoided.
Planting material: Only pathogen-free seed or plant plugs should be broughtinto the greenhouse to initiate new transplant crops. Transplantproducers should not accept seeds of unknown quality for use intransplant production. This can be a problem, especially when producingsmall batches of transplants from small packages of seed, e.g., for avariety trial.
Cultural practices: Attention must be given to transplant productionpractices such as fertilization, irrigation, and temperature so that plantvigor is optimum. Free moisture, from sprinkler irrigation orcondensation, on plants should be avoided. Ventilation of houses byexhaust fans and horizontal airflow fans helps reduce free moisture onplants. Growers should follow a strict sanitation program to preventintroduction of disease organisms into the house. Weeds under benchesmust be removed. Outside visitors to the greenhouse should be strictlyminimized, and all visitors and workers should walk through adisinfecting foot bath. All plant material and soil mix remaining betweentransplant crops should be removed from the house.
CONTROLLING TRANSPLANT HEIGHT
One aspect of transplant quality involves transplants of size and height thatare optimum for efficient handling in the field during transplantation andfor rapid establishment. Traditional means for controlling plant heightincluded withholding water and nutrients and/or application of growthregulator chemicals. Today, growth regulator chemicals are not labeled forvegetable transplant production. Plant height control research focuses onnutrient management, temperature manipulation, light quality, andmechanical conditioning of plants.
Nutrient management: Nitrogen applied in excess often causes transplantsto grow tall rapidly. Using low-N solutions with 30–50 parts per million(ppm) nitrogen helps control plant height when frequent (daily)
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irrigations are needed. Higher concentrations of N may be needed whenirrigations are infrequent (every 3 to 4 days). Often, an intermediate Nconcentration (e.g., 80 ppm) is chosen for the entire transplant life cycle,and an excessive growth rate often results. Irrigation frequency shouldguide the N concentration. Research has shown that excessive N appliedto the transplant can lead to reduced fruit yield in the field.
Moisture management: Withholding water is a time-tested method ofreducing plant height, but transplants can be damaged by drought.Sometimes transplants growing in Styrofoam trays along the edge of agreenhouse walkway dry out faster than the rest of the transplants inthe greenhouse. These dry plants are always shorter compared to theother transplants. Overwatering transplants should therefore be avoided,and careful attention should be given to irrigation timing.
Light intensity: Transplants grown under reduced light intensity stretch;therefore, growers must give attention to maximizing light intensity inthe greenhouse. Aged polyethylene greenhouse covers should be replacedand greenhouse roofs and sides should be cleaned periodically, especiallyin winter. Supplementing light intensity for some transplant crops withlights may be justified.
Temperature management: Transplants grown under cooler temperatures(e.g., 50�F) are shorter than plants grown under warmer temperatures.Where possible, greenhouse temperatures can be reduced or plantsmoved outdoors. Under cool temperatures, the transplant productioncycle is longer by several days and increased crop turnaround time maybe unacceptable. For some crops, such as tomato, growing transplantsunder cool temperatures may lead to fruit quality problems, e.g.,catfacing of fruits.
Mechanical conditioning: Shaking or brushing transplants frequently resultsin shorter transplants. Transplants can be brushed by several physicalmethods—for example, by brushing a plastic rod over the tops of theplants. This technique obviously should be practiced on dry plants onlyto avoid spreading disease organisms.
Day /night temperature management: The difference between the day andnight temperatures (DIF) can be employed to help control plant height.With a negative DIF, day temperature is cooler than night temperature.Plants grown with a positive DIF are taller than plants grown with azero or negative DIF. This system is not used during germination butrather is initiated when the first true leaves appear. The DIF systemrequires the capability to control the greenhouse temperature and ismost applicable to temperate regions in winter and spring, when daytemperatures are cool and greenhouses can be heated.
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TABLE 2.12. VEGETABLE TRANSPLANT RESPONSE TO THEDIFFERENCE IN DAY AND NIGHT TEMPERATURE(DIF)
Common Name Response to DIF1
Broccoli 3Brussels sprouts 3Cabbage 3Cantaloupe 3Cucumber 1–2Eggplant 3Pepper 0–1Squash 2Tomato 2Watermelon 3
From E. J. Holcomb (ed.), Bedding Plants IV (Batavia, Ill.: Ball, 1994). Original source: J. E. Erwinand R. D. Heins, ‘‘Temperature Effects on Bedding Plant Growth,’’ Bulletin 42:1–18, MinnesotaCommercial Flower Growers Association (1993). Used with permission.1 0 � no response; 3 � strong response
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08CONDITIONING TRANSPLANTS
Objective: To prepare plants to withstand stress conditions in the field.These may be low temperatures, high temperatures, drying winds, lowsoil moisture, or injury to the roots in transplanting. Growth ratesdecrease during conditioning, and the energy otherwise used in growth isstored in the plant to aid in resumption of growth after transplanting.Conditioning is used as an alternative to the older term, hardening.
Methods: Any treatment that restricts growth increases hardiness. Cool-season crops generally develop hardiness in proportion to the severity ofthe treatment and length of exposure and when well-conditionedwithstand subfreezing temperatures. Warm-season crops, even whenhighly conditioned, do not withstand temperatures much below freezing.1. Water supply. Gradually reduce water by watering lightly at less
frequent intervals. Do not allow the plants to dry out suddenly, withsevere wilting.
2. Temperature. Expose plants to lower temperatures (5–10�F) thanthose used for optimum growth. High day temperatures may reversethe effects of cool nights, making temperature management difficult.Do not expose biennials to prolonged cool temperatures, which inducesbolting.
3. Fertility. Do not fertilize, particularly with nitrogen, immediatelybefore or during the initial stages of conditioning. Apply a startersolution or liquid fertilizer 1 or 2 days before field setting and/or withthe transplanting water (see page 78).
4. Combinations. Restricting water and lowering temperatures andfertility, used in combination, are perhaps more effective than anysingle approach.
Duration: Seven to ten days are usually sufficient to complete theconditioning process. Do not impose conditions so severe that plants areoverconditioned in case of delayed planting because of poor weather.Overconditioned plants require too much time to resume growth, andearly yields may be lower.
PRETRANSPLANT HANDLING OF CONTAINERIZEDTRANSPLANTS
Field performance of transplants is related not only to productiontechniques in the greenhouse but also to handling techniques before field
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planting. In the containerized tray production system, plants can bedelivered to the field in the trays if the transplant house is near theproduction fields. For long-distance transport, the plants are usually pulledfrom the trays and packed in boxes. Tomato plants left in trays until fieldplanting tend to have more rapid growth rates and larger fruit yields thanwhen transplants were pulled from the trays and packed in boxes. Storageof pulled and packed tomato plants also reduces yields of large fruitscompared to plants kept in the trays. If pulled plants must be stored priorto planting, storage temperatures should be selected to avoid chilling oroverheating the transplants. Transplants that must be stored for shortperiods can be kept successfully at 50–55�F.
TABLE 2.13. STARTER SOLUTIONS FOR FIELD TRANSPLANTING1
MaterialsQuantity to Use inTransplanter Tank
Readily Soluble Commercial Mixtures
8-24-8, 11-48-0 (Follow manufacturer’s directions.)23-21-17, 13-26-13 Usually 3 lb /50 gal water6-25-15, 10-52-17
Straight Nitrogen Chemicals
Ammonium sulfate, calcium nitrate,or sodium nitrate
21⁄2 lb /50 gal water
Ammonium nitrate 11⁄2 lb /50 gal water
Commercial Solutions
30% nitrogen solution 11⁄2 pt /50 gal water8-24-0 solution (N and P2O5) 2 qt /50 gal water
Regular Commercial Fertilizer Grades
4-8-12, 5-10-5, 5-10-10, etc.
1 lb /gal for stock solution; stir welland let settle
5 gal stock solution with 45 galwater
1 Apply at a rate of about 1⁄2 pt / plant.
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09ADDITIONAL INFORMATION SOURCES ON TRANSPLANT
PRODUCTION
Charles W. Marr, Vegetable Transplants (Kansas State University, 1994),http: / /www.oznet.ksu.edu/ library /hort2 /MF1103.pdf.
W. Kelley et al., Commercial Production of Vegetable Transplants(University of Georgia, 2003), http: / /pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs /pubcd /b1144.htm.
J. Bodnar and R. Garton, Growing Vegetable Transplants in Plug Trays(Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs, 1996), http: / /www.omafra.gov.on.ca /english /crops / facts /96-023.htm.
L. Greer and K. Adam, Organic Plug and Transplant Production (2002),http: / /attra.ncat.org /attra-pub /plugs.html.
D. Krauskopf, Vegetable Transplant Production Tips (Michigan StateUniversity), http: / /www.horticulture.wisc.edu/ freshveg /Publications /WFFVGC%202005/Vegetable%20Transplant%20Production%20Tips.doc.
R. Styer and D. Koranski, Plug and Transplant Production: A Grower’sGuide (Batavia, Ill.: Ball).
GREENHOUSE CROP PRODUCTION
10CULTURAL MANAGEMENT
CULTURAL MANAGEMENT OF GREENHOUSE VEGETABLES
Although most vegetables can be grown successfully in greenhouses, only afew are grown there commercially. Tomato, cucumber, and lettuce are thethree most commonly grown vegetables in commercial greenhouses. Somegeneral cultural management principles are discussed here.
Greenhouse Design
Successful greenhouse vegetable production depends on careful greenhousedesign and construction. Consideration must be provided for environmentalcontrols, durability of components, and ease of operations, among otherfactors. The publications listed at the end of this chapter offer helpful advicefor construction.
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Sanitation
There is no substitute for good sanitation for preventing insect and diseaseoutbreaks in greenhouse crops.
To keep greenhouses clean, remove and destroy all dead plants,unnecessary mulch material, flats, weeds, etc. Burn or bury all plant refuse.Do not contaminate streams or water supplies with plant refuse. Weedsgrowing in and near the greenhouse after the cropping period should bedestroyed. Do not attempt to overwinter garden or house plants in thegreenhouses. Pests can also be maintained and ready for an early invasionof vegetable crops. To prevent disease organisms from carrying over on thestructure of the greenhouse and on the heating pipes and walks, spray withformaldehyde (3 gal 37% formalin in 100 gal water). Immediately afterspraying, close the greenhouse for 4–5 days, then ventilate. Caution: Wear arespirator when spraying with formaldehyde.
A 15–20-ft strip of carefully maintained lawn or bare ground around thegreenhouse helps decrease trouble from two-spotted mites and other pests.To reduce entry of whiteflies, leafhoppers, and aphids from weeds and otherplants near the greenhouses, spray the area growth occasionally with alabeled insecticide and control weeds around the greenhouse. Some pestscan be excluded with properly designed screens.
Monitoring Pests
Insects such as greenhouse and silverleaf whiteflies, thrips, and leaf minersare attracted to shades of yellow and fly toward that color. Thus, insecttraps can be made by painting pieces of board with the correct shade ofyellow pigment and then covering the paint with a sticky substance. Similartraps are available commercially from several greenhouse supply sources.By placing a number of traps within the greenhouse range, it is possible tocheck infestations daily and be aware of early infestations. Controlprograms can then be commenced while populations are low.
Two-spotted mites cannot be trapped in this way, but infestations usuallybegin in localized areas. Check leaves daily and begin control measures assoon as the first infested areas are noted.
Spacing
Good-quality container-grown transplants should be set in arrangements toallow about 4 sq ft /plant for tomato, 5 sq ft /plant for American-typecucumber, and 7–9 sq ft /plant for European-type cucumber. Lettuce requires36–81 sq in. /plant.
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Temperature
Greenhouse tomato varieties may vary in their temperature requirements,but most varieties perform well at a day minimum temperature of 70–75�Fand a night minimum temperature of 62–64�F. Temperatures for cucumberseedlings should be 72–76�F day and 68�F night. In a few weeks, nighttemperature can be gradually lowered to 62–64�F. Night temperatures forlettuce can be somewhat lower than for tomato and cucumber.
In northern areas, provisions should be made to heat water to be used ingreenhouses to about 70�F.
Pruning and Tying
Greenhouse tomatoes and cucumbers are usually pruned to a single stem byfrequent removal of axillary shoots or suckers. Other pruning systems arepossible and sometimes used. Various tying methods are used; one commonmethod is to train the pruned plant around a string suspended from anoverhead wire.
Pollination
Greenhouse tomatoes must be pollinated by hand or with bumblebees toassure a good set of fruit. This involves tapping or vibrating each flowercluster to transfer the pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. Thisshould be done daily as long as there are open blossoms on the flowercluster. The pollen is transferred most readily during sunny periods andwith the most difficulty on dark, cloudy days. The electric or battery-operated hand vibrator is the most widely accepted tool for vibrating tomatoflower clusters. Most red-fruited varieties pollinate more easily than pink-fruited varieties and can often be pollinated satisfactorily by tapping theoverhead support wires or by shaking flowers in the airstream of a motor-driven backpack air-blower. Modern growers now use bumblebees forpollinating tomato. Specially reared hives of bumblebees are purchased bythe grower for this purpose.
Pollination of European seedless cucumbers causes off-shape fruit, sobees must be excluded from the greenhouse. To help overcome this,gynoecious cultivars have been developed that bear almost 100% femaleflowers. Only completely gynoecious and parthenocarpic (set fruits withoutpollination) cultivars are now recommended for commercial production.
American-type cucumbers require bees for pollination. One colony ofhoneybees per house should be provided. It is advisable to shade coloniesfrom the afternoon sun and to avoid excessively high temperatures and
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humidities. Honeybees fly well in glass and polyethylene plastic houses butfail to work under certain other types of plastic. Under these conditions,crop failures may occur through lack of pollination.
Adapted from Ontario Ministry of Agriculture Publication 356 (1985–1986) and from G. Hochmuth,‘‘Production of Greenhouse Tomatoes,’’ Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production Handbook, vol. 3,(2001), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / CV266, and from G. Hochmuth and R. Hochmuth, Keys to SuccessfulTomato and Cucumber Production in Perlite Media (2003), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / HS169. See also:
D. Ross, Planning and Building a Greenhouse, www.wvu.edu / �agexten / hortcult / greenhou /building.htm.
G. Hochmuth and R. Hochmuth, Design Suggestions and Greenhouse Management for VegetableProduction in Perlite and Rockwool Media in Florida (2004), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / CV195.
Ray Bucklin, ‘‘Physical Greenhouse Design Considerations,’’ Florida Greenhouse Vegetable ProductionHandbook, vol. 2 (2001), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / CV254.
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11CARBON DIOXIDE ENRICHMENT
CARBON DIOXIDE ENRICHMENT OF GREENHOUSEATMOSPHERES
The beneficial effects of adding carbon dioxide (CO2) to the northerngreenhouse environment are well established. The crops that respond mostconsistently to supplemental CO2 are cucumber, lettuce, and tomato,although almost all other greenhouse crops also benefit. CO2 enrichment ofsouthern greenhouses probably has little benefit due to frequent ventilationrequirements under the warm temperatures.
Outside air contains about 340 parts per million (ppm) CO2 by volume.Most plants grow well at this level, but if levels are higher, the plantsrespond by producing more sugars. During the day, in a closed greenhouse,the plants use the CO2 in the air and reduce the level below the normal 340ppm. This is the point at which CO2 addition is most important. Most cropsrespond to CO2 additions up to about 1300 ppm. Somewhat lowerconcentrations are adequate for seedlings or when growing conditions areless than ideal.
Carbon dioxide can be obtained by burning natural gas, propane, orkerosene and directly from containers of pure CO2. Each source haspotential advantages and disadvantages. When natural gas, propane, orkerosene is burned, not only is CO2 produced but also heat, which cansupplement the normal heating system. Incomplete combustion orcontaminated fuels may cause plant damage. Most sources of natural gasand propane have sufficiently low levels of impurities, but you should notifyyour supplier of your intention to use the fuel for CO2 addition. Sulfur levelsin the fuel should not exceed 0.02% by weight.
A number of commercial companies have burners available for naturalgas, propane, and liquid fuels. The most important feature of a burner isthat it burns the fuel completely.
Because photosynthesis occurs only during daylight hours, CO2 additionis not required at night, but supplementation is recommended on dull days.Supplementation should start approximately 1 hour before sunrise, and thesystem should be shut off 1 hour before sunset. If supplemental lighting isused at night, intermittent addition of CO2 or the use of a CO2 controllermay be helpful.
When ventilators are opened, it is not possible to maintain high CO2
levels. However, it is often during these hours (high light intensity and
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temperature) that CO2 supplementation is beneficial. Because maintainingoptimal levels is impossible, maintaining at least ambient levels issuggested. A CO2 controller, whereby the CO2 concentration can bemaintained at any level above ambient, is therefore useful.
One important factor is an adequate distribution system. Thedistribution of CO2 mainly depends on the air movement in thegreenhouse(s), for CO2 does not travel far by diffusion. This means that if asingle source of CO2 is used for a large surface area or several connectinggreenhouses, a distribution system must be installed. Air circulation(horizontal fans or a fanjet system) that moves a large volume of airprovides uniform distribution within the greenhouse.
Adapted from Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food AGDEX 290 / 27 (1984) and from G.Hochmuth and R. Hochmuth (eds.), Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production Handbook, vol. 3,‘‘Greenhouse Vegetable Crop Production Guide,’’ Florida Cooperative Extension Fact Sheet HS784(2001), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / pdffiles / CV / CV26200.pdf.
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12SOILLESS CULTURE
SOILLESS CULTURE OF GREENHOUSE VEGETABLES
Well-managed field soils supply crops with sufficient water and appropriateconcentrations of the 13 essential inorganic elements. A combination ofdesirable soil chemical, physical, and biotic characteristics providesconditions for extensive rooting, which results in anchorage, the thirdgeneral quality provided to crops by soil.
When field soils are used in the greenhouse for repeated intensive cropculture, desirable soil characteristics deteriorate rapidly. Diminishingconcentrations of essential elements and impaired physical properties arerestored as in the field by applications of lime, fertilizer, and organic matter.Deterioration of the biotic quality of the soil by increased pathogenicmicroorganism and nematode populations is restricted mostly by steamsterilization.
Even with the best management, soils may deteriorate in quality overtime. In addition, the costs—particularly of steam sterilization—ofmaintaining greenhouse soils in good condition have escalated so thatsoilless culture methods are competitive with or perhaps more economicallyfavorable than soil culture. Accordingly, recent years have seen aconsiderable shift from soil culture to soilless culture in greenhouses. Liquidand solid media systems are used.
Liquid Soilless Culture
The nutrient film technique (NFT) is the most commonly used liquidsystem.
NFT growing systems consist of a series of narrow channels throughwhich nutrient solution is recirculated from a supply tank. A plumbingsystem of plastic tubing and a submersible pump in the tank are the basiccomponents. The channels are generally constructed of opaque plastic filmor plastic pipe; asphalt-coated wood and fiberglass are also used. The basiccharacteristic of all NFT systems is the shallow depth of solutionmaintained in the channels. Flow is usually continuous, but sometimessystems are operated intermittently by supplying solution a few minutesevery hour. The purpose of intermittent flow is to assure adequate aerationof the root systems. This also reduces the energy required, but under rapidgrowth conditions, plants may experience water stress if the flow period is
86
too short or infrequent. Therefore, intermittent flow management seemsbetter adapted to mild temperature periods or to plantings during the earlystages of development. Capillary matting is sometimes used in the bottom ofNFT channels, principally to avoid the side-to-side meandering of thesolution stream around young root systems; it also acts as a reservoir byretaining nutrients and water during periods when flow ceases.
NFT channels are frequently designed for a single row of plants with achannel width of 6–8 inches. Wider channels of 12–15 in. are used toaccommodate two rows of plants, but meandering of the shallow solutionstream becomes a greater problem with greater width. To minimize thisproblem, small dams can be created at intervals down the channel byplacing thin wooden sticks across the stream, or the channel may be linedwith capillary matting. The channels should be sloped 4–6 in. per 100 ft tomaintain gravity flow of the solution. Flow rate into the channels should bein the range of 1–2 qt /min.
Channel length should be limited to a maximum of 100 feet in order tominimize increased solution temperature on bright days. The ideal solutiontemperature for tomato is 68–77�F. Temperatures below 59� or above 86�Fdecrease plant growth and tomato yield. Channels of black plastic filmincrease solution temperature on sunny days. During cloudy weather, it maybe necessary to heat the solution to the recommended temperature. Solutiontemperatures in black plastic channels can be decreased by shading orpainting the surfaces white or silver. As an alternative to channels linedwith black polyethylene, 4–6-in. PVC pipe may be used. Plant holes arespaced appropriately along the pipe. The PVC system is permanent once itis constructed; polyethylene-lined channels must be replaced for each crop.Initial costs are higher for the PVC, and sanitation between crops may bemore difficult. In addition, PVC pipe systems are subject to root flooding ifroot masses clog pipes.
Solid Soilless Culture
Lightweight media in containers or bags and rockwool mats are the mostcommonly used media culture systems.
Media Culture
Soilless culture in bags, pots, or troughs with a lightweight medium is thesimplest, most economical, and easiest to manage of all soilless systems.The most common media used in containerized systems of soilless cultureare perlite, peat-lite, or a mixture of bark and wood chips. Container typesrange from long wooden troughs in which one or two rows of plants are
87
grown to polyethylene bags or rigid plastic pots containing one to threeplants. Bag or pot systems using bark chips or peat-lite are in common usethroughout the United States and offer major advantages over other typesof soilless culture:
1. These materials have excellent retention qualities for nutrients andwater.
2. Containers of medium are readily moved in or out of the greenhousewhenever necessary or desirable.
3. They are lightweight and easily handled.4. The medium is useful for several successive crops.5. The containers are significantly less expensive and less time-
consuming to install.6. In comparison with recirculated hydroponic systems, the nutrient-
solution system is less complicated and less expensive to manage.
From a plant nutrition standpoint, the latter advantage is of significantimportance. In a recirculated system, the solution is continuously changingin its nutrient concentration because of differential plant uptake. In the bagor pot system, the solution is not recirculated. Nutrient solution is suppliedfrom a fertilizer proportioner or large supply tank to the surface of themedium in a sufficient quantity to wet the medium. Any excess is drainedaway from the system through drain holes in the base of the containers.Thus, the concentration of nutrients in solution supplied to the plants is thesame at each application. This eliminates the need to sample and analyzethe solution periodically to determine necessary adjustments and avoids thepossibility of solution excess or deficiencies.
In the bag or pot system, the volume of medium per container variesfrom about 1 /2 cu ft in vertical polyethylene bags or pots to 2 cu ft in lay-flat bags. In the vertical bag system, 4-mil black polyethylene bags withprepunched drain holes at the bottom are common. One, but sometimes two,tomato or cucumber plants are grown in each bag. Lay-flat bagsaccommodate two or three plants. In either case, the bags are aligned inrows with spacing appropriate to the type of crop. It is good practice toplace vertical bags or pots on a narrow sheet of plastic film to prevent rootcontact or penetration into the underlying soil. Plants in lay-flat bags, whichhave drainage slits (or overflow ports) cut along the sides an inch or soabove the base, also benefit from a protective plastic sheet beneath them.
Nutrient solution is delivered to the containers by supply lines of blackpolyethylene tubing, spaghetti tubing, spray sticks, or ring drippers in thecontainers. The choice of application system is important in order to provide
88
proper wetting of the medium at each irrigation. Texture and porosity of thegrowing medium and the surface area to be wetted are importantconsiderations in making the choice. Spaghetti tubing provides a point-source wetting pattern, which might be appropriate for fine-textured mediathat allow water to be conducted laterally with ease. In lay-flat bags, singlespaghetti tubes at individual plant holes provide good wetting of peat-lite.In a vertical bag containing a porous medium, a spray stick with a 90-degree spray pattern does a good job of irrigation if it is located to wet themajority of the surface. Ring drippers are also a good choice for verticalbags, although somewhat more expensive. When choosing an applicationsystem for bag or container culture, remember that the objective ofirrigation is to distribute nutrient solution uniformly so that all of themedium is wet.
Rockwool and Perlite Culture
Rockwool is made by melting various types of rocks at very hightemperatures. The resulting fibrous particles are formed into growing blocksor mats that are sterile and free of organic matter. The growing mats havea high water-holding capacity, no buffering capacity, and an initial pH of 7–8.5, which is lowered quickly with application of slightly acidic nutrientsolutions. Uncovered mats, which are covered with polyethylene duringsetup, or polyethylene enclosed mats can be purchased. The mats are 8–12in. wide, 36 in. long, and 3 in. thick. Perlite, a volcanic mineral, is heatedand expanded into small, granular particles. Perlite has a high water-holding capacity but provides good aeration.
The greenhouse floor should be carefully leveled and covered with 3-milblack /white polyethylene, which restricts weed growth and acts as a lightreflector with the white side up. The mats are placed end to end to form arow; single or double rows are spaced for the crop and greenhouseconfiguration.
A complete nutrient solution made with good-quality water is used forinitial soaking of the mats. Large volumes are necessary because of the highwater-holding capacity of the mats. Drip irrigation tubing or spaghettitubing arranged along the plant row are used for initial soaking and, later,for fertigation. After soaking, uncovered mats are covered with polyethyleneand drainage holes made in the bagged mats.
Cross-slits, corresponding in size to the propagating blocks, are made inthe polyethylene mat cover at desired in-row plant spacings; usually twoplants are grown in each 30-in.-long mat. The propagating blocks containingthe transplant are placed on the mat, and the excess polyethylene from thecross-slit is arranged around the block. Frequent irrigation is required until
89
Figure 2.1. NFT culture system using polyethylene film to hold plants andsupply nutrient solution through a recirculation system (From Florida Coop-erative Extension Bulletin 218).
plant roots are established in the mat; thereafter, fertigation is applied 4–10times a day depending on the growing conditions and stage of crop growth.The mats are leached with good-quality water when samples taken from themats with a syringe have increased conductivity readings.
Adapted in part from H. Johnson Jr., G. J. Hochmuth, and D. N. Maynard, ‘‘Soilless Culture ofGreenhouse Vegetables,’’ Florida Cooperative Extension Bulletin 218 (1985), and from M. Sweat andG. Hochmuth, ‘‘Production Systems,’’ Florida Greenhouse Vegetable Production Handbook, vol. 3, FactSheet HS785, http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / pdffiles / CV / CV26300.pdf.
90
Figure 2.2. Arranged mats are covered with white /black polyethylene.
Figure 2.3. Irrigation system and drainage holes for rockwool mats enclosedin a polyethylene bag.
Figure 2.4. Cross-slits are made to accommodate transplants in propagationblocks.
91
Figure 2.5. Ordinarily, two plants are placed in each 30-in.-long mat.
Figure 2.6. Fertigation supplied by spaghetti tubing to each plant.
Figure 2.7. Fertigation supplied by drip irrigation tubing.
92
Figure 2.8. Removal of sample from rockwool mat with a syringe for con-ductivity determination.
Figures 2.2. through 2.8. Adapted from GRODAN� Instructions for cultivation—cucumbers, GrodaniaA / S, Denmark and used with permission.
13NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS
NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS FOR SOILLESS CULTURE
Because the water and/or media used for soilless culture of greenhousevegetables is devoid of essential elements, these must be supplied in anutrient solution.
Commercially available fertilizer mixtures may be used, or nutrientsolutions can be prepared from individual chemical salts. The most widelyused and generally successful nutrient solution is one developed by D. R.Hoagland and D. I. Arnon at the University of California. Many commercialmixtures are based on their formula.
Detailed directions for preparation of Hoagland’s nutrient solutions,which are suitable for experimental or commercial use, and the formulas forseveral nutrient solutions suitable for commercial use follow.
93
TABLE 2.14. HOAGLAND’S NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS
SaltStock Solution(g to make 1 L)
Final Solution(ml to make 1 L)
Solution 1
Ca(NO3)2 � 4H2O 236.2 5KNO3 101.1 5KH2PO4 136.1 1MgSO4 � 7H2O 246.5 2
Solution 2
Ca(NO3)2 � 4H2O 236.2 4KNO3 101.1 6NH4H2PO4 115.0 1MgSO4 � 7H2O 246.5 2
Micronutrient Solution
Compound Amount (g) Dissolved in 1 L Water
H3BO3 2.86MnCl2 � 4H2O 1.81ZnSO4 � 7H2O 0.22CuSO4 � 5H2O 0.08H2MoO4 � H2O 0.02
Iron Solution
Iron chelate, such as Sequestrene 330, made to stock solution containing 1 gactual iron /L. Sequestrene 330 is 10% iron; thus, 10 g /L are required. Theamounts of other chelates must be adjusted on the basis of their ironcontent.
94
Procedure: To make 1 L of Solution 1, add 5 ml Ca(NO3)2 � 4H2O stocksolution, 5 ml KNO3, 1 ml KH2PO4, 2ml MgSO4 � 7H2O, 1 ml micronutrientsolution, and 1 ml iron solution to 800 ml distilled water. Make up to 1 L.Some plants grow better on Solution 2, which is prepared in the same way.
Adapted from D. R. Hoagland and D. I. Arnon, ‘‘The Water-culture Method for Growing PlantsWithout Soil,’’ California Agricultural Experiment Station Circular 347 (1950).
SOME NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS FOR COMMERCIAL GREENHOUSEVEGETABLE PRODUCTION
These solutions are designed to be supplied directly to greenhouse vegetablecrops.
95
TABLE 2.15. JOHNSON’S SOLUTION
CompoundAmount
(g /100 gal water)
Potassium nitrate 95Monopotassium phosphate 54Magnesium sulfate 95Calcium nitrate 173Chelated iron (FeDTPA) 9Boric acid 0.5Manganese sulfate 0.3Zinc sulfate 0.04Copper sulfate 0.01Molybdic acid 0.005
N P K Ca Mg S Fe B Mn Zn Cu Mo
ppm 105 33 138 85 25 33 2.3 0.23 0.26 0.024 0.01 0.007
96
TABLE 2.16. JENSEN’S SOLUTION
CompoundAmount
(g /100 gal water)
Magnesium sulfate 187Monopotassium phosphate 103Potassium nitrate 77Calcium nitrate 189Chelated iron (FeDTPA) 9.6Boric acid 1.0Manganese chloride 0.9Cupric chloride 0.05Molybdic acid 0.02Zinc sulfate 0.15
N P K Ca Mg S Fe B Mn Zn Cu Mo
ppm 106 62 156 93 48 64 3.8 0.46 0.81 0.09 0.05 0.03
Adapted from H. Johnson, Jr., G. J. Hochmuth, and D. N. Maynard, ‘‘Soilless Culture of GreenhouseVegetables,’’ Florida Cooperative Extension Service Bulletin 218 (1985).
97
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14TISSUE COMPOSITION
TABLE 2.19. APPROXIMATE NORMAL TISSUE COMPOSITION OFHYDROPONICALLY GROWN GREENHOUSEVEGETABLES1
Element Tomato Cucumber
K 5–8% 8–15%Ca 2–3% 1–3%Mg 0.4–1.0% 0.3–0.7%NO3-N 14,000–20,000 ppm 10,000–20,000 ppmPO4-P 6,000–8,000 ppm 8,000–10,000 ppmFe 40–100 ppm 90–120 ppmZn 15–25 ppm 40–50 ppmCu 4–6 ppm 5–10 ppmMn 25–50 ppm 50–150 ppmMo 1–3 ppm 1–3 ppmB 20–60 ppm 40–60 ppm
Adapted from H. Johnson, Hydroponics: A Guide to Soilless Culture Systems, University of CaliforniaDivision of Agricultural Science Leaflet 2947 (1977).1 Values are for recently expanded leaves, 5th or 6th from the growing tip, petiole analysis formacronutrients, leaf blade analysis for micronutrients. Expressed on a dry weight basis.
101
TABLE 2.20. SUFFICIENCY NUTRIENT RANGES FOR SELECTEDGREENHOUSE VEGETABLE CROPS USING DRIEDMOST RECENTLY MATURED WHOLE LEAVES
Element
Beginning of HarvestSeason
Tomato Cucumber
Just Before Harvest
Lettuce
percent
N 3.5–4.0 2.5–5.0 2.1–5.6P 0.4–0.6 0.5–1.0 0.5–0.9K 2.8–4.0 3.0–6.0 4.0–8.0Ca 0.5–2.0 0.8–6.0 0.9–2.0Mg 0.4–1.0 0.4–0.8 0.4–0.8S 0.4–0.8 0.4–0.8 0.2–0.5
parts per million
B 35–60 40–100 25–65Cu 8–20 4–10 5–18Fe 50–200 90–150 50–200Mn 50–125 50–300 25–200Mo 1–5 1–3 0.5–3.0Zn 25–60 50–150 30–200
Adapted from G. Hochmuth, ‘‘Fertilizer Management for Greenhouse Vegetables,’’ Florida GreenhouseVegetable Production Handbook, vol. 3, Florida Cooperative Extension Fact Sheet HS787 (2001),http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / pdffiles / cv / cv26500.pdf.
102
15ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON GREENHOUSE
VEGETABLES
University of Georgia, http: / /pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs /pubcd /B1182.htm.Organic herbs, http: / /attra.ncat.org /attra-pub /gh-herbhold.html.Mississippi State University, http: / /msucares.com/crops / comhort /
index.html.Mississippi State University, http: / /msucares.com/pubs /publications /
p1828.htm.North Carolina State University, http: / /www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts /hort /
greenhouse veg /.University of Arizona, http: / /ag.arizona.edu/hydroponictomatoes /.University of Florida, http: / / smallfarms.ifas.ufl.edu/greenhouse /.List of greenhouse manufacturers /suppliers, http: / /nfrec-sv.ifas.ufl.edu/gh
suppliers.htm.
PART 3FIELD PLANTING
01 TEMPERATURES FOR VEGETABLES
02 SCHEDULING SUCCESSIVE PLANTINGS
03 TIME REQUIRED FOR SEEDLING EMERGENCE
04 SEED REQUIRMENTS
05 PLANTING RATES FOR LARGE SEEDS
06 SPACING OF VEGETABLES
07 PRECISION SEEDING
08 SEED PRIMING
09 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
10 POLYETHYLENE MULCHES
11 ROW COVERS
12 WINDBREAKS
13 ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON PLASTICULTURE
Knott’s Handbook for Vegetable Growers, Fifth Edition. D. N. Maynard and G. J. Hochmuth© 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-73828-2
104
01TEMPERATURES FOR VEGETABLES
COOL-SEASON AND WARM-SEASON VEGETABLES
Vegetables generally can be divided into two broad groups. Cool-seasonvegetables develop edible vegetative parts, such as roots, stems, leaves, andbuds or immature flower parts. Sweet potato and other tropical root crops(root used) and New Zealand spinach (leaf and stem used) are exceptions tothis rule. Warm-season vegetables develop edible immature and maturefruits. Pea and broad bean are exceptions, being cool-season crops.
Cool-season crops generally differ from warm-season crops in thefollowing respects:
1. They are hardy or frost tolerant.2. Seeds germinate at cooler soil temperatures.3. Root systems are shallower.4. Plant size is smaller.5. Some, the biennials, are susceptible to premature seed stalk
development from exposure to prolonged cool weather.6. They are stored near 32�F, except for the white potato. Sweet corn is
the only warm-season crop held at 32�F after harvest.7. The harvested product is not subject to chilling injury at
temperatures between 32� and 50�F, as is the case with some of thewarm-season vegetables.
105
TABLE 3.1. CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLE CROPSACCORDING TO THEIR ADAPTATION TO FIELDTEMPERATURES
Cool-season Crops
Hardy1 Half-hardy1
Asparagus Kohlrabi BeetBroad bean Leek CarrotBroccoli Mustard CauliflowerBrussels sprouts Onion CeleryCabbage Parsley ChardChive Pea ChicoryCollards Radish Chinese cabbageGarlic Rhubarb Globe artichokeHorseradish Spinach EndiveKale Turnip Lettuce
ParsnipPotatoSalsify
Warm-season Crops
Tender1 Very Tender1
Cowpea CantaloupeNew Zealand spinach CucumberSnap bean EggplantSoybean Lima beanSweet corn OkraTomato Pepper, hot
Pepper, sweetPumpkinSquashSweet potatoWatermelon
Adapted from A. A. Kader, J. M. Lyons, and L. L. Morris, ‘‘Postharvest Responses of Vegetables toPreharvest Field Temperatures,’’ HortScience 9:523–529 (1974).1 Relative resistance to frost and light freezes.
106
TABLE 3.2. GROWING DEGREE DAY BASE TEMPERATURES
Crop Base Temperature (�F)1
Asparagus 40Bean, snap 50Beet 40Broccoli 40Cantaloupe 50Carrot 38Collards 40Cucumber 55Eggplant 60Lettuce 40Onion 35Okra 60Pea 40Pepper 50Potato 40Squash 45Strawberry 39Sweet corn 48Sweet potato 60Tomato 51Watermelon 55
Adapted from D. C. Sanders, H. J. Kirk, and C. Van Den Brink, ‘‘Growing Degree Days in NorthCarolina,’’ North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service AG-236 (1980).1 Temperature below which growth is negligible.
107
TABLE 3.3. APPROXIMATE MONTHLY TEMPERATURES FORBEST GROWTH AND QUALITY OF VEGETABLECROPS
Some crops can be planted as temperatures approach the proper range.Cool-season crops grown in the spring must have time to mature beforewarm weather. Fall crops can be started in hot weather to ensure asufficient period of cool temperature to reach maturity. Within a crop,varieties may differ in temperature requirements; hence this listingprovides general rather than specific guidelines.
Temperatures (�F)
Optimum Minimum Maximum Vegetable
55–75 45 85 Chicory, chive, garlic, leek, onion,salsify, scolymus, scorzonera,shallot
60–65 40 75 Beet, broad bean, broccoli, Brusselssprouts, cabbage, chard, collards,horseradish, kale, kohlrabi,parsnip, radish, rutabaga, sorrel,spinach, turnip
60–65 45 75 Artichoke, cardoon, carrot,cauliflower, celeriac, celery,Chinese cabbage, endive,Florence fennel, lettuce,mustard, parsley, pea, potato
60–70 50 80 Lima bean, snap bean60–75 50 95 Sweet corn, southern pea, New
Zealand spinach65–75 50 90 Chayote, pumpkin, squash65–75 60 90 Cucumber, cantaloupe70–75 65 80 Sweet pepper, tomato70–85 65 95 Eggplant, hot pepper, martynia,
okra, roselle, sweet potato,watermelon
108
TABLE 3.4. SOIL TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS FOR VEGETABLESEED GERMINATION1
VegetableMinimum
(�F)Optimum Range
(�F)Optimum
(�F)Maximum
(�F)
Asparagus 50 60–85 75 95Bean 60 60–85 80 95Bean, lima 60 65–85 85 85Beet 40 50–85 85 95Cabbage 40 45–95 85 100Cantaloupe 60 75–95 90 100Carrot 40 45–85 80 95Cauliflower 40 45–85 80 100Celery 40 60–70 702 852
Chard, Swiss 40 50–85 85 95Corn 50 60–95 95 105Cucumber 60 60–95 95 105Eggplant 60 75–90 85 95Lettuce 35 40–80 75 85Okra 60 70–95 95 105Onion 35 50–95 75 95Parsley 40 50–85 75 90Parsnip 35 50–70 65 85Pea 40 40–75 75 85Pepper 60 65–95 85 95Pumpkin 60 70–90 90 100Radish 40 45–90 85 95Spinach 35 45–75 70 85Squash 60 70–95 95 100Tomato 50 60–85 85 95Turnip 40 60–105 85 105Watermelon 60 70–95 95 105
1 Compiled by J. F. Harrington, Department of Vegetable Crops, University of California, Davis.2 Daily fluctuation to 60�F or lower at night is essential.
109
02SCHEDULING SUCCESSIVE PLANTINGS
Successive plantings are necessary to ensure a continuous supply ofproduce. This seemingly easy goal is in fact extremely difficult to achievebecause of interrupted planting schedules, poor stands, and variableweather conditions.
Maturity can be predicted in part by use of days to harvest or heat units.Additional flexibility is provided by using varieties that differ in time andheat units to reach maturity. Production for fresh market entails the use ofdays to harvest, while some processing crops may be scheduled using theheat unit concept.
Fresh Market Crops
Sweet corn is used as an example because it is an important fresh-marketcrop in many parts of the country and requires several plantings to obtain aseason-long supply.
1. Select varieties suitable for your area that mature over time. Weillustrate with five fictitious varieties maturing in 68–84 days fromplanting, with 4-day intervals between varieties.
2. Make the first planting as early as possible in your area.3. Construct a table like the one following and calculate the time of the
next planting, so that the earliest variety used matures 4 days after‘‘Late’’ in the first planting. We chose to use ‘‘Mainseason’’ as theearliest variety in the second planting; thus, 88 days � 80 days � 8days elapsed time before the second and subsequent plantings.
4. As sometimes happens, the third planting was delayed 4 days by rain.To compensate for this delay, ‘‘Midseason’’ is selected as the earliestvariety in the third planting to provide corn 96 days after the firstplanting.
110
TABLE 3.5. EXAMPLES OF SWEET CORN PLANTINGS
Planting Variety
Time (days)
ToMaturity
From FirstPlanting
To NextPlanting
First Early 68 68Second Early 72 72Midseason 76 76Mainseason 80 80Late 84 84
8Second Mainseason 80 88
Late 84 9212
Third Midseason 76 96Mainseason 80 100Late 84 104
Adapted from H. Tiessen, ‘‘Scheduled Planting of Vegetable Crops,’’ Ontario Ministry of Agricultureand Food AGDEX 250 / 22 (1980).
Processing Crops
The heat unit system is used to schedule plantings and harvests for someprocessing crops, most notably pea and sweet corn. The use of this systemimplies that accumulated temperatures over a selected base temperatureare a more accurate means of measuring growth than a time unit such asdays.
In simplest form, heat units are calculated as follows:
Maximum � minimum daily temperature� base temperature
2
The base temperature is 40�F for pea and 50�F for sweet corn. A numberof variations to this basic formula are proposed to further extend itsusefulness.
Heat unit requirements to reach maturity are determined for mostprocessing pea and sweet corn varieties and many snap bean varieties.Processors using the heat unit system assist growers in schedulingplantings to coincide with processing plant operating capacity.
111
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113
04SEED REQUIREMENTS
TABLE 3.7. APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF SEEDS PER UNITWEIGHT AND FIELD SEEDING RATES FORTRADITIONAL PLANT DENSITIES
VegetableSeeds(no.)
UnitWeight
Field Seeding1
(lb /acre)
Asparagus2 14,000–20,000 lb 2–3Bean, baby lima 1,200–1,500 lb 60Bean, Fordhook lima 400–600 lb 85Bean, bush snap 1,600–2,000 lb 75–90Bean, pole snap 1,600–2,000 lb 20–45Beet 24,000–26,000 lb 10–15Broad bean 300–800 lb 60–80Broccoli3 9,000 oz 1⁄2–11⁄2Brussels sprouts3 9,000 oz 1⁄2–11⁄2Cabbage3 9,000 oz 1⁄2–11⁄2Cantaloupe3 16,000–20,000 lb 2Cardoon 11,000 lb 4–5Carrot 300,000–400,000 lb 2–4Cauliflower3 9,000 oz 1⁄2–11⁄2Celeriac 72,000 oz 1–2Celery3 72,000 oz 1–2Chicory 27,000 oz 3–5Chinese cabbage 9,000 oz 1–2Collards 9,000 oz 2–4Corn salad 13,000 oz 10Cucumber 15,000–16,000 lb 3–5Dandelion 35,000 oz 2Eggplant3 6,500 oz 2Endive 25,000 oz 3–4Florence fennel 7,000 oz 3Kale 9,000 oz 2–4Kohlrabi 9,000 oz 3–5Leek3 200,000 lb 4Lettuce, head3 20,000–25,000 oz 1–3Lettuce, leaf 25,000–30,000 oz 1–3
114
TABLE 3.7. APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF SEEDS PER UNITWEIGHT AND FIELD SEEDING RATES FORTRADITIONAL PLANT DENSITIES (Continued )
VegetableSeeds(no.)
UnitWeight
Field Seeding1
(lb /acre)
Mustard 15,000 oz 3–5New Zealand spinach 5,600 lb 15Okra 8,000 lb 6–8Onion, bulb3 130,000 lb 3–4Onion, bunching 180,000–200,000 lb 3–4Parsley 250,000 lb 20–40Parsnip 192,000 lb 3–5Pea 1,500–2,500 lb 80–250Pepper3 4,200–4,600 oz 24Pumpkin 1,500–4,000 lb 2–4Radish 40,000–50,000 lb 10–20Roselle 900–1,000 oz 3–5Rutabaga 150,000–190,000 lb 1–2Salsify 1,900 oz 8–10Sorrel 30,000 oz 2–3Southern pea 3,600 lb 20–40Soybean 4,000 lb 20–40Spinach 45,000 lb 10–15Squash, summer 3,500–4,500 lb 4–6Squash, winter 1,600–4,000 lb 2–4Swiss chard 25,000 lb 6–8Sweet corn, su, se 1,800–2,500 lb 12–15Sweet corn, sh2 3,000–5,000 lb 12–15Tomato3 10,000–12,000 oz 1⁄2–1Turnip 150,000–200,000 lb 1–2Watermelon, small seed3 8,000–10,000 lb 1–3Watermelon, large seed3 3,000–5,000 lb 2–4
1 Actual seeding rates are adjusted to desired plant populations, germination percentage of the seedlot, and weather conditions that influence germination.2 6–8 lbs / acre for crown production3 Transplants are used frequently instead of direct field seeding. See pages 62–64 for seeding rates fortransplants.
115
05PLANTING RATES FOR LARGE SEEDS
Weigh out a 1-oz sample of the seed lot and count the number of seeds.The following table gives the approximate pounds of seed per acre for
certain between-row and in-row spacings of lima bean, pea, snap bean, andsweet corn. These are based on 100% germination. If the seed germinatesonly 90%, for example, then divide the pounds of seed by 0.90 to get theplanting rate. Do the same with other germination percentages.
Example: 30 seeds /oz to be planted in 22-in. rows at 1-in. spacingbetween seeds.
595� 661 lb /acre
0.90
Only precision planting equipment begins to approach as exact a job ofspacing as this table indicates. Moreover, field conditions such as soilstructure, temperature, and moisture affect germination and final stand.
116
TA
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SF
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Spa
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1820
22
Spa
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See
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12
34
56
12
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56
12
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56
No. of
See
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Nee
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(lb
/acr
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3072
636
424
218
214
612
165
532
821
816
413
110
959
529
819
814
911
998
4054
527
318
213
611
090
491
246
163
123
9982
446
223
148
112
9074
5044
022
014
611
088
7439
619
813
299
7966
361
180
120
9072
6060
354
178
118
9076
5931
815
910
680
6453
289
145
9773
5848
7031
215
610
478
6256
281
140
9470
5647
256
128
8564
5143
8027
213
690
6854
4624
512
382
6249
4122
311
274
5645
3790
242
120
8260
4840
218
109
7355
4437
198
9966
5040
3310
021
610
872
5442
3819
899
6650
3933
181
9060
4535
3011
019
899
6650
4034
173
8959
4435
3016
180
5440
3227
120
180
9060
4536
3016
281
5440
3327
148
7449
3730
2513
016
884
5642
3428
152
7651
3831
2513
869
4634
2823
140
156
7852
3830
2614
170
4735
2824
128
6443
3225
2215
014
673
4936
2824
131
6644
3326
2211
960
4030
2420
117
Spa
cin
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etw
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Row
s(i
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2430
36
Spa
cin
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12
34
56
12
34
56
12
34
56
No. of
See
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eed
Nee
ded
(lb
/acr
e)
3054
527
318
213
610
991
437
219
146
109
8873
363
182
121
9173
6140
408
204
136
102
8268
328
164
106
8266
5427
213
691
6855
4550
330
165
110
8266
5526
513
288
6653
4422
011
073
5544
3760
265
133
8867
5744
212
106
7159
4335
177
8959
4538
2970
234
117
7859
4739
188
9463
4738
3115
678
5239
3126
8020
410
268
5141
3416
482
5341
3327
136
6845
3427
2390
181
9061
4536
3014
673
4937
2925
121
6041
3024
2010
016
281
5540
3228
131
6744
3327
2210
854
3727
2119
110
148
7449
3730
2511
960
4030
2420
9949
3325
2017
120
135
6845
3427
2310
854
3627
2218
9045
3023
1815
130
126
6342
3225
2110
151
3425
2017
8442
2821
1714
140
117
5839
2923
2094
4732
2319
1678
3926
1915
1315
010
955
3827
2218
8844
2922
1815
7337
2418
1412
118
06SPACING OF VEGETABLES
SPACING OF VEGETABLES AND PLANT POPULATIONS
Spacing for vegetables is determined by the equipment used to plant,maintain, and harvest the crop as well as by the area required for growth ofthe plant without undue competition from neighboring plants. Previously,row spacings were dictated almost entirely by the space requirement ofcultivating equipment. Many of the traditional row spacings can be traced tothe horse cultivator.
Modern herbicides have largely eliminated the need for extensivecultivation in many crops; thus, row spacings need not be related tocultivation equipment. Instead, the plant’s space requirement can be usedas the determining factor. In addition, profitability is related to maximumuse of field growing space.
Invariably, plant populations increase when this approach is used. Amore uniform product with a higher proportion of marketable vegetables aswell as higher total yields result from the closer plant spacings. The termhigh-density production has been developed to describe vegetable spacingsdesigned to satisfy the plant’s space requirement.
TABLE 3.9. HIGH-DENSITY SPACING OF VEGETABLES
VegetableSpacing
(in.)
PlantPopulation
(plants /acre)
Bean, snap 3 � 12 174,000Beet 2 � 12 261,000Carrot 11⁄2 � 12 349,000Cauliflower 12 � 18 29,000Cabbage 12 � 18 29,000Cucumber (processing) 3 � 20 104,000Lettuce 12 � 18 29,000Onion 1 � 12 523,000
119
TABLE 3.10. TRADITIONAL PLANT AND ROW SPACINGS FORVEGETABLES
VegetableBetween Plants
in Row (in.)Between
Rows (in.)
Artichoke 48–72 84–96Asparagus 9–15 48–72Bean, broad 8–10 20–48Bean, snap 2–4 18–36Bean, lima, bush 3–6 18–36Bean, lima, pole 8–12 36–48Bean, pole 6–9 36–48Beet 2–4 12–30Broccoli1 12–24 18–36Broccoli raab 3–4 24–36Brussels sprouts 18–24 24–40Cabbage1 12–24 24–36Cantaloupe and other melons 12 60–84Cardoon 12–18 30–42Carrot 1–3 16–30Cauliflower1 14–24 24–36Celeriac 4–6 24–36Celery 6–12 18–40Chard, Swiss 12–15 24–36Chervil 6–10 12–18Chicory 4–10 18–24Chinese cabbage 10–18 18–36Chive 12–18 24–36Collards 12–24 24–36Corn 8–12 30–42Cress 2–4 12–18Cucumber1 8–12 36–72Dandelion 3–6 14–24Dasheen (taro) 24–30 42–48Eggplant 18–30 24–48Endive 8–12 18–24Florence fennel 4–12 24–42Garlic 1–3 12–24Horseradish 12–18 30–36
120
TABLE 3.10. TRADITIONAL PLANT AND ROW SPACINGS FORVEGETABLES (Continued )
VegetableBetween Plants
in Row (in.)Between
Rows (in.)
Jerusalem artichoke 15–18 42–48Kale 18–24 24–36Kohlrabi 3–6 12–36Leek 2–6 12–36Lettuce, cos 10–14 16–24Lettuce, head1 10–15 16–24Lettuce, leaf 8–12 12–24Mustard 5–10 12–36New Zealand spinach 10–20 36–60Okra 8–24 42–60Onion 1–4 16–24Parsley 4–12 12–36Parsley, Hamburg 1–3 18–36Parsnip 2–4 18–36Pea 1–3 24–48Pepper1 12–24 18–36Potato 6–12 30–42Pumpkin 36–60 72–96Radish 1⁄2–1 8–18Radish, storage type 4–6 18–36Rhubarb 24–48 36–60Roselle 24–46 60–72Rutabaga 5–8 18–36Salsify 2–4 18–36Scolymus 2–4 18–36Scorzonera 2–4 18–36Shallot 4–8 36–48Sorrel 1⁄2–1 12–18Southern pea 3–6 18–42Spinach 2–6 12–36Squash, bush1 24–48 36–60Squash, vining 36–96 72–96Strawberry1 10–24 24–64Sweet potato 10–18 36–48
121
TABLE 3.10. TRADITIONAL PLANT AND ROW SPACINGS FORVEGETABLES (Continued )
VegetableBetween Plants
in Row (in.)Between
Rows (in.)
Tomato, flat 18–48 36–60Tomato, staked 12–24 36–48Tomato, processing 2–10 42–60Turnip 2–6 12–36Turnip greens 1–4 6–12Watercress 1–3 6–12Watermelon 24–36 72–96
1 Some crops can be grown double-row fashion on polyethylene mulched beds with 10–20 in. betweenrows.
TABLE 3.11. LENGTH OF ROW PER ACRE AT VARIOUS ROWSPACINGS
DistanceBetween Rows
(in.)Row Length
(ft /acre)
DistanceBetween Rows
(in.)Row Length
(ft /acre)
6 87,120 40 13,06812 43,560 42 12,44515 34,848 48 10,89018 29,040 60 8,71220 26,136 72 7,26021 24,891 84 6,22324 21,780 96 5,44530 17,424 108 4,84036 14,520 120 4,356
122
TABLE 3.12. NUMBER OF PLANTS PER ACRE AT VARIOUSSPACINGS
In order to obtain other spacings, divide 43,560, the number of square feetper acre, by the product of the between-rows and in-the-row spacings, eachexpressed as feet—that is, 43,560 divided by 0.75 (36 � 3 in. or 3 � 0.25ft) � 58,080.
Spacing(in.) Plants
Spacing(in.) Plants
Spacing(ft) Plants
12 � 1 522,720 30 � 3 69,696 6 � 1 7,26012 � 3 174,240 30 � 6 34,848 6 � 2 3,63012 � 6 87,120 30 � 12 17,424 6 � 3 2,42012 � 12 43,560 30 � 15 13,939 6 � 4 1,815
30 � 18 11,616 6 � 5 1,452151 � 1 418,176 30 � 24 8,712 6 � 6 1,21015 � 3 139,39215 � 6 69,696 36 � 3 58,080 7 � 1 6,22315 � 12 34,848 36 � 6 29,040 7 � 2 3,111
36 � 12 14,520 7 � 3 2,074181 � 3 116,160 36 � 18 9,680 7 � 4 1,55618 � 6 58,080 36 � 24 7,260 7 � 5 1,24418 � 12 29,040 36 � 36 4,840 7 � 6 1,03718 � 14 24,891 7 � 7 88918 � 18 19,360 40 � 6 26,136
40 � 12 13,068 8 � 1 5,445201 � 3 104,544 40 � 18 8,712 8 � 2 2,72220 � 6 52,272 40 � 24 6,534 8 � 3 1,81520 � 12 26,136 8 � 4 1,36120 � 14 22,402 42 � 6 24,891 8 � 5 1,08920 � 18 17,424 42 � 12 12,445 8 � 6 907
42 � 18 8,297 8 � 8 680211 � 3 99,564 42 � 24 6,22321 � 6 49,782 42 � 36 4,148 10 � 2 2,17821 � 12 24,891 10 � 4 1,08921 � 14 21,336 48 � 6 21,780 10 � 6 72621 � 18 16,594 48 � 12 10,890 10 � 8 544
48 � 18 7,260 10 � 10 43524 � 3 87,120 48 � 24 5,445
123
TABLE 3.12. NUMBER OF PLANTS PER ACRE AT VARIOUSSPACINGS (Continued )
Spacing(in.) Plants
Spacing(in.) Plants
Spacing(ft) Plants
24 � 6 43,560 48 � 36 3,63024 � 12 21,780 48 � 48 2,72224 � 18 14,52024 � 24 10,890 60 � 12 8,712
60 � 18 5,80860 � 24 4,35660 � 36 2,90460 � 48 2,17860 � 60 1,742
1 Equivalent to double rows on beds at 30-, 36-, 40-, and 42-in. centers respectively.
124
07PRECISION SEEDING
High-density plantings, high costs of hand thinning, and erraticperformance of mechanical thinners have resulted in the development ofprecision seeding techniques. The success of precision seeding depends onhaving seeds with nearly 100% germination and on exact placement of eachseed.
Some of the advantages of precision seeding are:
● Reduced seed costs. Only the seed that is needed is sown.● Greater crop uniformity. Each seed is spaced equally, fewer harvests
are necessary, and/or greater yield is obtained at harvest.● Improved yields. Each plant has an equal chance to mature; yields
can increase 20% to 50%.● Improved plant stands. Seeds are dropped shorter distances, resulting
in less scatter and a uniform depth of planting.● Thinning can be reduced or eliminated.
Some precautions must be taken to ensure the proper performance ofprecision seeding equipment:
1. A fine, smooth seedbed is required for uniform seeding depth.2. Seed must have high germination.3. Seed must be uniform in size; this can be achieved by seed sizing or
seed coating.4. Seed must be of regular shape; irregular seeds such as carrot, lettuce,
and onion must be coated for satisfactory precision seeding. Seed sizeis increased 2 to 5 times with clay or proprietary coatings.
Several types of equipment are available for precision seeding ofvegetables.
Belt type—represented by the StanHay seeder. Circular holes punched in abelt accommodate the seed size. Holes are spaced along the belt atspecified intervals. Coated seed usually improves the uniformity obtainedwith this type of seeder.
Plate type—represented by the John Deere 33 or Earth Way. Seeds drop intoa notch in a horizontal plate and are transported to the drop point. Theplate is vertical in the Earth Way and catches seed in a pocket in aplastic plate. Most spacing is achieved by gearing the rate of turn of theplate.
125
Vacuum type—represented by the Gaspardo, Heath, Monosem, StanHay, andseveral other seeders. Seed is drawn against holes in a vertical plate andagitated to remove excess seed. Various spacings are achieved through acombination of gears and number of holes per plate. Coated seed shouldnot be used in these planters.
Spoon type—represented by the Nibex. Seed is scooped up out of a reservoirby small spoons (sized for the seed) and then carried to a drop shoot,where the spoon turns and drops the seed. Spacing is achieved by spoonnumber and gearing.
Pneumatic type—represented by the International Harvester cyclo planter.Seed is held in place against a drum until the air pressure is broken.Then it drops in tubes and is blown to the soil. This planter isrecommended only for larger vegetable seed.
Grooved cylinder type—represented by the Gramor seeder. This seederrequires round seed or seed that is made round by coating. Seven seedsfall from a supply tube into a slot at the top of a metal case into a metalcylinder. The cylinder turns slowly. As it reaches the bottom of the case,the seed drops out of a diagonal slot. The seed is placed in desiredincrements by a combination of forward speed and turning rate. Thisplanter can be used with seed as small as pepper seed, but it works bestwith coated seed.
Guidelines for Operation and Maintenance of Equipment
1. Check the planter for proper operation and replace worn parts duringthe off season.
2. Thoroughly understand the contents of the manufacturer’s manual.3. Make certain that the operator is trained to use the equipment and
check its performance.4. Double-check settings to obtain desired spacing and depth.5. Make a trial run before moving to the field.6. Operate the equipment at the recommended tractor speed.7. Check the seed drop of each unit periodically during the planting
operation.
Adapted in part from D. C. Sanders, ‘‘Precision Seeding for Vegetable Crops,’’ North CarolinaCooperative Extension Service Publication HIL-36 (1997).
126
TABLE 3.13. NUMBER OF SEEDS PLANTED PER MINUTE ATVARIOUS SPEEDS AND SPACINGS1
Planter Speed(mph)
In-row Spacing (in.)
2 3 4 6
2.5 1,320 880 660 4403.0 1,584 1,056 792 5284.0 2,112 1,408 1,056 7045.0 2,640 1,760 1,320 880
Adapted from Precision Planting Program, Asgrow Seed Co., Kalamazoo, Mich.1 For most conditions, a planter speed of 2–3 mph results in the greatest precision.
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08SEED PRIMING
Seed priming is a physiology-based seed enhancement technique designed toimprove the germination characteristics of seeds. Germination speed,uniformity, and seedling vigor are all improved by priming. These benefitsare especially pronounced under adverse temperature and/or moistureconditions.
The commercial applications of seed priming have been expandingrapidly in recent years. Important vegetable crops now enhanced throughpriming include brassicas, carrot, celery, cucurbits, lettuce, onion, pepper,and tomato. More crop species are being added on an ongoing basis.
Priming is accomplished by partially hydrating seed and maintaining itunder defined moisture, temperature, and aeration conditions for aprescribed period. In this state, the seed is metabolically active. In anoptimally hydrated, metabolically active state, important germination stepscan be accomplished within the seed. These include repair of membranesand/or genetic material, development of immature embryos, alteration oftissues covering the embryo, and destruction or removal of dormancy blocks.
At the conclusion of the process, the seed is redried to its storagemoisture level. The gains made in priming are not lost during storage.Primed seed is physiologically closer to germination than nonprimed seed.When planted at a later date, primed seed starts at this advanced state andmoves directly into the final stages of germination and growth.
There are several commercial methods of seed priming. All are based onthe basic principles of hydrated seed physiology. They differ in the methodsused to control hydration, aeration, temperature, and dehydration. The mostimportant commercial priming methods include:
Liquid osmotic. In this approach, seed is bubbled in a solution of knownosmotic concentration (accomplished with various salts or organicosmotic agents). The osmotic properties of the solution control wateruptake by the seed. The bubbling is necessary to provide sufficientoxygen to keep the seed alive during the process. The temperature of thesolution is controlled throughout the process. After priming is completed,the seeds are removed, washed, and dried.
Membrane and /or flat media osmotic. This method is a variation of liquidosmotic priming. With this method, the seed is placed on a porousmembrane suspended on the surface of the osmotic solution. This methodaddresses some of the aeration concerns associated with liquid osmoticpriming but is limited by practical considerations to smaller seed lots.
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Drum hydration. With this method, seeds are placed in a rotating drum andcontrolled quantities of water are sprayed onto the seed, bringing it tothe desired moisture level. Drum rotation provides the necessaryaeration to the seeds, and temperature and air flow are controlledthroughout the process. After the priming period, the seed is dried byflushing air through the drum. Drum priming is a patented technology.
Solid matrix priming (SMP). With the SMP method, water uptake iscontrolled by suspending seed in a defined medium (or matrix) of solids(organic and/or inorganic) of known water-holding properties. The seedand matrix compete for available water, coming to equilibrium atprecisely the right point for priming to occur. Aeration and temperatureare precisely controlled throughout the process. After the process iscomplete, the seed and matrix are separated. The seed is dried to itsoriginal moisture. The SMP method is a patented technology.
In maintaining processing conditions during priming, it is important toprevent the seed from progressing too far through the germination process.If germination is allowed to progress beyond the early stages, it is too lateto return to a resting state. The seed is committed to growth and cannot beredried without damage and/or reduced shelf life.
Priming alters many basic characteristics of germination and seedlingemergence, as indicated below:
Germination speed. Primed seed has already accomplished the early stagesof germination and begins growing much more rapidly. The total timerequired is cut approximately in half. This is especially important withslow-germinating species such as celery and carrot.
Increased temperature range. Primed seed emerges under both cooler andwarmer temperatures than unprimed seed. Generally, the temperaturerange is extended 5–8�F in both directions.
More uniform emergence. The distribution of germination times within mostseed lots is greatly reduced, resulting in improved uniformity.
Germination at reduced seed water content. Primed seed germinates at alower seed water content than unprimed seed.
Control of dormancy mechanisms. In many cases, priming overcomesdormancy mechanisms that slow germination.
Germination percentages. An increase in the germination percentage occursin many instances with individual seed lots as a result of the primingprocess. The increase is generally due to repair of weak or abnormalseeds within the lot.
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Considerations with Primed Seed
Shelf Life of Primed SeedShelf life is a complicated subject and is influenced by many factors. Themost important factors are crop species, seed lot quality, seed moisturecontent in storage, transportation and storage conditions (especiallytemperature), the degree to which a lot is primed, and subsequent seedtreatments (fungicides, film coating, pelleting).
Assuming proper transportation and storage conditions and no othercomplicating factors (such as coating), deterioration in seed lot performanceis rarely experienced during the growing season for which a lot was primed(generally 4 months). In most cases (assuming the same qualifiers listedabove), lot performance is maintained for much longer.
As storage time increases, the risk of loss also increases. Most lots arestable, but a percentage deteriorate rapidly. Not only is the priming effectlost, but generally a significant percentage of the lot dies. Screeningmethods to predict high-risk lots are needed. The results of research in thisarea are promising, but a usable method of predicting deterioration is notyet available.
Seed should be primed for planting during the immediate growing seasononly. Priming seed for planting in subsequent years is discouraged. In caseswhere primed seed must be held for extended periods, the seed should beretested before planting to assess whether or not deterioration occurred.
Treating, Coating, and Pelleting Primed SeedThe compatibility of primed seed with any subsequent seed treatment,coating, or pelleting must be determined on a case-by-case basis. Thegermination characteristics may be influenced. In some cases, priming isperformed to improve the vigor of lots that would otherwise not tolerate thestress of coating or pelleting. In other cases, primed seeds may be moresensitive than unprimed seeds and experience deterioration. Combinationsmust be tested after priming, on a case-by-case basis, before othercommercial treatments are performed.
Transport and Storage ConditionsExposure to high temperatures, even for brief periods, can induce rapiddeterioration of all seeds. The risk is greater with primed seeds. In storageand transport, it is important to maintain seeds that have been enhancedunder dry, cool conditions (temperatures of 70�F or lower are recommended).Unfavorable conditions may negatively influence shelf life.
Adapted from John A. Eastin and John S. Vendeland. Kamterter Products, Inc., Lincoln, Neb. ‘‘SeedPriming’’ Presented at Florida Seed Association Seminar (1996), and C. Parera and D. Cantliffe, ‘‘SeedPriming,’’ Horticultural Reviews 16 (1994):109–141.
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09VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
TABLE 3.14. STORAGE OF PLANT PARTS USED FORVEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Plant Part Temperature (�F)
RelativeHumidity
(%) Comments
Asparagus crowns 30–32 85–90 Roots may be trimmedto 8 in. Preventheating andexcessive drying.
Garlic bulbs 50 50–65 Fumigate for mites, ifpresent. Hot-water-treat (120�F for 20min) for control ofstem and bulbnematodeimmediately beforeplanting.
Horseradish roots 32 85–90 Pit storage is used incold climates.
Onion sets 32 70–75 Sets may be curednaturally in thefield, in trays, orartificially withwarm, dry air.
Potato tubers 36–40 (extendedstorage), 45–50(short storage)
90 Cure at 60–65�F and90–95% relativehumidity for 10–14days. Move to 60–65�F 10–14 daysbefore planting.
Rhubarb crowns 32–35 80–85 Field storage issatisfactory in coldclimates.
Strawberry plants 30–32 85–90 Store in crates linedwith 1.5-milpolyethylene.
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TABLE 3.14. STORAGE OF PLANT PARTS USED FORVEGETATIVE PROPAGATION (Continued )
Plant Part Temperature (�F)
RelativeHumidity
(%) Comments
Sweet potato roots 55–60 85–90 Cure roots at 85�Fand 85–90% relativehumidity for 6–8days before storage.
Witloof chicory roots 32 90–95 Prevent excessivedrying.
TABLE 3.15. FIELD REQUIREMENTS FOR VEGETATIVELYPROPAGATED CROPS
Vegetable Plant Parts Quantity /acre1
Artichoke Root sections 807–1,261Asparagus Crowns 5,808–10,890Dasheen Corms (2–5 oz) 9–18 cwtGarlic Cloves 8–20 cwtJerusalem artichoke Tubers (2 oz) 10–12 cwtHorseradish Root cuttings 9,000–11,000Onion Sets 5–10 cwtPotato Tubers or tuber sections 13–26 cwtRhubarb Crown divisions 4,000–5,000Strawberry Plants 6,000–50,000Sweet potato Roots for bedding 5–6 cwt
1 Varies with field spacing, size of individual units, and vigor of stock.
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TABLE 3.16. SEED POTATOES REQUIRED PER ACRE, WITHVARIOUS PLANTING DISTANCES AND SIZES OFSEED PIECE
Spacing of Rowsand Seed Pieces
Seed Piece Weights
1 oz 11⁄4 oz 11⁄2 oz 13⁄4 oz 2 oz
(Pounds of Seed/Acre)Rows 30 in. Apart
8-in. spacing 1632 2040 2448 2856 327010-in. spacing 1308 1638 1956 2286 261412-in. spacing 1089 1361 1632 1908 217814-in. spacing 936 1164 1398 1632 186816-in. spacing 816 1020 1224 1428 1632
Rows 32 in. Apart
8-in. spacing 1530 1914 2298 2682 306610-in. spacing 1224 1530 1836 2142 244812-in. spacing 1020 1278 1536 1788 204014-in. spacing 876 1092 1314 1530 175216-in. spacing 768 960 1152 1344 1536
Rows 34 in. Apart
8-in. spacing 1440 1800 2160 2520 288010-in. spacing 1152 1440 1728 2016 230412-in. spacing 960 1200 1440 1680 192014-in. spacing 822 1026 1236 1440 164416-in. spacing 720 900 1080 1260 1440
Rows 36 in. Apart
8-in. spacing 1362 1704 2040 2382 272410-in. spacing 1086 1362 1632 1902 217812-in. spacing 906 1134 1362 1590 181214-in. spacing 780 972 1164 1362 155416-in. spacing 678 852 1020 1188 136218-in. spacing 606 756 906 1056 1212
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TABLE 3.16. SEED POTATOES REQUIRED PER ACRE, WITHVARIOUS PLANTING DISTANCES AND SIZES OFSEED PIECE
Spacing of Rowsand Seed Pieces
Seed Piece Weights
1 oz 11⁄4 oz 11⁄2 oz 13⁄4 oz 2 oz
Rows 42 in. Apart
18-in. spacing 516 648 780 906 103824-in. spacing 390 486 582 678 78030-in. spacing 312 390 468 546 62436-in. spacing 258 324 390 456 516
Rows 48 in. Apart
18-in. spacing 456 570 678 792 90624-in. spacing 342 426 510 594 67830-in. spacing 270 342 408 474 54636-in. spacing 228 282 342 396 456
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10POLYETHYLENE MULCHES
Polyethylene mulch has been used commercially on vegetables since theearly 1960s. Currently, it is used on thousands of acres of vegetables in theUnited States. Florida and California lead in use, with about 100,000 acresof mulched vegetables in each state.
Types of Mulch
Basically, three major colors of mulch are used commercially: black, clear,and white (or white-on-black). Black mulch is used most widely because itsuppresses weed growth, resulting in less chemical usage. Further, it isuseful for cool seasons because it warms the soil by contact. Clearpolyethylene is used widely in the northern United States because itpromotes warmer soil temperatures (by the greenhouse effect) than doesblack mulch. Clear mulch requires use of labeled fumigants or herbicidesunderneath to prevent weed growth. White or white-on-black mulch is usedfor fall crops established under hot summer conditions. Soils under whitemulch or white-on-black mulch remain cooler because less radiant energy isabsorbed by the mulch. Some growers create their own white mulch bypainting the surface of black-mulched beds with white latex paint. Thereare some other specialized mulches, such as red or metallized mulch, usedfor specialized circumstances, such as weed control, plant growth regulation,and insect repelling. Films can be made of thinner gauge and high densitycompared with low-density polyethylenes.
Benefits of Mulch
Increases early yields. The largest benefit from polyethylene mulch is theincrease in soil temperature in the bed, which promotes faster cropdevelopment and earlier yields.
Aids moisture retention. Mulch reduces evaporation from the bed soilsurface. As a result, a more uniform soil moisture regime is maintainedand the frequency of irrigation is reduced slightly. Irrigation is stillmandatory for mulched crops so that the soil under the mulch doesn’tdry out excessively. Tensiometers placed in the bed between plants canhelp indicate when irrigation is needed.
Inhibits weed growth. Black and white-on-black mulches greatly inhibit lightpenetration to the soil. Therefore, weed seedlings cannot survive underthe mulch. Nutgrass can still be a problem, however. The nuts provide
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enough energy for the young nutgrass to puncture the mulch andemerge. Other pests, such as soilborne pathogens, insects, andnematodes, are not reduced by most mulches. Some benefit has beenshown from high temperatures under clear mulch (solarization).Currently, the best measure for nutgrass and pest control under themulch is labeled fumigation.
Reduces fertilizer leaching. Fertilizer placed in the bed under the mulch isless subject to leaching by rainfall. As a result, the fertilizer program ismore efficient, and the potential exists for reducing traditional amountsof fertilizer. Heavy rainfall that floods the bed can still result in fertilizerleaching. This fertilizer can be replaced if the grower is using dripirrigation, or it can be replaced with a liquid fertilizer injection wheel.
Decreases soil compaction. Mulch acts as a barrier to the action of rainfall,which can cause soil crusting, compaction, and erosion. Less compactedsoil provides a better environment for seedling emergence and rootgrowth.
Protects fruits. Mulch reduces rain-splashed soil deposits on fruits. Inaddition, mulch reduces fruit rot caused by soil-inhabiting organismsbecause it provides a protective barrier between the fruit and theorganisms.
Aids fumigation. Mulches increase the effectiveness of soil fumigantchemicals. Acting as a barrier to gas escape, mulches help keep gaseousfumigants in the soil. Recently, virtually impermeable films (VIF) havebeen developed to help trap fumigants better and reduce amounts offumigants needed.
Negative Aspects of Mulch
Mulch removal and disposal. The biggest problems associated with mulchuse are removal and disposal. Because most mulches are notbiodegradable, they must be removed from the field after use. Thisusually involves some hand labor, although mulch lifting and removalmachines are available. Some growers burn the mulch, but the buriededges still must be removed by hand. Disposal also presents a problembecause of the quantity of waste generated.
Specialized equipment. The mulch cultural system requires a smallinvestment in specialized equipment, including a bed press, mulch layer,and mulch transplanter or plug-mix seeder. Vacuum seeders are alsoavailable for seeding through mulch. This equipment is inexpensive andeasily obtained, and some can even be manufactured on the farm.
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Mulch Application
Mulch is applied by machine for commercial operations. Machines thatprepare beds, fertilize, fumigate, and mulch in separate operations or incombination are available. The best option is to complete all of theseoperations in one pass across the field. In general, all chemicals andfertilizers are applied to the soil before mulching. Nitrogen and potassiumfertilizers can be injected through a drip irrigation system under the mulch.
When laying mulch, be sure the bed is pressed firmly and that the mulchis in tight contact with the bed. This helps transfer heat from mulch to bedand reduces flapping in the wind, which results in tears and blowing ofmulch from the bed. The mulch layer should be adjusted so that the edgesare buried sufficiently to prevent uplifting by wind.
Degradable Mulches
Degradable plastic mulches have many of the properties and provide theusual benefits of standard polyethylene mulches. One important differenceis that degradable mulches begin to break down after the film has receiveda predetermined amount of ultraviolet (UV) light.
When a film has received sufficient UV light, it becomes brittle anddevelops cracks, tears, and holes. Small sections of film may tear off and beblown around by the wind. Finally, the film breaks down into small flakesand disintegrates into the soil. The edges covered by the soil retain theirstrength and break down only after being disked to the surface, where theyare exposed to UV light.
The use of long-lasting degradable mulches formulated for long-seasoncrops, such as peppers, results in some plastic residue fragments remainingin the soil for the next crop. This residue is primarily the edges of film thatwere covered with soil. Seeding early crops in a field that had a long-term,degradable mulch the previous season should be avoided. Most plasticfragments should break down and disappear into the soil by the end of thegrowing season after the mulch was used.
Factors affecting the time and rate of breakdown:
● The formulation and manufacturing of the film—that is, short-,intermediate-, or long-lasting film.
● Factors that influence the amount of UV light received by the mulchfilm and, thus, the breakdown include the growth habit of the crop(vine or upright), the time of year the film is applied, the timebetween application and planting, crop vigor, and double- or single-
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row planting. Weed growth, mowing off the crop, and length of timethe mulch is left in the field after harvest also influence time andextent of breakdown.
● High temperatures can increase the rate of breakdown, and wind canrapidly enlarge tears and holes in film that is breaking down.
● Other factors, including depressions in the bed, footprints, animal andtire tracks, trickle irrigation tubes under the film, and stress on theplastic resulting from making holes for plants and planting, allweaken the film and increase the rate of breakdown.
Suggestions for using degradable mulches:
● Select the proper mulch formulation for the crop. Consult thecompany representative.
● Make uniform beds, free from depressions and footprints. Apply long-term mulches 1–2 weeks before planting. This allows the mulch toreceive UV light and initiate the breakdown process. Apply short-duration films a few days to immediately before planting.
● Minimize damage to the film and avoid unnecessary footprints,especially during planting and early in the growing season.
● Maintain clean weed control between mulch strips. Shading fromweed growth can slow the rate of mulch breakdown.
● Lift the soil-covered edges before final harvest or as soon as possibleafter harvest. This exposes some of the covered edges to UV light andstarts the breakdown process.
● Mow down crop immediately after the last harvest to allow UV lightto continue the breakdown process.
● When film is brittle, disk the beds. Then, angle or cross-disk to breakthe mulch (especially the edges) into small fragments.
● Plant a cover crop to trap larger fragments and prevent them fromblowing around. Plant a border strip of a tall-growing grass aroundthe field to prevent fragments from blowing into neighboring areas.
Adapted from G. J. Hochmuth, R.C. Hochmuth, and S. M. Olson, ‘‘Polyethylene Mulching for EarlyVegetable Production in North Florida,’’ Florida Cooperative Extension Service Circular 805 (2001),http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / CV213, E. R. Kee, P. Mulrooney, D. Caron, M. VanGessel, and J. Whalen,‘‘Commercial Vegetable Production,’’ Delaware Cooperative Extension Bulletin 137 (2005); W. L.Schrader, ‘‘Plasticulture in California,’’ Publ. 8016 (2001), http: / / anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu, and TheCenter for Plasticulture at Penn State, http: / / plasticulture.cas.psu.edu.
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11ROW COVERS
Row covers have been used for many years for early growth enhancement ofcertain vegetables in a few production areas such as San Diego County,California. New materials and methods have been developed recently thatmake the use of row covers a viable production practice wherever vegetablesare seeded or transplanted when temperatures are below optimum andearly production is desired. Row covers, when properly used, result inearlier harvest and, perhaps, greater total production. There are twogeneral types of row covers—supported and floating; many variations of therow cover concept are possible, depending on the needs of the individualgrower. Row covers generally work best when used in conjunction with blackpolyethylene-mulched rows or beds.
Supported Row Covers
Clear polyethylene, 5–6 ft wide and 1–11⁄2 mils thick, is the most convenientmaterial to use and is generally used just once. Slitted row covers have slits5 in. long and 3⁄4 in. apart in two rows. The slits, arranged at the uppersides of the constructed supported row cover, provide ventilation; otherwisethe cover would have to be manually opened and closed each day. Hoops ofno. 8 or no. 9 wire are cut 63 in. long for 5-ft-wide polyethylene.
Hoops are installed over the polyethylene-mulched crop so that thecenter of the hoop is 14–16 in. above the row. The slitted row cover can bemechanically applied over the hoops with a high-clearance tractor and amodified mulch applicator.
Floating Row Covers
Floating row covers are made of spun-bonded polyester and polypropylene.The material is similar to the fabrics used in the clothing industry forinterlining, interfacing, and other uses. It is white or off-white, porous to airand water, lightweight (0.6 oz /sq yd) and transmits about 80% of the light.The material comes in rolls 67 in. wide and 250–2,500 ft long. One-pieceblankets are also available. With care, the spun-bonded fabrics can be usedtwo to three or more times.
Immediately after planting (seeds or transplants), the spun-bonded fabricis laid directly over the row and the edges secured with soil, boards, bricks,or wire pins. Because the material is of such light weight, the plants push itup as they grow. Accordingly, enough slack should be provided to allow forthe plants to reach maximum size during the time the material is left overthe plants. For bean or tomato, about 12 in. slack should be left. For a crop
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such as cucumber, 8 in. is sufficient. Supports should be considered in windygrowing areas so plants are not damaged by cover abrasion.
Floating covers can be left over vegetables for 3–8 weeks, depending onthe crop and the weather. For tomato and pepper, it can be left on for about1 month but should be removed (at least partially) when the temperatureunder the covers reaches 86�F and is likely to remain that high for severalhours.
Cantaloupe blossoms can withstand high temperatures, but the covermust be removed when the first female flowers appear so bees can beginpollination.
Frost Protection
Frost protection with slitted and floating covers is not as good as with solidplastic covers. A maximum of 3–4�F is all that can be expected, whereaswith solid covers, frost protection of 5–7�F has been attained. Polypropylenefloating row covers can be used for frost protection of vegetables andstrawberries. Heavier covers 1.0–1.5 oz /yd can protect strawberries to 23–25�F. Row covers should not be viewed merely as a frost protection systembut as a growth-intensifying system during cool spring weather. Therefore,do not attempt to plant very early and hope to be protected against heavyfrosts. An earlier planting date of 10 days to 2 weeks is more reasonable.The purpose of row covers is to increase productivity through an economicalincrease of early and perhaps total production per unit area.
Adapted from O. S. Wells and J. B. Loy, ‘‘Row Covers for Intensive Vegetable Production,’’ NewHampshire Cooperative Extension Service (1985); G. Hochmuth and R. Hochmuth, ‘‘Row Covers forGrowth Enhancement,’’ Florida Cooperative Extension Service Fact Sheet HS716 (2004), http: / /edis.ifas.ufl.edu / cv106.
W. L. Schrader, ‘‘Plasticulture in California,’’ Publ. 8016 (2000), http: / / anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu; andThe Center for Plasticulture at Penn State, http: / / plasticulture.cas.psu.edu.
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Figure 3.1. Air temperature, evaporation rate, and wind speed changes withdistance from windbreak. Variables are expressed as percent of their level ifthe windbreak was not present.
12WINDBREAKS
Windbreaks are important considerations in an intensive vegetableproduction system. Use of windbreaks can result in increased yield andearlier crop production.
Young plants are most susceptible to wind damage and sand blasting.Rye or other tall-growing grass strips between rows can provide protectionfrom wind and windborne sand. Windbreaks can improve early plant growthand earlier crop production, particularly with melons, cucumbers, squash,peppers, eggplant, tomatoes, and okra.
A major benefit of a windbreak is improved use of moisture. Reducingthe wind speed reaching the crop reduces both direct evaporation from thesoil and the moisture transpired by the crop. This moisture advantage alsoimproves conditions for seed germination. Seeds germinate more rapidly,and young plants establish root systems more quickly. Improved moistureconditions continue to enhance crop growth and development throughout thegrowing season.
The type and height of the windbreak determine its effect. Windbreakscan be living or nonliving. Rye strips are suggested for intensive vegetableproduction based on economics. In general, windbreaks should be as close as
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economically viable—for example, every three or four beds of melons. Thewindbreak should be planted perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction.Rye strips should be planted prior to the crop to be protected so as to obtaingood plant establishment and to provide adequate time for plant growthprior to beginning the next production season. Fertilization and pestmanagement of rye windbreaks may be necessary to encourage growth tothe desired height.
Adapted from J. R. Schultheis, D. C. Sanders, and K. B. Perry, ‘‘Windbreaks and Drive Rows,’’ inD. C. Sanders (ed.), A Guide to Intensive Vegetable Systems (North Carolina Cooperative ExtensionAG-502, 1993, 9, and from R. Rouse and L. Hodges, ‘‘Windbreaks,’’ in W. Lamont (ed.), Production ofVegetables, Strawberries, and Cut Flowers Using Plasticulture, (Ithaca, N.Y.: NRAES, CooperativeExtension Service, 2004), 57–66.
Vegetable Production in High Tunnels
Growing vegetables in large, walk-in, plastic-covered structures is popularin many parts of the world and is becoming more popular in the UnitedStates. Benefits of vegetable production in high-tunnels include earlier andextended-season production, tunnels can be sited on field soil, protectionfrom rain, reduced disease, and insect pressure, less costly system thangreenhouses, and less technology required. Most vegetables can be grown ina high-tunnel but the most popular crops are melons, cucumber, tomato,pepper, strawberry, salad crops, and herbs. More information on high-tunnelproduction can be found at The Center for Plasticulture at Penn State citedbelow.
http: / /plasticulture.cas.psu.edu/H-tunnels.html
13ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON PLASTICULTURE
W. L. Schrader, ‘‘Plasticulture in California: Vegetable Production,’’University of California. Publ. 8016 (2000), http: / /anardatalog.ucdavis.edu.
H. Taber and V. Lawson, ‘‘Melon Row Covers,’’ Iowa State University, http: / /www.public.iastate.edu/�taber /Extension /Melon /melonrc.html.
The Center for Plasticulture at Penn State, http: / /plasticulture.cas.psu.edu.J. Brandle and L. Hodges, ‘‘Field Windbreaks,’’ University of Nebraska
Cooperative Extension Service EC-00-1778x.
PART 4SOILS AND FERTILIZERS
01 NUTRIENT BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
02 ORGANIC MATTER
03 SOIL-IMPROVING CROPS
04 MANURES
05 SOIL TEXTURE
06 SOIL REACTION
07 SALINITY
08 FERTILIZERS
09 FERTILIZER CONVERSION FACTORS
10 NUTRIENT ABSORPTION
11 PLANT ANALYSIS
12 SOIL TESTS
13 NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES
14 MICRONUTRIENTS
15 FERTILIZER DISTRIBUTORS
Knott’s Handbook for Vegetable Growers, Fifth Edition. D. N. Maynard and G. J. Hochmuth© 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-73828-2
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01NUTRIENT BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES (BMPs)
With the passage of the Federal Clean Water Act in 1972, states wererequired to assess the impact of nonpoint sources of pollution on surface andground waters and to establish programs to minimize these sources ofpollution. This Act also requires states to identify impaired water bodiesand establish total maximum daily loads (TMDLs) for pollutants enteringthose water bodies. TMDLs are the maximum amounts of pollutants thatcan enter a water body and still allow it to meet its designated uses, suchas swimming, potable water, fishing, etc. States have implemented variousprograms to address TMDLs. For example, Florida has adopted a bestmanagement practice (BMP) approach to addressing TMDLs wherebynutrient BMPs are adopted by state rule. The following definition of a BMPis taken from the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Serviceshandbook, Water Quality /Quantity Best Management Practices for FloridaVegetable and Agronomic Crops. BMPs are a practice or combination ofpractices determined by state agencies, based on research, field testing, andexpert review, to be the most effective and practical on-location means,including economic and technical considerations, for improving water qualityin agricultural and urban discharges. BMPs must be technically feasible,economically viable, socially acceptable, and based on sound science. Somestates’ programs involve incentive measures for adopting BMPs, such ascost-share for certain management practices on the farm, and othertechnical assistance. Agricultural producers who adopt approved BMPs,depending on the state and the program, may be ‘‘presumed to be incompliance’’ with state water quality standards and are eligible for cost-share funds to implement certain BMPS on the farm. States designateagencies for implementing the BMP programs and for verifying that theBMPs are effective at reducing pollutant loads.
Some information on BMP programs can be found at:
● USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service field office technicalguide, http: / /www.nrcs.usda.gov.
● Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services WaterQuality /Quantity Best Management Practices for Florida Vegetableand Agronomic Crops, http: / /www.floridaagwaterpolicy.com/PDFs/BMPs/vegetable&agronomicCrops.pdf.
● Farming for Clean Water in South Carolina: A Handbook ofConservation Practices (S.C.: NRCS), http: / /www.sc.nrcs.usda.gov /pubs.html.
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● T. K. Hartz, Efficient Nitrogen Management for Cool-season Vegetables(University of California Vegetable Research and Information Center),http: / /vric.ucdavis.edu/veginfo / topics /.
● G. Hochmuth, Nitrogen Management Practices for VegetableProduction in Florida, http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu/CV237.
● Maryland Nutrient Management Manual, http: / /www.mda.state.md.us/resource conservation /nutrient management /manual / index.php.
● Irrigation Management Practices: Checklist for Oregon, http: / /biosys.bre.orst.edu /bre /docs / irrigation.htm.
● Nutrient and Pesticide Management (Pacific Northwest RegionalWater Program), http: / /www.pnwwaterweb.com/National /nutpest.htm.
● Nutrient Management: NRCS Conservation Practice Standard (Wis.),http: / /www.dnr.state.wi.us /org /water /wm/nps /rules /.
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02ORGANIC MATTER
FUNCTION OF ORGANIC MATTER IN SOIL
Rapid decomposition of fresh organic matter contributes most effectively tothe physical condition of a soil. Plenty of moisture, nitrogen, and a warmtemperature speed the rate of decomposition.
Organic matter serves as a source of energy for soil microorganisms andas a source of nutrients for plants. Organic matter holds the mineralsabsorbed from the soil against loss by leaching until they are released forplant uptake by the action of microorganisms. Bacteria thriving on theorganic matter produce complex carbohydrates that cement soil particlesinto aggregates. Acids produced in the decomposition of organic matter maymake available mineral nutrients of the soil to crop plants. The entranceand percolation of water into and through the soil are facilitated. Thisreduces losses of soil by erosion. Penetration of roots through the soil isimproved by good structure brought about by the decomposition of organicmatter. The water-holding capacity of sands and sandy soils may beincreased by the incorporation of organic matter. Aggregation in heavy soilsmay improve drainage. It is seldom possible to make a large permanentincrease in the organic matter content of a soil.
ORGANIC SOIL AMENDMENTS
Animal manures, sludges, and plant materials have been used commerciallyfor decades for vegetable production. Today, society demands efficient use ofnatural materials, so recycling of wastes into agriculture is viewed asimportant. Many municipalities are producing solid waste materials thatcan be used on the farm as soil amendments and sources of nutrients forplants. The technology of compost production and utilization is stilldeveloping. One challenge for the grower is to locate compost sources thatyield consistent chemical and physical qualities. Incompletely compostedwaste, sometimes called green compost, can reduce crop growth becausenitrogen is robbed, or used by the microorganisms to decompose the organicmatter in the compost. Growers contemplating use of soil amendmentsshould thoroughly investigate the quality of the product, including testingfor nutrient content.
147
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF ORGANIC SOIL AMENDMENTS
Although the addition of organic matter, such as manures, to the soil canhave beneficial effects on crop performance, there are some potentialnegative effects. As the nitrogen is released from the organic matter, it canbe subject to leaching. Heavy applications of manure can contribute togroundwater pollution unless a crop is planted soon to utilize the nitrogen.This potential can be especially great in southern climates, where nitrogenrelease can be rapid and most nitrogen is released in the first season afterapplication. Plastic mulch placed over the manured soil reduces thepotential for nitrate leaching. In today’s environmentally aware world,manures must be used carefully to manage the released nutrients. Growerscontemplating using manures as soil amendment or crop nutrient sourceshould have the manure tested for nutrient content. The results from suchtests can help determine the best rate of application so that excessnutrients such as N or P are not available for leaching or losses to erosion.
148
03SOIL-IMPROVING CROPS
TABLE 4.1. SEED REQUIREMENTS OF SOIL-IMPROVING CROPSAND AREAS OF ADAPTATION
Soil-Improving CropsSeed
(lb /acre)U.S. Area Where Crop Is
Adapted
Winter Cover Crops
LegumesBerseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) 15 West and southeastBlack medic (Medicago lupulina) 15 AllBlack lupine (Lupinus hirsutus) 70 AllClover
Crimson (Trifolium incarnatum) 15 South and southeastBur, California (Medicago hispida) 25 SouthSouthern (M. arabica) unhulled 100 SoutheastTifton (M. rigidula) unhulled 100 SoutheastSour (Melilotus indica) 20 SouthSweet, hubam (Melilotus alba) 20 All
Fenugreek (Trigonellafoenumgraecum)
30 Southwest
Field pea (Pisum sativum)Canada 80 AllAustrian winter 70 All
Horse bean (Vicia faba) 100 Southwest and southeastRough pea (Lathyrus hirsutus) 60 Southwest and southeastVetch
Bitter (Vicia ervilia) 30 West and southeastCommon (V. sativa) 50 West and southeastHairy (V. villosa) 30 AllHungarian (V. pannonica) 50 West and southeastMonantha (V. articulata) 40 West and southeastPurple (V. bengalensis) 40 West and southeastSmooth (V. villosa var. glabrescens) 30 AllWoollypod (V. dasycarpa) 30 Southeast
NonlegumesBarley (Hordeum vulgare) 75 AllMustard (Brassica nigra) 20 AllOat (Avena sativa) 75 All
149
TABLE 4.1. SEED REQUIREMENTS OF SOIL-IMPROVING CROPSAND AREAS OF ADAPTATION (Continued )
Soil-Improving CropsSeed
(lb /acre)U.S. Area Where Crop is
Adapted
Rape (Brassica napus) 20 AllRye (Secale cereale) 75 AllWheat (Triticum sativum) 75 All
Summer Cover Crops
LegumesAlfalfa (Medicago sativa) 20 AllBeggarweed (Desmodium
purpureum)10 Southeast
CloverAlyce (Alysicarpus vaginalis) 20 SoutheastCrimson (Trifolium incartum) 15 SoutheastRed (T. pratense) 10 All
Cowpea (Vigna sinensis) 90 South and southwestHairy indigo (Indigofera hirsuta) 10 Southern tierLezpedeza
Common (Lezpedeza striata) 25 SoutheastKorean (L. stipulacea) 20 Southeast
Sesbania (Sesbania exaltata) 30 SouthwestSoybean (Glycine max) 75 AllSweet clover, white (Melilotus alba) 20 AllSweet clover (M. officinalis) 20 AllVelvet bean (Stizolobium
deeringianum)100 Southeast
NonlegumesBuckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) 75 AllPearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) 25 Southern and southeastSorghum, Hegari (Sorghum vulgare) 40 Western halfSudan grass (Sorghum vulgare var.
sudanese)25 All
Adapted from Growing Summer Cover Crops, USDA Farmer’s Bulletin 2182 (1967); P. R. Henson andE. A. Hollowell, Winter Annual Legumes for the South, USDA Farmers Bulletin 2146 (1960); P. R.Miller, W. A. Williams, and B. A. Madson, Covercrops for California Agriculture, University ofCalifornia Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 21471 (1989), and CoverCropping in Vineyards: A Growers Handbook, University of California Publication 3338.
150
DECOMPOSITION OF SOIL-IMPROVING CROPS
The normal carbon-nitrogen (C�N) ratio in soils is about 10�1. Turningunder organic matter alters this ratio because most organic matter is richerin carbon than in nitrogen. Unless the residue contains at least 1.5%nitrogen, the decomposing organisms will utilize soil nitrogen as the energysource for the decomposition process. Soil organisms can tie up as much as25 lb nitrogen per acre from the soil in the process of decomposition ofcarbon-rich fresh organic matter.
A soil-improving crop should be fertilized adequately with nitrogen toincrease the nitrogen content somewhat and improve later decomposition.Nitrogen may have to be added as the soil-improving crop is incorporatedinto the soil. This speeds the decomposition and prevents a temporaryshortage of nitrogen for the succeeding vegetable crop.
As a general rule, about 20 lb nitrogen should be added for each ton ofdry matter for a nonlegume green-manure crop.
TABLE 4.2. APPROXIMATE CARBON-TO-NITROGEN RATIOS OFCOMMON ORGANIC MATERIALS
Material C�N Ratio
Alfalfa 12�1Sweet clover, young 12�1Sweet clover, mature 24�1Rotted manure 20�1Oat straw 75�1Corn stalks 80�1Timothy straw 80�1Sawdust 300�1
151
04MANURES
TYPICAL COMPOSITION OF MANURES
Manures vary greatly in their nutrient content. The kind of feed used, thepercentage and type of litter or bedding, the moisture content, and the ageand degree of decomposition or drying all affect the composition. Somenitrogen is lost in the process of producing commercially dried, pulverizedmanures. The following data are representative analyses from widelyscattered reports.
TABLE 4.3. COMPOSITION OF MANURES
Source Dry Matter (%)
Approximate Composition(% dry weight)
N P2O5 K2O
Dairy 15–25 0.6–2.1 0.7–1.1 2.4–3.6Feedlot 20–40 1.0–2.5 0.9–1.6 2.4–3.6Horse 15–25 1.7–3.0 0.7–1.2 1.2–2.2Poultry 20–30 2.0–4.5 4.5–6.0 1.2–2.4Sheep 25–35 3.0–4.0 1.2–1.6 3.0–4.0Swine 20–30 3.0–4.0 0.4–0.6 0.5–1.0
152
TABLE 4.4. NITROGEN LOSSES FROM ANIMAL MANURE TO THEAIR BY METHOD OF APPLICATION
Application MethodType ofManure
NitrogenLoss (%)1
Broadcast without incorporation Solid 15–30Liquid 10–25
Broadcast with incorporation Solid 1–5Liquid 1–5
Injection (knifing) Liquid 0–2Irrigation Liquid 30–40
Adapted from D. E. Chaney, L. E. Drinkwater, and G. S. Pettygrove. Organic Soil Amendments andFertilizers, University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 21505(1992).1 Loss within 3 days of application
TYPICAL COMPOSITION OF SOME ORGANIC FERTILIZERMATERIALS
Under most environments, the nutrients in organic materials becomeavailable to plants slowly. However, mineralization of nutrients in organicmatter can be hastened under warm, humid conditions. For example, inFlorida, most usable nitrogen can be made available from poultry manureduring one season. There is considerable variation in nutrient contentamong samples of organic soil amendments. Commercial manure productsshould have a summary of the chemical analyses on the container. Growersshould have any organic soil amendment tested for nutrient content sofertilization programs can be planned. The data below are representative ofmany analyses noted in the literature and in reports of state analyticallaboratories.
153
TABLE 4.5. COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATERIALS
Organic Materials
Percentage on a Dry Weight Basis
N P2O5 K2O
Bat guano 10.0 4.0 2.0Blood 13.0 2.0 1.0Bone meal, raw 3.0 22.0 —Bone meal, steamed 1.0 15.0 —Castor bean meal 5.5 2.0 1.0Cottonseed meal 6.6 3.0 1.5Fish meal 10.0 6.0 —Garbage tankage 2.5 2.0 1.0Peanut meal 7.0 1.5 1.2Sewage sludge 1.5 1.3 0.4Sewage sludge, activated 6.0 3.0 0.2Soybean meal 7.0 1.2 1.5Tankage 7.0 10.0 1.5
154
TABLE 4.6. COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATERIALS
Materials
Approximate Pounds per Ton of Dry Material
Moisture (%) N P2O5 K2O
Alfalfa hay 10 50 11 50Alfalfa straw 7 28 7 36Barley hay 9 23 11 33Barley straw 10 12 5 32Bean straw 11 20 6 25Beggarweed hay 9 50 12 56Buckwheat straw 11 14 2 48Clover hay
Alyce 11 35 — —Bur 8 60 21 70Crimson 11 45 11 67Ladino 12 60 13 67Sweet 8 60 12 38
Cowpea hay 10 60 13 36Cowpea straw 9 20 5 38Field pea hay 11 28 11 30Field pea straw 10 20 5 26Horse bean hay 9 43 — —Lezpedeza hay 11 41 8 22Lezpedeza straw 10 21 — —Oat hay 12 26 9 20Oat straw 10 13 5 33Ryegrass hay 11 26 11 25Rye hay 9 21 8 25Rye straw 7 11 4 22Sorghum stover, Hegari 13 18 4 —Soybean hay 12 46 11 20Soybean straw 11 13 6 15Sudan grass hay 11 28 12 31Sweet corn fodder 12 30 8 24Velvet bean hay 7 50 11 53Vetch hay
Common 11 43 15 53Hairy 12 62 15 47
155
TABLE 4.6. COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATERIALS (Continued )
Materials
Approximate Pounds per Ton of Dry Material
Moisture (%) N P2O5 K2O
Wheat hay 10 20 8 35Wheat straw 8 12 3 19
Adapted from Morrison Feeds and Feeding (Ithaca, N.Y.: Morrison, 1948).
156
05SOIL TEXTURE
The particles of a soil are classified by size into sand, silt, and clay.
TABLE 4.7. CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL-PARTICLE SIZES
Soil Particle Size Classes (diameter, mm)
2.0 0.02 0.002 0
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
Particles visible withthe naked eye
Particles visible undermicroscope
Particles visible underelectron microscope
SOIL TEXTURAL TRIANGLE
The percentage of sand, silt, and clay may be plotted on the diagram todetermine the textural class of that soil.
Example: A soil containing 13% clay, 41% silt, and 46% sand would have aloam texture.
157
Figure 4.1. Soil textural triangle. From Soil Conservation Service, Soil Sur-vey Manual, USDA Agricultural Handbook 18 (1951).
158
06SOIL REACTION
RELATIVE TOLERANCE OF VEGETABLE CROPS TO SOILACIDITY
Vegetables in the slightly tolerant group can be grown successfully on soilsthat are on the alkaline side of neutrality. They do well up to pH 7.6 ifthere is no deficiency of essential nutrients. Vegetables in the very tolerantgroup grow satisfactorily at a soil pH as low as 5.0. For the most part, eventhe most tolerant crops grow better at pH 6.0–6.8 than in more acidic soils.Calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and molybdenum are the nutrients mostlikely to be deficient in acidic soils.
159
TABLE 4.8. TOLERANCE OF VEGETABLES TO SOIL ACIDITY
Slightly Tolerant(pH 6.8–6.0)
Moderately Tolerant(pH 6.8–5.5)
Very Tolerant(pH 6.8–5.0)
AsparagusBeetBroccoliCabbageCantaloupeCauliflowerCeleryChard, SwissChinese cabbageCressLeekLettuceNew Zealand spinachOkraOnionOrachParsnipSalsifySoybeanSpinachWatercress
BeanBean, limaBrussels sproutsCarrotCollardsCucumberEggplantGarlicGherkinHorseradishKaleKohlrabiMustardParsleyPeaPepperPumpkinRadishRutabagaSquashStrawberrySweet cornTomatoTurnip
ChicoryDandelionEndiveFennelPotatoRhubarbShallotSorrelSweet potatoWatermelon
EFFECT OF SOIL REACTION ON AVAILABILITY OF NUTRIENTS
Soil reaction affects plants by influencing the availability of nutrients.Changes in soil reaction caused by liming or by the use of sulfur and acid-forming fertilizers may increase or decrease the supply of the nutrientsavailable to the plants.
The general relationship between soil reaction and availability of plantnutrients in organic soils differs from that in mineral soils. The diagrams
160
Figure 4.2. Relation Between pH, alkalinity, acidity, and plant growth.
161
Figure 4.3. Influence of pH on the availability of plant nutrients in organicsoils; widest parts of the shaded areas indicate maximum availability of eachelement.
Adapted from R. E. Lucas and J. F. Davis, ‘‘Relationships Between pH Values of Organic Soils andAvailability of 12 Plant Nutrients,’’ Soil Science 92(1961): 177–182.
depict nutrient availability for both mineral and organic soils. The width ofthe band indicates the availability of the nutrient. It does not indicate theactual amount present.
CORRECTION OF SOIL ACIDITY
Liming materials are used to change an unfavorable acidic soil reaction to apH more favorable for crop production. However, soil types differ in their
162
Figure 4.4. Influence of pH on the availability of plant nutrients in mineralsoils; widest parts of the shaded areas indicate maximum availability of eachelement.
Adapted from L. B. Nelson (ed.), Changing Patterns in Fertilizer Use (Madison, Wis.: Soil ScienceSociety of America, 1968).
response to liming, a property referred to as the soil’s pH buffering capacity.Acidic soil reaction is caused by hydrogen ions present in the soil solution(active acidity) and attached to soil particles or organic matter (potentialacidity). Active acidity can be neutralized rapidly, whereas potential acidityis neutralized over time as it is released. Soils vary in their relative contentof these sources of acidity. Due to this complexity in soil pH, it is difficult toprovide a rule of thumb for rates of liming materials. Most soil testinglaboratories now use a lime requirement test to estimate the potentialacidity and therefore provide a more accurate liming recommendation thancould be done before. The lime requirement test treats the soil sample witha buffer solution to estimate the potential acidity, and thus provides a moreaccurate lime recommendation than can usually be obtained by treating thesoil sample with water only. Soils with similar amounts of active acidity
163
might have different amounts of potential acidity and thus require differentlime recommendations even though the rule-of-thumb approach might havegiven similar lime recommendations. Soils with large potential acidity (claysand mucks) require more lime than sandy soils with a similar water pH.
TABLE 4.9. COMMON LIMING MATERIALS
MaterialChemicalFormula
Pure CaCO3
Equivalent (%)
Liming Material(lb) Necessary to
Equal 100 lbLimestone
Burned lime CaO 150 64Hydrated lime Ca(OH)2 120 82Dolomitic limestone CaCO3, MgCO3 104 86Limestone CaCO3 95 100Marl CaCO3 95 100Shell, oyster, etc. CaCO3 95 100
TABLE 4.10. COMMON ACIDIFYING MATERIALS1
MaterialChemicalFormula
Sulfur(%)
Acidifying Material (lb)Necessary to Equal100 lb Soil Sulfur
Soil sulfur S 99.0 100Sulfuric acid (98%) H2SO4 32.0 306Sulfur dioxide SO2 50.0 198Lime-sulfur solution
(32� Baume)CaSx � water 24.0 417
Iron sulfate FeSO4 � 7H2O 11.5 896Aluminum sulfate Al2(SO4)3 14.4 694
1 Certain fertilizer materials also markedly increase soil acidity when used in large quantities (seepage 165).
164
TABLE 4.11. APPROXIMATE QUANTITY OF SOIL SULFURNEEDED TO INCREASE SOIL ACIDITY TO ABOUTpH 6.5
Change in pH Desired
Sulfur (lb /acre)
Sands Loams Clays
8.5–6.5 2,000 2,500 3,0008.0–6.5 1,200 1,500 2,0007.5–6.5 500 800 1,0007.0–6.5 100 150 300
165
TABLE 4.12. EFFECT OF SOME FERTILIZER MATERIALS ON THESOIL REACTION
Materials N (%)
Pounds Limestone(CaCO3)
Per lb N
Per 100 lbFertilizerMaterial
Needed to Counteractthe Acidity Produced
Acidity-FormingAmmonium nitrate 33.5 1.80 60Monoammonium phosphate 11 5.35 59Ammonium phosphate sulfate 16 5.35 88Ammonium sulfate 21 5.35 110Anhydrous ammonia 82 1.80 148Aqua ammonia 24 1.80 44Aqua ammonia 30 1.80 54Diammonium phosphate 16–18 1.80 70Liquid phosphoric acid 52 (P2O5) — 110Urea 46 1.80 84
Equivalents Produced
Alkalinity-FormingCalcium cyanamide 22 2.85 63Calcium nitrate 15.5 1.35 20Potassium nitrate 13 1.80 23Sodium nitrate 16 1.80 29
NeutralAmmonium nitrate-lime Potassium sulfateCalcium sulfate (gypsum) SuperphosphatePotassium chloride
Based on the method of W. H. Pierre, ‘‘Determination of Equivalent Acidity and Basicity ofFertilizers,’’ Industrial Engineering Chemical Analytical Edition, 5 (1933): 229–234.
166
RELATIVE SALT EFFECTS OF FERTILIZER MATERIALS ON THESOIL SOLUTION
When fertilizer materials are placed close to seeds or plants, they mayincrease the osmotic pressure of the soil solution and cause injury to thecrop. The term salt index refers to the effect of a material in relation to thatproduced by sodium nitrate, which is given a rating of 100. The partialindex shows the relationships per unit (20 lb) of the actual nutrientsupplied. Any material with a high salt index must be used with great care.
167
TABLE 4.13. SALT INDEX OF SEVERAL FERTILIZER MATERIALS
Material Salt Index
Partial Salt Indexper Unit of Plant
Food
Anhydrous ammonia 47.1 0.572Ammonium nitrate 104.7 2.990Ammonium nitrate-lime (Cal-Nitro) 61.1 2.982Ammonium sulfate 69.0 3.253Calcium carbonate (limestone) 4.7 0.083Calcium nitrate 52.5 4.409Calcium sulfate (gypsum) 8.1 0.247Diammonium phosphate 29.9 1.6141
0.6372
Dolomite (calcium and magnesiumcarbonates)
0.8 0.042
Monoammonium phosphate 34.2 2.4531
0.4852
Monocalcium phosphate 15.4 0.274Nitrogen solution, 37% 77.8 2.104Potassium chloride, 50% 109.4 2.189Potassium chloride, 60% 116.3 1.936Potassium nitrate 73.6 5.3361
1.5803
Potassium sulfate 46.1 0.853Sodium chloride 153.8 2.899Sodium nitrate 100.0 6.060Sulfate of potash-magnesia 43.2 1.971Superphosphate, 20% 7.8 0.390Superphosphate, 45% 10.1 0.224Urea 75.4 1.618
Adapted from L. F. Rader, L. M. White, and C. W. Whittaker, ‘‘The Salt Index: A Measure of the Effectof Fertilizers on the Concentration of the Soil Solution,’’ Soil Science 55 (1943):201–218.1N 2P2O5
3K2O
168
TABLE 4.14. RELATIVE SALT TOLERANCE OF VEGETABLESThe indicated salt tolerances are based on growth rather than yield. Withmost crops, there is little difference in salt tolerance among varieties. Borontolerances may vary depending on climate, soil condition, and crop variety.
Vegetable
Maximum Soil SalinityWithout Yield Loss(Threshold) (dS /m)
Decrease in Yield atSoil Salinities Above
the Threshold(% per dS/m)
Sensitive cropsBean 1.0 19Carrot 1.0 14Strawberry 1.0 33Onion 1.2 16
Moderately sensitiveTurnip 0.9 9Radish 1.2 13Lettuce 1.3 13Pepper 1.5 14Sweet potato 1.5 11Broad bean 1.6 10Corn 1.7 12Potato 1.7 12Cabbage 1.8 10Celery 1.8 6Spinach 2.0 8Cucumber 2.5 13Tomato 2.5 10Broccoli 2.8 9Squash, scallop 3.2 16
Moderately tolerantBeet 4.0 9Squash, zucchini 4.7 9
Adapted from E. V. Maas, ‘‘Crop Tolerance,’’ California Agriculture (October 1984).
Note: 1 decisiemens per meter (dS / m) � 1 mmho / cm � approximately 640 mg / L salt
169
07SALINITY
SOIL SALINITY
With an increase in soil salinity, plant roots extract water less easily fromthe soil solution. This situation is more critical under hot and dry thanunder humid conditions. High soil salinity may result also in toxicconcentrations of ions in plants. Soil salinity is determined by finding theelectrical conductivity of the soil saturation extract (ECe). The electricalconductivity is measured in millimhos per centimeter (mmho/cm). Onemmho/cm is equivalent to 1 decisiemens per meter (dS/m) and, on theaverage, to 640 ppm salt.
TABLE 4.15. CROP RESPONSE TO SALINITY
Salinity (expressedas ECe, mmho/cm,
or dS/m) Crop Responses
0–2 Salinity effects mostly negligible.2–4 Yields of very sensitive crops may be restricted.4–8 Yields of many crops restricted.8–16 Only tolerant crops yield satisfactorily.Above 16 Only a few very tolerant crops yield satisfactorily.
Adapted from Leon Bernstein, Salt Tolerance of Plants, USDA Agricultural Information Bulletin 283(1970).
170
08FERTILIZERS
FERTILIZER DEFINITIONS
Grade or analysis means the minimum guarantee of the percentage of totalnitrogen (N), available phosphoric acid (P2O5), and water-soluble potash(K2O) in the fertilizer.
Example: 20-0-20 or 5-15-5
Ratio is the grade reduced to its simplest terms.
Example: A 20-0-20 has a ratio of 1-0-1, as does a 10-0-10.
Formula shows the actual pound and percentage composition of theingredients or compounds that are mixed to make up a ton of fertilizer.
An open-formula mix carries the formula as well as the grade on the tagattached to each bag.
Carrier, simple, or source is the material or compound in which a givenplant nutrient is found or supplied.
Example: Ammonium nitrate and urea are sources or carriers that supplynitrogen.
Unit means 1% of 1 ton or 20 lb. On the basis of a ton, the units per ton areequal to the percentage composition or the pounds per 100 lb.
Example: Ammonium sulfate contains 21% nitrogen, or 21 lb nitrogen/100lb, or 21 units nitrogen in a ton.
Primary nutrient refers to nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which areused in considerable quantities by crops.
Secondary nutrient refers to calcium, magnesium, and sulfur, which areused in moderate quantities by crops.
Micronutrient, trace, or minor element refers to iron, boron, manganese,zinc, copper, and molybdenum, the essential plant nutrients used inrelatively small quantities.
171
TABLE 4.16. APPROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF SOME CHEMICALFERTILIZER MATERIALS1
Fertilizer Material
TotalNitrogen
(% N)
AvailablePhosphorus
(% P2O5)
Water-solublePotassium(% K2O)
NitrogenAmmonium nitrate 33.5 — —Ammonium nitrate-lime
(A-N-L, Cal-Nitro)20.5 — —
Monoammonium phosphate 11.0 48.0 —Ammonium phosphate-sulfate 16.0 20.0 —Ammonium sulfate 21.0 — —Anhydrous ammonia 82.0 — —Aqua ammonia 20.0 — —Calcium cyanamide 21.0 — —Calcium nitrate 15.5 — —Calcium ammonium nitrate 17.0 — —Diammonium phosphate 16–18 46.0–48.0 —Potassium nitrate 13.0 — 44.0Sodium nitrate 16.0 — —Urea 46.0 — —Urea formaldehyde 38.0 — —
PhosphorusPhosphoric acid solution — 52.0–54.0 —Normal (single)
superphosphate— 18.0–20.0 —
Concentrated (triple or treble)superphosphate
— 45.0–46.0 —
Monopotassium phosphate — 53.0 —
PotassiumPotassium chloride — — 60.0–62.0Potassium nitrate 13.0 — 44.0Potassium sulfate — — 50.0–53.0Sulfate of potash-magnesia — — 26.0Monopotassium phosphate — — 34.0
1 See page 165 for effect of these materials on soil reaction.
172
TABLE 4.17. SOLUBILITY OF FERTILIZER MATERIALSSolubility of fertilizer materials is an important factor in preparing startersolutions, foliar sprays, and solutions to be knifed into the soil or injectedinto an irrigation system. Hot water may be needed to dissolve thechemicals.
MaterialSolubility in Cold Water
(lb /100 gal)
Primary NutrientsAmmonium nitrate 984Ammonium sulfate 592Calcium cyanamide DecomposesCalcium nitrate 851Diammonium phosphate 358Monoammonium phosphate 192Potassium nitrate 108Sodium nitrate 608Superphosphate, single 17Superphosphate, treble 33Urea 651
Secondary Nutrients and MicronutrientsAmmonium molybdate DecomposesBorax 8Calcium chloride 500Copper oxide InsolubleCopper sulfate 183Ferrous sulfate 242Magnesium sulfate 592Manganese sulfate 876Sodium chloride 300Sodium molybdate 467Zinc sulfate 625
173
TABLE 4.18. AMOUNT OF CARRIERS NEEDED TO SUPPLY ACERTAIN AMOUNT OF NUTRIENT PER ACRE1
Nutrients (lb /acre)
20 40 60 80 100 120 160 200
Nutrient inCarrier (%)
Carriers Needed (lb)
3 667 1,333 2,0004 500 1,000 1,500 2,0005 400 800 1,200 1,600 2,0006 333 667 1,000 1,333 1,667 2,0007 286 571 857 1,142 1,429 1,7148 250 500 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 2,0009 222 444 667 889 1,111 1,333 1,778
10 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,600 2,00011 182 364 545 727 909 1,091 1,455 1,81812 166 333 500 666 833 1,000 1,333 1,66613 154 308 462 615 769 923 1,231 1,53815 133 267 400 533 667 800 1,067 1,33316 125 250 375 500 625 750 1,000 1,25018 111 222 333 444 555 666 888 1,11120 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1,00021 95 190 286 381 476 571 762 95225 80 160 240 320 400 480 640 80030 67 133 200 267 333 400 533 66734 59 118 177 235 294 353 471 58842 48 95 143 190 238 286 381 47645 44 89 133 178 222 267 356 44448 42 83 125 167 208 250 333 41750 40 80 120 160 200 240 320 40060 33 67 100 133 167 200 267 333
1 This table can be used in determining the acre rate for applying a material in order to supply acertain number of pounds of a nutrient.
174
Example: A carrier provides 34% of a nutrient. To get 200 lb of the nutrient,588 lb of the material is needed, and for 60 lb of the nutrient, 177 lb ofcarrier is required.
TABLE 4.19. APPROXIMATE RATES OF MATERIALS TO PROVIDECERTAIN QUANTITIES OF NITROGEN PER ACRE
N (lb /acre): 15 30 45 60 75 100
Fertilizer Material % N Material to Apply (lb /acre)
SolidsAmmonium nitrate 33 45 90 135 180 225 300Ammonium phosphate (48%
P2O5)11 135 270 410 545 680 910
Ammonium phosphate-sulfate(20% P2O5)
16 95 190 280 375 470 625
Ammonium sulfate 21 70 140 215 285 355 475Calcium nitrate 15.5 95 195 290 390 485 645Potassium nitrate 13 115 230 345 460 575 770Sodium nitrate 16 95 190 280 375 470 625Urea 46 35 65 100 130 165 215
LiquidsAnhydrous ammonia (approx.
5 lb /gal)182 20 35 55 75 90 120
Aqua ammonium phosphate(24% P2O5; approx. 10 lb /gal)
8 190 375 560 750 940 1250
Aqua ammonia (approx. 71⁄2lb /gal)1
20 75 150 225 300 375 500
Nitrogen solution (approx. 11lb /gal)
32 50 100 150 200 250 330
1 To avoid burning, especially on alkaline soils, these materials must be placed deeper and fartheraway from the plant row than dry fertilizers are placed.
175
TABLE 4.20. RATES OF APPLICATION FOR SOME NITROGENSOLUTIONS
Nitrogen(lb /acre)
Nitrogen Solution Needed (gal /acre)
21% Solution 32% Solution 41% Solution
20 8.9 5.6 5.125 11.1 7.1 6.430 13.3 8.5 7.735 15.6 9.9 9.040 17.8 11.3 10.345 20.0 12.7 11.550 22.2 14.1 12.855 24.4 15.5 14.160 26.7 16.5 15.465 28.9 18.4 16.770 31.1 19.8 17.975 33.3 21.2 19.280 35.6 22.6 20.585 37.8 24.0 21.890 40.0 25.4 23.195 42.2 26.8 24.4
100 44.4 28.2 25.6110 48.9 31.1 28.2120 53.3 33.9 30.8130 57.8 36.7 33.3140 62.2 39.6 35.9150 66.7 42.4 38.5200 88.9 56.5 51.3
Adapted from C. W. Gandt, W. C. Hulburt, and H. D. Brown, Hose Pump for Applying NitrogenSolutions, USDA Farmer’s Bulletin 2096 (1956).
176
09FERTILIZER CONVERSION FACTORS
TABLE 4.21. CONVERSION FACTORS FOR FERTILIZERMATERIALS
Multiply By To Obtain Equivalent Nutrient
Ammonia—NH3 4.700 Ammonium nitrate—NH4NO3
Ammonia—NH3 3.879 Ammonium sulfate—(NH4)2SO4
Ammonia—NH3 0.823 Nitrogen—NAmmonium nitrate—NH4NO3 0.350 Nitrogen—NAmmonium sulfate—
(NH4)2SO4
0.212 Nitrogen—N
Borax—Na2B4O7 � 10H2O 0.114 Boron—BBoric acid—H3BO3 0.177 Boron—BBoron—B 8.813 Borax—Na2B4O7 � 10H2OBoron—B 5.716 Boric acid—H3BO3
Calcium—Ca 1.399 Calcium oxide—CaOCalcium—Ca 2.498 Calcium carbonate—CaCO3
Calcium—Ca 1.849 Calcium hydroxide—Ca(OH)2
Calcium—Ca 4.296 Calcium sulfate—CaSO4 �
2H2O (gypsum)Calcium carbonate—CaCO3 0.400 Calcium—CaCalcium carbonate—CaCO3 0.741 Calcium hydroxide—Ca(OH)2
Calcium carbonate—CaCO3 0.560 Calcium oxide—CaOCalcium carbonate—CaCO3 0.403 Magnesia—MgOCalcium carbonate—CaCO3 0.842 Magnesium carbonate—
MgCO3
Calcium hydroxide—Ca(OH)2 0.541 Calcium—CaCalcium hydroxide—Ca(OH)2 1.351 Calcium carbonate—CaCO3
Calcium hydroxide—Ca(OH)2 0.756 Calcium oxide—CaOCalcium oxide—CaO 0.715 Calcium—CaCalcium oxide—CaO 1.785 Calcium carbonate—CaCO3
Calcium oxide—CaO 1.323 Calcium hydroxide—Ca(OH)2
Calcium oxide—CaO 3.071 Calcium sulfate—CaSO4 �
2H2O (gypsum)Gypsum—CaSO4 � 2H2O 0.326 Calcium oxide—CaO
177
TABLE 4.21. CONVERSION FACTORS FOR FERTILIZERMATERIALS (Continued )
Multiply By To Obtain Equivalent Nutrient
Gypsum—CaSO4 � 2H2O 0.186 Sulfur—SMagnesia—MgO 2.480 Calcium carbonate—CaCO3
Magnesia—MgO 0.603 Magnesium—MgMagnesia—MgO 2.092 Magnesium carbonate—
MgCO3
Magnesia—MgO 2.986 Magnesium sulfate—MgSO4
Magnesia—MgO 6.114 Magnesium sulfate— MgSO4 �
7H2O (Epsom salts)Magnesium—Mg 4.116 Calcium carbonate—CaCO3
Magnesium—Mg 1.658 Magnesia—MgOMagnesium—Mg 3.466 Magnesium carbonate—
MgCO3
Magnesium—Mg 4.951 Magnesium sulfate—MgSO4
Magnesium—Mg 10.136 Magnesium sulfate— MgSO4 �
7H2O (Epsom salts)Magnesium carbonate—MgCO3 1.187 Calcium carbonate—CaCO3
Magnesium carbonate—MgCO3 0.478 Magnesia—MgOMagnesium carbonate—MgCO3 0.289 Magnesium—MgMagnesium sulfate—MgSO4 0.335 Magnesia—MgOMagnesium sulfate—MgSO4 0.202 Magnesium—MgMagnesium sulfate—MgSO4 �
7H2O (Epsom salts)0.164 Magnesia—MgO
Magnesium sulfate—MgSO4 �
7H2O (Epsom salts)0.099 Magnesium—Mg
Manganese—Mn 2.749 Manganese(ous) sulfate—MnSO4
Manganese—Mn 4.060 Manganese(ous) sulfate—MnSO4 � 4H2O
Manganese(ous) sulfate—MnSO4
0.364 Manganese—Mn
Manganese(ous) sulfate—MnSO4 � 4H2O
0.246 Manganese—Mn
Nitrate—NO3 0.226 Nitrogen—NNitrogen—N 1.216 Ammonia—NH3
Nitrogen—N 2.856 Ammonium nitrate—NH4NO3
178
TABLE 4.21. CONVERSION FACTORS FOR FERTILIZERMATERIALS (Continued )
Multiply By To Obtain Equivalent Nutrient
Nitrogen—N 4.716 Ammonium sulfate—(NH4)2SO4
Nitrogen—N 4.426 Nitrate—NO3
Nitrogen—N 6.068 Sodium nitrate—NaNO3
Nitrogen—N 6.250 ProteinPhosphoric acid—P2O5 0.437 Phosphorus—PPhosphorus—P 2.291 Phosphoric acid—P2O5
Potash—K2O 1.583 Potassium chloride—KClPotash—K2O 2.146 Potassium nitrate—KNO3
Potash—K2O 0.830 Potassium—KPotash—K2O 1.850 Potassium sulfate—K2SO4
Potassium—K 1.907 Potassium chloride—KClPotassium—K 1.205 Potash—K2OPotassium—K 2.229 Potassium sulfate—K2SO4
Potassium chloride—KCl 0.632 Potash—K2OPotassium chloride—KCl 0.524 Potassium—KPotassium nitrate—KNO3 0.466 Potash—K2OPotassium nitrate—KNO3 0.387 Potassium—KPotassium sulfate—K2SO4 0.540 Potash—K2OPotassium sulfate—K2SO4 0.449 Potassium—KSodium nitrate—NaNO3 0.165 Nitrogen—NSulfur—S 5.368 Calcium sulfate—CaSO4 �
2H2O (gypsum)Sulfur—S 2.497 Sulfur trioxide—SO3
Sulfur—S 3.059 Sulfuric acid—H2SO4
Sulfur trioxide—SO3 0.401 Sulfur—SSulfuric acid—H2SO4 0.327 Sulfur—S
Examples: 80 lb ammonia (NH3) contains the same amount of N as 310 lbammonium sulfate [(NH4)2SO4], 80 � 3.88 � 310. Likewise, 1000 lb calciumcarbonate multiplied by 0.400 equals 400 lb calcium. A material contains20% phosphoric acid. This percentage (20) multiplied by 0.437 equals 8.74%phosphorus.
179
10NUTRIENT ABSORPTION
APPROXIMATE CROP CONTENT OF NUTRIENT ELEMENTS
Sometimes crop removal values are used to estimate fertilizer needs bycrops. Removal values are obtained by analyzing plants and fruits fornutrient content and then expressing the results on an acre basis. It is riskyto relate fertilizer requirements on specific soils to generalized listings ofcrop removal values. A major problem is that crop removal values areusually derived from analyzing plants grown on fertile soils where much ofthe nutrient content of the crop is supplied from soil reserves rather thanfrom fertilizer application. Because plants can absorb larger amounts ofspecific nutrients than they require, crop removal values can overestimatethe true crop nutrient requirement of a crop. Crop removal values canestimate the nutrient supply capacity on an unfertilized soil. The cropcontent (removal) values presented in the table are presented forinformation purposes and are not suggested for use in formulating fertilizerrecommendations. The values were derived from various sources andpublications. For example, a similar table was published in M. McVickerand W. Walker, Using Commercial Fertilizer (Danville, Ill.: InterstatePrinters and Publishers, 1978).
180
TABLE 4.22. APPROXIMATE ACCUMULATION OF NUTRIENTS BYSOME VEGETABLE CROPS
VegetableYield
(cwt /acre)
Nutrient Absorption(lb /acre)
N P K
Broccoli 100 heads 20 2 45Other 145 8 165
165 10 210
Brussels sprouts 160 sprouts 150 20 125Other 85 9 110
235 29 235
Cantaloupe 225 fruits 95 17 120Vines 60 8 35
155 25 155
Carrot 500 roots 80 20 200Tops 65 5 145
145 25 345
Celery 1000 tops 170 35 380Roots 25 15 55
195 50 435
Honeydew melon 290 fruits 70 8 65Vines 135 15 95
205 23 160
Lettuce 350 plants 95 12 170Onion 400 bulbs 110 20 110
Tops 35 5 45
145 25 155
181
TABLE 4.22. APPROXIMATE ACCUMULATION OF NUTRIENTS BYSOME VEGETABLE CROPS (Continued )
VegetableYield
(cwt /acre)
Nutrient Absorption(lb /acre)
N P K
Pea, shelled 40 peas 100 10 30Vines 70 12 50
170 22 80
Pepper 225 fruits 45 6 50Plants 95 6 90
140 12 140
Potato 400 tubers 150 19 200Vines 60 11 75
210 30 275
Snap bean 100 beans 120 10 55Plants 50 6 45
170 16 100
Spinach 200 plants 100 12 100
Sweet corn 130 ears 55 8 30Plants 100 12 75
155 20 105
Sweet potato 300 roots 80 16 160Vines 60 4 40
140 20 200
Tomato 600 fruits 100 10 180Vines 80 11 100
180 21 280
182
11P
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NO
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N,
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Pet
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Pet
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9,00
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Fir
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NO
3
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N,
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P,pp
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,%
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183
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Mid
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Lat
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Mid
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Cab
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At
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NO
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Can
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Ear
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Pet
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Ear
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Bla
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NO
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800
1,50
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184
TA
BL
E4.
23.
PL
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LY
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FO
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PL
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TIM
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LA
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PA
RT
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DN
UT
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EN
TR
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OF
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Pla
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Par
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Con
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Nu
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,%
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10,0
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Car
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Mid
grow
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NO
3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
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,%
5,00
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7,50
03,
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Cau
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Mid
rib
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g,m
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4
N,
ppm
P,pp
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,%
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Cel
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Mid
grow
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leaf
NO
3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
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,%
5,00
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7,00
03,
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Pet
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tfu
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P,pp
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6,00
03,
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Cu
cum
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pick
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fru
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6th
leaf
from
tip
NO
3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
5,00
01,
500 3
7,50
02,
500 5
185
Cu
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Pet
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6,00
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At
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Mid
rib
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5
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ate
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ure
leaf
NO
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N,
ppm
P,pp
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,%
5,00
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7,00
02,
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186
TA
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23.
PL
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LY
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TR
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Pet
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4
N,
ppm
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1,00
01,
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1,50
02,
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Fru
its,
full
size
Pet
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4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
750
1,50
0 1.5
1,00
02,
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Ear
lygr
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firs
tbl
oom
Bla
deof
you
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mat
ure
leaf
NO
3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
1,50
01,
500 3
2,00
02,
000 5
Ear
lyfr
uit
set
Bla
deof
you
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mat
ure
leaf
NO
3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
500
1,50
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800
2,00
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eppe
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lygr
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,fi
rst
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leof
you
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mat
ure
leaf
NO
3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
8,00
02,
000 4
10,0
003,
000 6
Ear
lyfr
uit
set,
1in
.di
amet
erP
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leof
you
ng,
mat
ure
leaf
NO
3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
5,00
01,
500 3
7,00
02,
500 5
187
Fru
it3⁄4
size
Pet
iole
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un
g,m
atu
rele
afN
O3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
3,00
01,
200 2
5,00
02,
000 4
Ear
lygr
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rst
flow
erB
lade
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un
g,m
atu
rele
afN
O3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
2,00
01,
800 3
3,00
02,
500 5
Ear
lyfr
uit
set,
1in
.di
amet
erB
lade
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un
g,m
atu
rele
afN
O3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
1,50
01,
500 2
2,00
02,
000 4
Pot
ato
Ear
lyse
ason
Pet
iole
of4t
hle
affr
omgr
owin
gti
p
NO
3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
8,00
01,
200 9
12,0
002,
000 11
Mid
seas
onP
etio
leof
4th
leaf
from
grow
ing
tip
NO
3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
6,00
080
0 7
9,00
01,
600 9
Lat
ese
ason
Pet
iole
of4t
hle
affr
omgr
owin
gti
p
NO
3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
3,00
050
0 4
5,00
01,
000 6
Spi
nac
hM
idgr
owth
Pet
iole
ofyo
un
g,m
atu
rele
afN
O3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
4,00
02,
000 2
6,00
03,
000 4
Su
mm
ersq
uas
h(z
ucc
hin
i)E
arly
bloo
mP
etio
leof
you
ng,
mat
ure
leaf
NO
3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
12,0
004,
000 6
15,0
006,
000 10
Sw
eet
corn
Tas
seli
ng
Mid
rib
of1s
tle
afab
ove
prim
ary
ear
NO
3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
500
500 2
1,00
01,
000 4
188
TA
BL
E4.
23.
PL
AN
TA
NA
LY
SIS
GU
IDE
FO
RS
AM
PL
ING
TIM
E,P
LA
NT
PA
RT
,AN
DN
UT
RIE
NT
CO
NC
EN
TR
AT
ION
OF
VE
GE
TA
BL
EC
RO
PS
(DR
Y-W
EIG
HT
BA
SIS
)(C
onti
nu
ed)
Cro
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ime
ofS
ampl
ing
Pla
nt
Par
tS
ourc
eN
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ien
t1
Con
cen
trat
ion
Nu
trie
nt
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el
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cien
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uffi
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iole
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omth
egr
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gti
p
NO
3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
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ato,
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ryE
arly
fru
itse
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etio
leof
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leaf
from
the
grow
ing
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NO
3
PO
4
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diam
eter
Pet
iole
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hle
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omgr
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p
NO
3
PO
4
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ppm
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mK
,%
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7,00
03,
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At
firs
th
arve
stP
etio
leof
4th
leaf
from
grow
ing
tip
NO
3
PO
4
N,
ppm
P,pp
mK
,%
1,00
02,
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2,00
03,
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Tom
ato,
proc
essi
ng
and
dete
rmin
ate,
fres
hm
arke
t
Ear
lybl
oom
Pet
iole
of4t
hle
affr
omgr
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gti
p
NO
3
PO
4
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mK
,%
8,00
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12,0
003,
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189
Fru
it1
in.
diam
eter
Pet
iole
of4t
hle
affr
omgr
owin
gti
p
NO
3
PO
4
N,
ppm
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mK
,%
4,00
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6,00
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Fir
stco
lor
Pet
iole
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hle
affr
omgr
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NO
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3,00
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ato,
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hm
arke
tin
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ate
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iole
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hle
affr
omgr
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p
NO
3
PO
4
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003,
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it1
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diam
eter
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iole
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hle
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omgr
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NO
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,%
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llri
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uit
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iole
of4t
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affr
omgr
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NO
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,%
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6,00
02,
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erm
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lyfr
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set
Pet
iole
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affr
omgr
owin
gti
p
NO
3
PO
4
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1 Ada
pted
from
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M.
Rei
sen
auer
(ed.
),S
oil
and
Pla
nt
Tis
sue
Tes
tin
gin
Cal
ifor
nia
,Un
iver
sity
ofC
alif
orn
iaD
ivis
ion
ofA
gric
ult
ura
lSci
ence
Bu
llet
in18
79(1
983)
.2 T
wo
perc
ent
acet
icac
id-s
olu
ble
NO
3–N
and
PO
4–P
and
tota
lK
(dry
wei
ght
basi
s).U
pdat
ed19
95,p
erso
nal
com
mu
nic
atio
n,T
.K
.H
artz
,Un
iver
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nt
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Veg
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rops
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iver
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isV
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Res
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ente
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aysh
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alm
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trie
nt
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cen
trat
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ole
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the
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dm
eth
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eval
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BL
E4.
24.
TO
TA
LN
UT
RIE
NT
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NC
EN
TR
AT
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EN
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LE
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LO
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LE
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Cro
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nt
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t
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us
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ure
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n,
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2.25
Cel
ery
Mid
grow
thP
etio
leN P K
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4.00
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0.55
5.00
191
Can
talo
upe
Ear
lygr
owth
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iole
of6t
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omgr
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gti
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uit
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iole
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hle
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omgr
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stm
atu
refr
uit
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hle
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omgr
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gti
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2.00
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lic
Ear
lyse
ason
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bulb
ing)
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est
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onga
ted
leaf
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0.20
3.00
5.00
0.30
4.00
Mid
seas
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ulb
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New
est
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ted
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3.00
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lbin
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ewes
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2.00
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tuce
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0.20
2.50
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0.35
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rly
mat
ure
Lea
ves
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1.25
0.15
2.50
2.50
0.30
5.00
On
ion
Ear
lyse
ason
Tal
lest
leaf
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0.10
3.00
4.00
0.20
4.00
192
TA
BL
E4.
24.
TO
TA
LN
UT
RIE
NT
CO
NC
EN
TR
AT
ION
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RD
IAG
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SIS
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RIE
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VE
LO
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ET
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LE
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onti
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ime
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nt
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t
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ese
ason
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lest
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3.00
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per,
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tiol
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ato
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ts12
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iole
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omti
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idse
ason
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hle
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omti
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2.75
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193
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e,n
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atu
reP
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from
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ly,
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ts12
in.
tall
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deof
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from
tip
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6.00
0.60
5.00
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seas
onB
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hle
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omti
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2.50
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3.50
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e,n
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ym
atu
reB
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hle
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omti
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0.20
2.50
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ther
npe
a(c
owpe
a)F
ull
bloo
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lade
and
peti
ole
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0.20
1.00
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2.00
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nac
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idgr
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ure
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tiol
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har
vest
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ure
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0.20
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ng
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omba
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kin
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rN P K
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194
TA
BL
E4.
24.
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TA
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RIE
NT
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NC
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AT
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LE
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nt
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t
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trie
nt
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el(%
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ght)
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cien
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cien
t
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ato
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low
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gL
eaf
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dpe
tiol
eN P K
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0.20
1.50
3.50
0.30
2.50
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stri
pefr
uit
Lea
fbl
ade
and
peti
ole
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1.50
0.15
1.00
2.50
0.25
2.00
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pted
from
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M.
Rei
sen
auer
(ed.
),S
oil
and
Pla
nt
Tis
sue
Tes
tin
gin
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ifor
nia
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iver
sity
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orn
iaD
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gric
ult
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lS
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ceB
ull
etin
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3).
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ated
1995
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son
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icat
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tz,U
niv
ersi
tyof
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.
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NC
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AT
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TA
BL
ES
Cro
pP
lan
tP
art1
Tim
eof
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plin
gS
tatu
s
%
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KC
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211
TABLE 4.26. UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA GUIDELINES FOR LEAFPETIOLE FRESH SAP NITRATE–NITROGEN ANDPOTASSIUM TESTING
Crop Development Stage /Time
Fresh Petiole SapConcentration (ppm)
NO3–N K
Eggplant First fruit (2 in. long) 1,200–1,600 4,500–5,000First harvest 1,000–1,200 4,000–4,500Midharvest 800–1,000 3,500–4,000
Pepper First flower buds 1,400–1,600 3,200–3,500First open flowers 1,400–1,600 3,000–3,200Fruits half-grown 1,200–1,400 3,000–3,200First harvest 800–1,000 2,400–3,000Second harvest 500–800 2,000–2,400
Potato Plants 8 in. tall 1,200–1,400 4,500–5,000First open flowers 1,000–1,400 4,500–5,00050% flowers open 1,000–1,200 4,000–4,500100% flowers open 900–1,200 3,500–4,000Tops falling over 600–900 2,500–3,000
Strawberry1 November 800–900 3,000–3,500December 600–800 3,000–3,500January 600–800 2,500–3,000February 300–500 2,000–2,500March 200–500 1,800–2,500April 200–500 1,500–2,000
Tomato First buds 1,000–1,200 3,500–4,000First open flowers 600–800 3,500–4,000Fruits 1-in. diameter 400–600 3,000–3,500Fruits 2-in. diameter 400–600 3,000–3,500First harvest 300–400 2,500–3,000Second harvest 200–400 2,000–2,500
Watermelon Vines 6 in. long 1,200–1,500 4,000–5,000Fruit 2 in. long 1,000–1,200 4,000–5,000Fruits one-half mature 800–1,000 3,500–4,000At first harvest 600–800 3,000–3,500
Adapted from G. Hochmuth, ‘‘Plant Petiole Sap-testing Guide for Vegetable Crops,’’ FloridaCooperative Extension Service Circular 1144 (2003), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / pdffiles / cv / cv00400.pdf.1 Annual hill production system
212
12SOIL TESTS
Analyses for total amounts of nutrients in the soil are of limited value inpredicting fertilizer needs. Consequently, various methods and extractantshave been developed to estimate available soil nutrients and to serve as abasis for predicting fertilizer needs. Proper interpretation of the results ofsoil analysis is essential in recommending fertilizer needs. Soil testingprocedure and extractants must be correlated with crop response to be ofvalue for predicting crop need for fertilizer. One soil test proceduredeveloped for one soil and crop condition in one area of the country may notapply in another area. Growers should consult their crop and soils expertsabout soil testing procedures appropriate for their growing area.
DETERMINING THE KIND AND QUANTITY OF FERTILIZER TOUSE
Many states issue suggested rates of application of fertilizers for specificvegetables. These recommendations are sometimes made according to thetype of soil—that is, light or heavy, sands, loams, clays, peats, and mucks.Other factors often used in establishing these rates are whether manure orsoil-improving crops are employed and whether an optimum moisturesupply can be maintained. The nutrient requirements of each crop must beconsidered, as must the past fertilizer and cropping history. The season ofthe year affects nutrient availability. Broad recommendations are at bestonly a point from which to make adjustments to suit individual conditions.Each field may require a different fertilizer program for the same vegetable.
Calibrated soil testing can provide an estimate of the concentration ofessential elements that will be available to the crop during the season andpredict the amount of fertilizer needed to produce a crop. Various extractionsolutions are used by soil testing labs around the country to estimate thenutrient-supplying capacity of the soil, and not all solutions are calibratedfor all soils. Therefore, growers must exercise care in selecting a lab toanalyze soil samples, using only those labs that employ analyticalprocedures calibrated with yield response in specific soil types and growingregions. Even though several labs might differ in lab procedures, if allprocedures are calibrated, then fertilizer recommendations should besimilar. If unclear about specific soil testing practices, growers shouldconsult their Cooperative Extension Service and the specific analytical lab.
Phosphorus. This element is not very mobile in most agricultural soils.Phosphorus is fixed in soils with basic reactions and large quantities of
213
calcium, or in acidic soils containing aluminum or iron. Even thoughphosphorus can be fixed, if a calibrated soil test predicts no response tophosphorus fertilization, then growers need not add large amounts ofphosphorus because enough phosphorus will be made available to thecrop during the growing season, even though the soil has a highphosphorus-fixing capacity. Sometimes crops might respond to smallamounts of starter phosphorus supplied to high phosphorus testing soilsin cold planting seasons.
Potassium. Although not generally considered a mobile element in soils,potassium can leach in coarse, sandy soils. Clay soils and loamy soilsoften contain adequate amounts of available potassium and may notneed fertilization with potassium. Coarse, sandy soils usually testmedium or low in extractable potassium, and crops growing on thesesoils respond to potassium fertilization.
Nitrogen. Most soil testing labs have no calibrated soil test for nitrogenbecause nitrogen is highly mobile in most soils and predicting a crop’sresponse to nitrogen fertilization from a soil test is risky. However, somelabs do predict the nitrogen-supplying capacity of a soil from adetermination of soil organic matter. Estimates vary from 20 to 40 lbnitrogen made available during the season for each percent soil organicmatter. Another soil nitrogen estimation procedure used by some labs isthe pre-sidedress soil nitrate test. This test predicts the likelihood ofneed for sidedressed nitrogen during the season but is relativelyinsensitive for predicting exact amounts of sidedress nitrogen.
214
TABLE 4.27. PREDICTED RESPONSES OF CROPS TO RELATIVEAMOUNTS OF EXTRACTED PLANT NUTRIENTS BYSOIL TEST
Soil Test Interpretation Predicted Crop Response
Very high No crop response predicted to fertilizationwith a particular element.
High No crop response predicted to fertilizationwith a particular element.
Medium 75–100% maximum expected yield predictedwithout fertilization.
Low 50–75% maximum expected yield predictedwithout fertilization.
Very low 25–50% maximum expected yield predictedwithout fertilization.
215
TA
BL
E4.
28.
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
OF
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ILT
ES
TR
ES
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TS
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216
TA
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.
217
TABLE 4.30. INTERPRETATION OF THE MEHLICH-1 (DOUBLE-ACID) EXTRACTANT USED BY THE UNIVERSITY OFFLORIDA
Element
ppm (soil)
Very Low Low Medium High Very High
P �10 10–15 16–30 31–60 �60K �20 20–35 36–60 61–125 �125
Mg �15 15–30 �30
Micronutrients
Soil pH (mineral soils only)
5.5–5.9 6.0–6.4 6.5–7.0ppm (soil)
Test level below which there maybe a crop response to appliedcopper
0.1–0.3 0.3–0.5 0.5
Test level above which coppertoxicity may occur
2.0–3.0 3.0–5.0 5.0
Test level below which there maybe a crop response to appliedmanganese
3.0–5.0 5.0–7.0 7.0–9.0
Test level below which there maybe a crop response to appliedzinc
0.5 0.5–1.0 1.0–3.0
Adapted from G. Hochmuth and E. Hanlon, ‘‘IFAS Standardized Fertilization Recommendations forVegetable Crops’’ (Florida Cooperative Extension Service Circular 1152, 2000), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu /CV002.
218
TABLE 4.31. GUIDE FOR DIAGNOSING NUTRIENT STATUS OFCALIFORNIA SOILS FOR VEGETABLE CROPS1
Vegetable
Vegetable Yield Response to Fertilizer Application
Nutrient1Likely (soil ppm
less than)Not Likely (soil ppm
more than)
Lettuce P 15 25K 50 80Zn 0.5 1.0
Cantaloupe P 8 12K 80 100Zn 0.4 0.6
Onion P 8 12K 80 100Zn 0.5 1.0
Potato (mineral P 12 25soils) K 100 150
Zn 0.3 0.7Tomato P 8 12
K 100 150Zn 0.3 0.7
Warm-seasonvegetables
P 8 12
K 50 70Zn 0.2 0.5
Cool-seasonvegetables
P 20 30
K 50 80Zn 0.5 1.0
Adapted from Soil and Plant Tissue Testing in California, University of California DivisionAgricultural Science Bulletin 1879 (1983). Updated 1996, personal communication, T. K. Hartz,University of California—Davis.1 Soil extracts:
PO4–P: 0.5M pH 8.5 sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)K: 1.0M ammonium acetate (NH4OAc)
Zn: 0.005M diethyienetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA)
219
PRE-SIDEDRESS NITROGEN TEST FOR SWEET CORN
The Pre-sidedress Nitrate Test was developed to aid farmers in theprediction of nitrogen needs by corn at the time when sidedress applicationsare normally made. This test takes into consideration nitrogen releasedfrom organic nutrient sources (such as manure, compost, cover crops, andsoil organic matter) in addition to nitrogen fertilizer.
Sampling Procedure for Nitrogen Soil Test
1. Sample soil when corn is 8–12 in. tall.
2. Collect 15–20 soil cores per field to a depth of 12 in., if possible. Ifnot, sample as deeply as possible. Avoid areas where starter fertilizerbands were applied, areas where manure was stacked, and areaswhere starter fertilizer applications were unusually heavy or light.
3. Combine the cores for each field and mix completely. Take asubsample of approximately 1 cup and dry it immediately. Soil can bedried in an oven at about 200�F. Samples can also be air dried ifspread out thinly on a nonabsorbent material in a dry, well-ventilatedarea. A fan reduces drying time. Do not put wet samples on absorbentmaterial because it will absorb some nitrate. The longer the delay indrying the sample, the less accurate the results will be.
TABLE 4.32. SWEET CORN NITROGEN TEST
Soil Test Results(ppm NO3–N)
Recommended Nitrogen Sidedressing(lbs actual N/acre)
0–10 13011–20 10021–25 5025� 0
Adapted from Vern Grubinger, University of Vermont Cooperative Extension Service, http: / /www.uvm.edu / vtvegandberry / factsheets / PSNT.html. Similar research results were obtained withpumpkin by T. F. Morris et al. (University of Connecticut, 1999), http: / / www.hort.uconn.edu / ipm / veg/ htms / presidrs.htm.
220
Additional references for soil testing for vegetable fertilizerrecommendations:
● E. A. Hanlon, Procedures Used by State Soil Testing Laboratories inthe Southern Region of the United States, (Southern CooperativeSeries Bulletin 190-B, 1998), http: / /www.imok.ufl.edu/hanlon /bull190.pdf.
● H. M. Reisenauer, J. Quick, R. E. Voss, and A. L. Brown, ChemicalSoil Tests for Soil Fertility Evaluation (University of CaliforniaVegetable Research and Information Center), http: / /vric.ucdavis.edu.
221
TA
BL
E4.
33.
CO
NV
ER
SIO
NO
FF
ER
TIL
IZE
RR
AT
ES
FR
OM
AP
PL
ICA
TIO
NO
NA
PE
R-A
CR
EB
AS
IST
OR
AT
ES
BA
SE
DO
NL
INE
AR
BE
DF
EE
TF
OR
FU
LL
-BE
DM
UL
CH
ED
CR
OP
S
Typ
ical
bed
spac
ing
for
mu
lch
edve
geta
bles
grow
nin
Flo
rida
:
Veg
etab
leT
ypic
alS
paci
ng
(ft)
1R
ows
ofP
lan
tspe
rB
edV
eget
able
Typ
ical
Spa
cin
g(f
t)R
ows
ofP
lan
tspe
rB
ed
Bro
ccol
i6
2L
ettu
ce4
2C
abba
ge6
2P
eppe
r6
2C
anta
lou
pe5
1S
um
mer
squ
ash
62
Cau
lifl
ower
62
Str
awbe
rry
42
Cu
cum
ber
62
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ato
61
Egg
plan
t6
1W
ater
mel
on8
11S
paci
ng
betw
een
the
cen
ters
oftw
oad
jace
nt
beds
.
222
TA
BL
E4.
33.
CO
NV
ER
SIO
NO
FF
ER
TIL
IZE
RR
AT
ES
FR
OM
AP
PL
ICA
TIO
NO
NA
PE
R-A
CR
EB
AS
IST
OR
AT
ES
BA
SE
DO
NL
INE
AR
BE
DF
EE
TF
OR
FU
LL
-BE
DM
UL
CH
ED
CR
OP
S(C
onti
nu
ed)
Typ
ical
Bed
Spa
cin
g(f
t)
Rec
omm
ende
dF
erti
lize
r(N
,P
2O5,
orK
2O)
(lb
/A)
2040
6080
100
120
140
160
180
Res
ult
ing
Fer
tili
zer
Rat
e(N
,P
2O5,
orK
2O)
(lb
/100
LB
F)
30.
140.
280.
410.
550.
690.
830.
961.
101.
244
0.18
0.37
0.55
0.73
0.92
1.10
1.29
1.47
1.65
50.
230.
460.
690.
921.
151.
381.
611.
842.
076
0.28
0.55
0.83
1.10
1.38
1.65
1.93
2.20
2.48
80.
370.
731.
101.
471.
842.
202.
572.
943.
31
To
dete
rmin
eth
eco
rrec
tfe
rtil
izat
ion
rate
inlb
nu
trie
nt
per
100
lin
ear
bed
feet
(LB
F),
choo
seth
ecr
opan
dit
sty
pica
lbe
dsp
acin
g,L
ocat
eth
atty
pica
lbe
dsp
acin
gva
lue
inth
ebo
ttom
part
ofth
eta
ble.
Th
enlo
cate
the
desi
red
valu
efo
rre
com
men
ded
fert
iliz
erra
te.
Rea
ddo
wn
the
colu
mn
un
der
reco
mm
ende
dfe
rtil
izer
rate
un
til
you
reac
hth
eva
lue
inth
ero
wfo
ryo
ur
typi
cal
bed
spac
ing.
Ada
pted
from
G.
J.H
och
mu
th,‘
‘Soi
lan
dF
erti
lize
rM
anag
emen
tfo
rV
eget
able
Pro
duct
ion
inF
lori
da,’’
inD
.N
.M
ayn
ard
and
G.
J.H
och
mu
th(e
ds.)
,Veg
etab
leP
rod
uct
ion
Gu
ide
for
Flo
rid
a(F
lori
daC
oope
rati
veE
xten
sion
Ser
vice
Cir
cula
rS
P-1
70,1
995)
,2–1
7.
223
TA
BL
E4.
34.
RA
TE
SO
FF
ER
TIL
IZE
RS
RE
CO
MM
EN
DE
DF
OR
VE
GE
TA
BL
EC
RO
PS
INM
ID-A
TL
AN
TIC
(DE
LA
WA
RE
,MA
RY
LA
ND
,NE
WJ
ER
SE
Y,P
EN
NS
YL
VA
NIA
,AN
DV
IRG
INIA
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TA
TE
SB
AS
ED
ON
SO
ILA
NA
LY
SE
S1
Veg
etab
leA
mou
nt
N(l
b/a
cre)
Am
oun
tP
2O5
(lb
/acr
e)
Low
Soi
lP
Med
ium
Soi
lP
Opt
imu
mS
oil
P
Am
oun
tK
2O(l
b/a
cre)
Low
Soi
lK
Med
ium
Soi
lK
Opt
imu
mS
oil
K
Asp
arag
us
(cu
ttin
gbe
ds)
5020
010
050
200
100
50
Bea
n,
snap
40–8
080
6040
8060
40B
eet
75–1
0015
010
050
150
100
50B
rocc
oli
150–
200
200
100
5020
010
050
Cab
bage
100–
150
200
100
5020
010
050
Can
talo
upe
75–1
0015
010
050
200
150
100
Car
rot
50–8
015
010
050
150
100
50C
auli
flow
er10
0–15
020
010
050
200
100
50C
eler
y15
0–17
525
015
010
025
015
010
0C
ucu
mbe
r10
0–12
515
010
050
200
150
100
Egg
plan
t12
5–15
025
015
010
025
015
010
0L
ettu
ce,
iceb
erg
60–8
020
015
010
020
015
010
0L
eek
100–
125
200
150
100
200
150
100
On
ion
,bu
lbs
75–1
0020
010
050
200
100
50
224
TA
BL
E4.
34.
RA
TE
SO
FF
ER
TIL
IZE
RS
RE
CO
MM
EN
DE
DF
OR
VE
GE
TA
BL
EC
RO
PS
INM
ID-A
TL
AN
TIC
(DE
LA
WA
RE
,MA
RY
LA
ND
,NE
WJ
ER
SE
Y,P
EN
NS
YL
VA
NIA
,AN
DV
IRG
INIA
)S
TA
TE
SB
AS
ED
ON
SO
ILA
NA
LY
SE
S1
(Con
tin
ued
)
Veg
etab
leA
mou
nt
N(l
b/a
cre)
Am
oun
tP
2O5
(lb
/acr
e)
Low
Soi
lP
Med
ium
Soi
lP
Opt
imu
mS
oil
P
Am
oun
tK
2O(l
b/a
cre)
Low
Soi
lK
Med
ium
Soi
lK
Opt
imu
mS
oil
K
Pea
40–8
012
080
4012
080
40P
eppe
r10
0–13
020
015
010
020
015
010
0P
otat
o12
5–15
020
015
010
030
020
010
0P
um
pkin
50–1
0015
010
050
200
150
100
Spi
nac
h10
0–19
520
015
010
020
015
010
0S
quas
h,s
um
mer
75–1
0015
010
050
200
150
100
Str
awbe
rry
(est
abli
shed
)60
–110
165
115
6516
511
565
Sw
eet
corn
(fre
sh)
125–
150
160
120
8016
012
080
Sw
eet
pota
to50
–75
200
100
5030
020
010
0T
omat
o(f
resh
)80
–90
200
150
100
300
200
100
Wat
erm
elon
125–
150
150
100
5020
015
010
0
Ada
pted
from
Com
mer
cial
Veg
etab
leP
rod
uct
ion
Rec
omm
end
atio
ns,
Del
awar
eC
oope
rati
veE
xten
sion
Ser
vice
Bu
llet
in13
7(2
005)
.1A
com
mon
reco
mm
enda
tion
isto
broa
dcas
tan
dw
ork
deep
lyin
toth
eso
ilon
e-th
ird
toon
e-h
alf
ofth
efe
rtil
izer
atpl
anti
ng
and
toap
ply
the
bala
nce
asa
side
dres
sin
gin
one
ortw
oap
plic
atio
ns
afte
rth
ecr
opis
full
yes
tabl
ish
ed.
225
TA
BL
E4.
35.
RA
TE
SO
FF
ER
TIL
IZE
RS
RE
CO
MM
EN
DE
DF
OR
VE
GE
TA
BL
EC
RO
PS
INF
LO
RID
AO
NS
AN
DY
SO
ILS
BA
SE
DO
NM
EH
LIC
H-I
SO
ILT
ES
TR
ES
UL
TS
Veg
etab
leN
(lb
/acr
e)
P2O
5(l
b/a
cre)
1S
oil-
test
P
Ver
yL
owL
owM
ediu
m
K2O
(lb
/acr
e)1
Soi
l-te
stK
Ver
yL
owL
owM
ediu
m
Bea
n10
012
010
080
120
100
80B
eet
120
120
100
8012
010
080
Bro
ccol
i17
515
012
010
015
012
010
0C
abba
ge17
515
012
080
150
120
80C
anta
lou
pe15
015
012
080
150
120
80C
arro
t17
515
012
010
015
012
010
0C
auli
flow
er17
515
012
010
015
012
010
0C
eler
y20
020
015
010
025
015
010
0C
hin
ese
cabb
age
150
150
120
8015
012
080
Col
lard
s15
015
012
080
150
120
80C
ucu
mbe
r15
012
010
080
120
100
80E
ggpl
ant
200
150
120
100
160
130
100
Let
tuce
200
150
120
8015
012
080
Mu
star
d12
015
012
010
015
012
010
0O
kra
120
150
120
100
150
120
100
On
ion
150
150
120
8015
012
080
226
TA
BL
E4.
35.
RA
TE
SO
FF
ER
TIL
IZE
RS
RE
CO
MM
EN
DE
DF
OR
VE
GE
TA
BL
EC
RO
PS
INF
LO
RID
AO
NS
AN
DY
SO
ILS
BA
SE
DO
NM
EH
LIC
H-I
SO
ILT
ES
TR
ES
UL
TS
(Con
tin
ued
)
Veg
etab
leN
(lb
/acr
e)
P2O
5(l
b/a
cre)
1S
oil-
test
P
Ver
yL
owL
owM
ediu
m
K2O
(lb
/acr
e)1
Soi
l-te
stK
Ver
yL
owL
owM
ediu
m
Par
sley
120
150
120
100
150
120
100
Pea
,so
uth
ern
6080
8060
8080
60P
eppe
r20
015
012
010
016
013
010
0P
otat
o20
012
012
060
140
140
140
Rad
ish
9012
010
080
120
100
80S
pin
ach
9012
010
080
120
100
80S
quas
h15
012
010
080
120
100
80S
traw
berr
y15
015
012
010
015
012
010
0S
wee
tco
rn20
015
012
010
012
010
080
Sw
eet
pota
to60
120
100
8012
010
080
Tom
ato
200
150
120
100
225
150
100
Wat
erm
elon
150
150
120
8015
012
080
Ada
pted
from
G.
Hoc
hm
uth
and
E.
Han
lon
,‘‘I
FA
SS
tan
dard
ized
Fer
tili
zati
onR
ecom
men
dati
ons
for
Veg
etab
leC
rops
,’’F
lori
daC
oope
rati
veE
xten
sion
Ser
vice
Cir
cula
r11
52(2
000)
,htt
p://
edis
.ifas
.ufl
.edu
/CV
002.
1N
oP
orK
reco
mm
ende
dfo
rso
ils
test
ing
hig
hex
cept
for
pota
to,w
hic
hre
ceiv
esn
oP
but
rece
ives
140
lbK
2O/a
cre.
227
TA
BL
E4.
36.
FE
RT
ILIZ
AT
ION
RE
CO
MM
EN
DA
TIO
NS
FO
RN
EW
EN
GL
AN
DV
EG
ET
AB
LE
S
Cro
pN
itro
gen
Soi
lP
hos
phor
us
Ver
yL
owL
owM
ediu
mH
igh
Ver
yH
igh
Soi
lP
otas
siu
m
Ver
yL
owL
owM
ediu
mH
igh
Ver
yH
igh
(lb
/acr
e)P
2O5
(lb
/acr
e)K
2O(l
b/a
cre)
Asp
arag
us,
esta
blis
hed
7520
017
515
010
050
300
250
200
150
75
Bea
n50
100
7550
2525
100
7550
5025
Bee
t,S
wis
sch
ard
100–
130
150
125
100
500
300
200
100
5025
Car
rot,
Par
snip
110–
150
150
100
7550
040
035
025
015
00–
75C
anta
lou
pe13
015
012
010
080
020
015
010
080
0C
eler
y18
020
015
010
050
030
024
018
012
00–
60C
ole
crop
s16
020
017
013
010
020
175
150
125
500
Sw
eet
Cor
n,
earl
y10
0–13
011
080
4020
020
016
013
030
0
Sw
eet
Cor
n,
mai
n10
0–16
011
080
4020
020
016
013
030
0
Cu
cum
ber
130
150
120
100
800
200
150
100
800
Egg
plan
t80
–110
200
150
100
500
200
150
100
500
Gou
rd90
125
100
7550
015
012
510
075
0
228
TA
BL
E4.
36.
FE
RT
ILIZ
AT
ION
RE
CO
MM
EN
DA
TIO
NS
FO
RN
EW
EN
GL
AN
DV
EG
ET
AB
LE
S(C
onti
nu
ed)
Cro
pN
itro
gen
Soi
lP
hos
phor
us
Ver
yL
owL
owM
ediu
mH
igh
Ver
yH
igh
Soi
lP
otas
siu
m
Ver
yL
owL
owM
ediu
mH
igh
Ver
yH
igh
(lb
/acr
e)P
2O5
(lb
/acr
e)K
2O(l
b/a
cre)
Let
tuce
,E
ndi
ve,
Esc
arol
e
80–1
2519
016
514
090
019
016
514
090
0
On
ion
130
175
150
100
500
175
150
100
500
Pea
7515
010
075
5025
150
100
7550
0P
eppe
r14
020
015
010
050
020
015
010
050
0P
otat
o12
0–18
030
025
020
018
015
025
022
520
018
015
0P
um
pkin
,S
quas
h70
–90
150
125
100
0–70
020
015
010
070
0
Rad
ish
5012
510
075
500–
2512
510
075
5025
Ru
taba
ga,
Tu
rnip
5010
075
5025
010
075
5025
0
Spi
nac
h90
–110
150
120
100
6030
200
150
100
500
Tom
ato
140–
160
200
150
100
500
250
200
150
100
0W
ater
mel
on13
015
012
010
080
020
015
010
080
0
Ada
pted
from
J.C
.H
owel
l(e
d.),
New
En
glan
dV
eget
able
Man
agem
ent
Gu
ide
(Coo
pera
tive
Ext
ensi
onS
ervi
ces
ofN
ewE
ngl
and
Sta
tes,
2004
–200
5).
229
TABLE 4.37. FERTILIZER RATES RECOMMENDED FORVEGETABLE CROPS IN NEW YORK
Vegetable
Amount (lb /acre)1
N P2O5 K2O
Asparagus 50 25–75 40–80Bean 40 40–80 20–60Beet 150–175 50–150 100–300Broccoli 100–120 40–120 60–160Brussels sprouts 100–120 40–120 60–160Cabbage 100–120 40–120 60–160Carrot 80–90 40–120 60–160Cantaloupe 100–120 40–120 40–120Cauliflower 100–120 40–120 60–160Celery 130–150 50–150 120–240Cucumber 100–120 40–120 40–120Eggplant 120 60–150 60–150Endive 100 30–120 50–150Lettuce 100 30–120 50–150Onion (mineral soil) 90–120 50–150 50–150Pea 40–50 50–100 40–120Pepper 125 75–150 75–150Potato 120–175 120–240 75–240Pumpkin 100–120 40–120 40–120Radish 50 50–110 50–150Spinach 100–125 80–140 50–150Squash, summer 100–120 40–120 40–120Squash, winter 100–120 40–120 40–120Sweet corn 120–140 40–120 40–120Tomato 100 60–150 60–150Turnip 50 50–110 50–150Watermelon 100–120 40–120 40–120
Adapted from S. Reiners and C. Petzuldt (eds.), Integrated Crop and Pest Management Guidelines forCommercial Vegetable Production (Cornell Cooperative Extension Service, 2005), http: / /www.nysaes.cornell.edu / recommends /.1 Total amounts are listed; application may be broadcast and plow down, broadcast and disk in, band,or sidedress. Actual rate of fertilization depends on soil type, previous cropping history, and soil testresults. Ranges reflect recommendations made for high to low soil test situations. See above documentfor details.
230
ADDITIONAL VEGETABLE PRODUCTION GUIDES CONTAININGFERTILIZER RECOMMENDATIONS
New England Vegetable Management Guide, http: / /www.nevegetable.orgOregon Vegetable Production Guides, http: / / oregonstate.edu/Dept /NWREC/
vegindex.htmlTexas Vegetable Grower’s Handbook, http: / /aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/
extension /veghandbook / index.htmlOhio Vegetable Production Guide, http: / / ohioline.osu.edu/b672 / index.htmlCornell (New York) Integrated Crop and Pest Management Guidelines for
Commercial Vegetable Production, http: / /www.nysaes.cornell.edu /recommends /
231
13NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES
TABLE 4.38. A KEY TO NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS
Nutrient Plant Symptoms Occurrence
Primary
Nitrogen Stems are thin, erect, andhard. Leaves are smallerthan normal, pale greenor yellow; lower leavesare affected first, but allleaves may be deficient insevere cases. Plants growslowly.
Excessive leaching onlight soils
Phosphorus Stems are thin andshortened. Leaves developpurple coloration, first onundersides and laterthroughout. Plants growslowly, and maturity isdelayed.
On acid soils; temporarydeficiencies on cold, wetsoils
Potassium Older leaves develop grayor tan areas near themargins. Eventually ascorch around the entireleaf margin may occur.Chlorotic areas maydevelop throughout leaf.
Excessive leaching onlight soils
Secondary Nutrients and Micronutrients
Boron Growing points die; stemsare shortened and hard;leaves are distorted.Specific deficienciesinclude browning ofcauliflower, cracked stemof celery, blackheart ofbeet, and internalbrowning of turnip.
On soils with a pH above6.8 or on crops with ahigh boron requirement
232
TABLE 4.38. A KEY TO NUTRIENT–DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS(Continued )
Nutrient Plant Symptoms Occurrence
Calcium Stem elongation restrictedby death of the growingpoint. Root tips die, androot growth is restricted.Specific deficienciesinclude blossom-end rotof tomato, brownheart ofescarole, celeryblackheart, and carrotcavity spot.
On acid soils, followingleaching rains, on soilswith very highpotassium levels, or onvery dry soils
Copper Yellowing of leaves. Leavesmay become elongated.Onion bulbs are soft, withthin, pale-yellow scales.
Most cases of copperdeficiency occur onmuck or peat soils.
Iron Distinct yellow or whiteareas appear between theveins on the youngestleaves.
On soils with a pH above6.8
Magnesium Initially, older leaves showyellowing between theveins; continueddeficiency causes youngerleaves to become affected.Older leaves may fallwith prolonged deficiency.
On acid soils, on soils withvery high potassiumlevels, or on very lightsoils subject to leaching
Manganese Yellow mottled areas, not asintense as with irondeficiency, appear on theyoungest leaves. Thisfinally results in anoverall pale appearance.In beet, foliage becomesdensely red. Onion andcorn show narrowstriping of yellow.
On soils with a pH above6.7
233
TABLE 4.38. A KEY TO NUTRIENT–DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS(Continued )
Nutrient Plant Symptoms Occurrence
Molybdenum Pale, distorted, very narrowleaves with someinterveinal yellowing onolder leaves. Whiptail ofcauliflower; small, open,loose curds.
On very acid soils
Zinc Small reddish-brown spotson cotyledon leaves ofbean. Green and yellowbroad striping at base ofleaves of corn. Interveinalyellowing with marginalburning on beet.
On wet soils in earlyspring; often related toheavy phosphorusfertilization
234
14MICRONUTRIENTS
TABLE 4.39. INTERPRETATION OF MICRONUTRIENT SOILTESTS
Element Method
Range inCritical Level
(ppm)1
Boron (B) Hot H2O 0.1–0.7Copper (Cu) NH4C2H3O2 (pH 4.8) 0.2
0.5M EDTA 0.1–0.70.43N HNO3 3–4Biological assay 2–3
Iron (Fe) NH4C2H3O2 (pH 4.8) 2DTPA � CaCl2 (pH 7.3) 2.5–4.5
Manganese (Mn) 0.05N HCl � 0.025N H2SO4 5–90.1N H3PO4 and 3N NH4H2PO4 15–20Hydroquinone � NH4C2H3O2 25–65H2O 2
Molybdenum (Mo) (NH4)2C2O4 (pH 3.3) 0.04–0.2Zinc (Zn) 0.1N HCl 1.0–7.5
Dithizone � NH4C2H3O2 0.3–2.3EDTA � (NH4)2CO3 1.4–3.0DTPA � CaCl2 (pH 7.3) 0.5–1.0
Reprinted with permission from S. S. Mortvedt, P. M. Giordano, and W. L. Lindsay (eds.),Micronutrients in Agriculture (Madison, Wis.: Soil Science Society of America, 1972).1 Deficiencies are likely to occur when concentrations are below the critical level. Consult the state’sExtension Service for the latest interpretations.
235
TABLE 4.40. MANGANESE RECOMMENDATIONS FORRESPONSIVE CROPS GROWN ON MINERAL SOILSIN MICHIGAN
Soil Testppm1
Soil pH
5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0
Band-applied Mn (lb /acre)
2 2 4 5 7 9 10 124 1 2 3 5 6 7 88 0 1 2 3 5 6 7
12 0 0 1 2 3 4 616 0 0 0 1 2 3 420 0 0 0 0 0 2 324 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Adapted from D. D. Warncke, D. R. Christenson, L. W. Jacobs, M. L. Vitosh, and B. H. Zandstra,Fertilizer Recommendations for Vegetable Crops in Michigan (Michigan Cooperative Extension ServiceBulletin E550B, 1994), http: / / web1.msue.msu.edu / msue / imp / modaf / 55092001.html.1 0.1N HCl extractant
236
TABLE 4.41. MANGANESE RECOMMENDATIONS FORRESPONSIVE CROPS GROWN ON ORGANIC SOILSIN MICHIGAN
Soil Testppm1
Soil pH
5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0
Band-applied Mn (lb /acre)
2 2 4 5 7 9 10 124 1 3 5 6 8 10 118 0 1 3 5 7 8 10
12 0 0 2 4 6 7 916 0 0 1 3 4 6 820 0 0 0 1 3 5 624 0 0 0 0 2 4 528 0 0 0 0 1 2 432 0 0 0 0 0 1 336 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Adapted from D. D. Warncke, D. R. Christenson, L. W. Jacobs, M. L. Vitosh, and B. H. Zandstra,Fertilizer Recommendations for Vegetable Crops in Michigan (Michigan Cooperative Extension ServiceBulletin E550B, 1994).1 0.1N HCl extractant
237
TABLE 4.42. ZINC RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESPONSIVECROPS GROWN ON MINERAL AND ORGANIC SOILSIN MICHIGAN
Soil Testppm1
Soil pH
6.7 7.0 7.3 7.6
Band-applied Zn (lb /acre)2
2 1 2 4 54 0 1 3 46 0 0 2 48 0 0 1 3
10 0 0 0 212 0 0 0 1
Adapted from D. D. Warncke, D. R. Christenson, L. W. Jacobs, M. L. Vitosh, and B. H. Zandstra,Fertilizer Recommendations for Vegetable Crops in Michigan (Michigan Cooperative Extension ServiceBulletin E550B, 1994).1 0.1N HCl extractant2 Rates may be divided by 5 when chelates are used.
238
TABLE 4.43. COPPER RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CROPS GROWNON ORGANIC SOILS IN MICHIGAN
Soil Testppm1
Crop Response
Low Medium High
Cu (lb /acre)
1 3 4 64 3 4 58 2 3 4
12 1 2 316 1 2 220 1 1 224 0 1 1
Adapted from D. D. Warncke, D. R. Christenson, L. W. Jacobs, M. L. Vitosh, and B. H. Zandstra,Fertilizer Recommendations for Vegetable Crops in Michigan (Michigan Cooperative Extension ServiceBulletin E550B, 1994), http: / / web1.msue.msu.edu / msue / imp / modaf / 55092001.html.1 0.1N HCl extractant
239
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240
TABLE 4.45. BORON REQUIREMENTS OF VEGETABLESARRANGED IN APPROXIMATE ORDER OFDECREASING REQUIREMENTS
High Requirement (morethan 0.5 ppm in soil)
MediumRequirement (0.1–
0.5 ppm in soil)Low Requirement (lessthan 0.1 ppm in soil)
Beet Tomato CornTurnip Lettuce PeaCabbage Sweet potato BeanBroccoli Carrot Lima beanCauliflower Onion PotatoAsparagusRadishBrussels sproutsCeleryRutabaga
Adapted from K. C. Berger, ‘‘Boron in Soils and Crops,’’ Advances in Agronomy, vol. 1, (New York:Academic Press, 1949), 321–351.
241
TABLE 4.46. RELATIVE TOLERANCE OF VEGETABLES TOBORON, ARRANGED IN ORDER OF INCREASINGSENSITIVITY
Tolerant Semitolerant Sensitive
Asparagus Celery Jerusalem artichokeArtichoke Potato BeanBeet TomatoCantaloupe RadishBroad bean CornOnion PumpkinTurnip Bell pepperCabbage Sweet potatoLettuce Lima beanCarrot
Adapted from L. V. Wilcox, Determining the Quality of Irrigation Water, USDA AgriculturalInformation Bulletin 197 (1958).
242
TABLE 4.47. SOIL AND FOLIAR APPLICATION OF SECONDARYAND TRACE ELEMENTS
Vegetables differ in their requirements for these secondary nutrients.Availability in the soil is influenced by soil reaction and soil type. Usehigher rates on muck and peat soils than on mineral soils and lower ratesfor band application than for broadcast. Foliar application is one means ofcorrecting an evident deficiency that appears while the crop is growing.
ElementApplication Rate(per acre basis) Source Composition
Boron 0.5–3.5 lb (soil) Borax (Na2B4O7 � 10H2O) 11% BBoric acid (H3BO3) 17% BSodium pentaborate
(Na2B10O16 � 10H2O)18% B
Sodium tetraborate(Na2B4O7)
21% B
Calcium 2–5 lb (foliar) Calcium chloride (CaCl2) 36% CaCalcium nitrate (CaNO3 �
2H2O)20% Ca
Liming materials andgypsum supply calciumwhen used as soilamendments
Copper 2–6 lb (soil) Cupric chloride (CuCl2) 47% CuCopper sulfate (CuSO4 � H2O) 35% CuCopper sulfate (CuSO4 �
5H2O)25% Cu
Cupric oxide (CuO) 80% CuCuprous oxide (Cu2O) 89% CuCopper chelates 8–13% Cu
Iron 2–4 lb (soil) Ferrous sulfate (FeSO4 �
7H2O)20% Fe
0.5–1 lb (foliar) Ferric sulfate [Fe2(SO4)3 �
9H2O]20% Fe
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H2O)42% Fe
Iron chelates 5–12% FeMagnesium 25–30 lb (soil) Magnesium sulfate (MgSO4 �
7H2O)10% Mg
243
TABLE 4.47. SOIL AND FOLIAR APPLICATION OF SECONDARYAND TRACE ELEMENTS (Continued )
ElementApplication Rate(per acre basis) Source Composition
2–4 lb (foliar) Magnesium oxide (MgO) 55% MgDolomitic limestone 11% MgMagnesium chelates 2–4% Mg
Manganese 20–100 lb (soil) Manganese sulfate (MnSO4 �
3H2O)27% Mn
2–5 lb (foliar) Manganous oxide (MnO) 41–68% MnManganese chelates (Mn
EDTA)12% Mn
Molybdenum 25–400 g (soil) Ammonium molybdate[(NH4)6MO7O24 � 4H2O]
54% Mo
25 g (foliar) Sodium molybdate (Na2MoO4
� 2H2O)39% Mo
Sulfur 20–50 lb (soil) Sulfur (S) 100% SAmmonium sulfate
[(NH4)2SO4]24% S
Potassium sulfate (K2SO4) 18% SCalcium sulfate (CaSO4) 16–18% SFerric sulfate [Fe2(SO4)3] 18–19% S
Zinc 2–10 lb (soil) Zinc oxide (ZnO) 80% Zn0.25 lb (foliar) Zinc sulfate (ZnSO4 � 7H2O) 23% Zn
Zinc chelates (Na2Zn EDTA) 14% Zn
244
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TABLE 4.49. TOLERANCE OF VEGETABLES TO A DEFICIENCYOF SOIL MAGNESIUM
Tolerant Not Tolerant
Bean CabbageBeet CantaloupeChard CornLettuce CucumberPea EggplantRadish PepperSweet potato Potato
PumpkinRutabagaTomatoWatermelon
Adapted from W. S. Ritchie and E. B. Holland, Minerals in Nutrition, Massachusetts AgriculturalExperiment Station Bulletin 374 (1940).
246
15FERTILIZER DISTRIBUTORS
ADJUSTMENT OF FERTILIZER DISTRIBUTORS
Each time a distributor is used, it is important to ensure that the properquantity of fertilizer is being supplied. Fertilizers vary greatly in the waythey flow through the equipment. Movement is influenced by the humidityof the atmosphere as well as the degree of granulation of the material.
TABLE 4.50. ADJUSTMENT OF ROW CROP DISTRIBUTOR
1. Disconnect from one hopper the downspout or tube to the furrowopener for a row.
2. Attach a can just below the fertilizer hopper.3. Fill the hopper under which the can is placed.4. Engage the fertilizer attachment and drive the tractor the suggested
distance according to the number of inches between rows.
Distance BetweenRows (in.)
Distance to Pullthe Distributor (ft)
20 26124 21830 17436 14538 13840 13142 124
5. Weigh the fertilizer in the can. Each pound in it equals 100 lb /acre.Each tenth of a pound equals 10 lb /acre.
6. Adjust the distributor for the rate of application desired, and then ad-just the other distributor or distributors to the same setting.
247
TABLE 4.51. ADJUSTMENT OF GRAIN-DRILL-TYPEDISTRIBUTOR
1. Remove four downspouts or tubes.2. Attach a paper bag to each of the four outlets.3. Fill the part of the drill over the bagged outlets.4. Engage the distributor and drive the tractor the suggested distance
according to the inches between the drill rows.
Distance BetweenDrill Rows (in.)
Distance to Pullthe Drill (ft)
7 1878 164
10 13112 10914 94
5. Weigh total fertilizer in the four bags. Each pound equals 100 lb /acre.Each tenth of a pound equals 10 lb /acre.
248
TABLE 4.52. CALIBRATION OF FERTILIZER DRILLS
Set drill at opening estimated to give the desired rate of application. Marklevel of fertilizer in the hopper. Operate the drill for 100 ft. Weigh a pail fullof fertilizer. Refill hopper to marked level and again weigh pail. Thedifference is the pounds of fertilizer used in 100 ft. Consult the columnunder the row spacing being used. The left-hand column opposite theamount used shows the rate in pounds per acre at which the fertilizer hasbeen applied. Adjust setting of the drill, if necessary, and recheck.
Rate(lb /acre)
Distance Between Rows (in.)
18 20 24 36 48
Approximate Amount of Fertilizer (lb /100 ft of row)
250 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.3500 1.7 2.3 2.9 3.5 4.6750 2.6 3.4 4.3 5.2 6.9
1000 3.5 4.6 5.8 6.9 9.21500 5.2 6.8 8.6 10.4 13.82000 6.8 9.2 11.6 13.0 18.43000 10.5 14.0 17.5 21.0 28.0
PART 6VEGETABLE PESTS AND PROBLEMS
01 AIR POLLUTION
02 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
03 SOIL SOLARIZATION
04 PESTICIDE USE PRECAUTIONS
05 PESTICIDE APPLICATION AND EQUIPMENT
06 VEGETABLE SEED TREATMENT
07 NEMATODES
08 DISEASES
09 INSECTS
10 PEST MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
11 WILDLIFE CONTROL
Knott’s Handbook for Vegetable Growers, Fifth Edition. D. N. Maynard and G. J. Hochmuth© 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-73828-2
310
01AIR POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION DAMAGE TO VEGETABLE CROPS
Plant damage by pollutants depends on meteorological factors leading to airstagnation, the presence of a pollution source, and the susceptibility of theplants. Among the pollutants that affect vegetable crops are sulfur dioxide(SO2), ozone (O3), peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), chlorine (Cl2), and ammonia(NH3). The following symptoms are most likely to be observed on vegetablesproduced near heavily urbanized areas or industrialized areas, particularlywhere weather conditions frequently lead to air stagnation.
Sulfur dioxide: SO2 causes acute and chronic plant injury. Acute injury ischaracterized by dead tissue between the veins or on leaf margins. Thedead tissue may be bleached, ivory, tan, orange, red, reddish brown, orbrown, depending on the plant species, time of year, and weather.Chronic injury is marked by brownish red, turgid, or bleached whiteareas on the leaf blade. Young leaves rarely display damage, whereasfully expanded leaves are very sensitive.
Ozone: Common symptoms of O3 injury are very small, irregularly shapedspots that are dark brown to black (stipple-like) or light tan to white(fleck-like) on the upper leaf surface. Very young and old leaves arenormally resistant to ozone. Recently matured leaves are mostsusceptible. Injury is usually more pronounced at the leaf tip and alongthe margins. With severe damage, symptoms may extend to the lowerleaf surface.
Peroxyacetyl nitrate: Typically, PAN affects the under-leaf surface of newlymatured leaves and causes bronzing, glazing, or silvering on the lowersurface of sensitive leaf areas. The leaf apex of broad-leaved plantsbecomes sensitive to PAN approximately five days after leaf emergence.About four leaves on a shoot are sensitive at any one time. PAN toxicityis specific for tissue in a particular stage of development. Only withsuccessive exposure to PAN will the entire leaf develop injury. Injurymay consist of bronzing or glazing with little or no tissue collapse on theupper leaf surface. Pale green to white stipple-like areas may appear onupper and lower leaf surfaces. Complete tissue collapse in a diffuse bandacross the leaf is helpful in identifying PAN injury.
Chlorine: Injury from chlorine is usually of an acute type and is similar inpattern to sulfur dioxide injury. Foliar necrosis and bleaching arecommon. Necrosis is marginal in some species but scattered in others,
311
either between or along veins. Lettuce plants exhibit necrotic injury onthe margins of outer leaves, which often extends in solid areas towardthe center and base of the leaf. Inner leaves remain unmarked.
Ammonia: Field injury from NH3 is primarily due to accidental spillage.Slight amounts of the gas produce color changes in the pigments ofvegetable skin. The dry outer scales of red onion may become greenish orblack, whereas scales of yellow or brown onion may turn dark brown.
Hydrochloric acid gas: HCl causes an acid-type burn. The usual acuteresponse is a bleaching of tissue. Leaves of lettuce, endive, and escaroleexhibit a tip burn that progresses toward the center of the leaf and soondries out. Tomato plants develop interveinal bronzing.
Original material from Commercial Vegetable Production Recommendations, Maryland AgriculturalExtension Service EB-236 (1986) and Bulletin 137 (2005).
Additional Resource H. Griffiths, Effects of Air Pollution on Agricultural Crops (Ontario Ministry ofAgriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs, 2003), http: / / www.omafra.gov.on.ca / english / crops / facts / 01-015.htm.
REACTION OF VEGETABLE CROPS TO AIR POLLUTANTS
Vegetable crops may be injured following exposure to high concentrations ofatmospheric pollutants. Prolonged exposure to lower concentrations mayalso result in plant damage. Injury appears progressively as leaf chlorosis(yellowing), necrosis (death), and perhaps restricted growth and yields. Onoccasion, plants may be killed, but usually not until they have sufferedpersistent injury. Symptoms of air pollution damage vary with theindividual crops and plant age, specific pollutant, concentration, durationof exposure, and environmental conditions.
312
RELATIVE SENSITIVTY OF VEGETABLE CROPS TO AIRPOLLUTANTS
TABLE 6.1. SENSITIVITY OF VEGETABLES TO SELECTED AIRPOLLUTANTS
Pollutant Sensitive Intermediate Tolerant
Ozone Bean Carrot BeetBroccoli Endive CucumberOnion Parsley LettucePotato ParsnipRadish TurnipSpinachSweet cornTomato
Sulfur dioxide Bean Cabbage CucumberBeet Pea OnionBroccoli Tomato Sweet cornBrussels sproutsCarrotEndiveLettuceOkraPepperPumpkinRadishRhubarbSpinachSquashSweet potatoSwiss chardTurnip
Fluoride Sweet corn AsparagusSquashTomato
Nitrogen dioxide Lettuce AsparagusBean
PAN Bean Carrot BroccoliBeet Cabbage
313
TABLE 6.1. SENSITIVITY OF VEGETABLES TO SELECTED AIRPOLLUTANTS (Continued )
Pollutant Sensitive Intermediate Tolerant
Celery CauliflowerEndive CucumberLettuce OnionMustard RadishPepper SquashSpinachSweet cornSwiss chardTomato
Ethylene Bean Carrot BeetCucumber Squash CabbagePea EndiveSouthern pea OnionSweet potato RadishTomato
2,4-D Tomato Potato BeanCabbageEggplantRhubarb
Chlorine Mustard Bean EggplantOnion Cucumber PepperRadish Southern peaSweet corn Squash
TomatoAmmonia Mustard TomatoMercury vapor Bean TomatoHydrogen
sulfideCucumberRadish
Pepper Mustard
Tomato
Adapted from J. S. Jacobson and A. C. Hill (eds.), Recognition of Air Pollution Injury to Vegetation(Pittsburgh: Air Pollution Control Association, 1970); M. Treshow, Environment and Plant Response(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970); R.G. Pearson et al., Air Pollution and Horticultural Crops, OntarioMinistry of Agriculture and Food AGDEX 200 / 691 (1973); and H. Griffiths, Effects of Air Pollution onAgricultural Crops (Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs, 2003), http: / /www.omafra.gov.on.ca / english / crops / facts / 01-015.htm.
314
02INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
BASICS OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) attempts to make the most efficient useof the strategies available to control pest populations by taking action toprevent problems, suppress damage levels, and use chemical pesticides onlywhere needed. Rather than seeking to eradicate all pests entirely, IPMstrives to prevent their development or to suppress their populationnumbers below levels that would be economically damaging.
Integrated means that a broad, interdisciplinary approach is taken usingscientific principles of crop protection in order to fuse into a singlesystem a variety of methods and tactics.
Pest includes insects, mites, nematodes, plant pathogens, weeds, andvertebrates that adversely affect crop quality and yield.
Management refers to the attempt to control pest populations in a planned,systematic way by keeping their numbers or damage within acceptablelevels.
Effective IPM consists of four basic principles:
1. Exclusion seeks to prevent pests from entering the field in the firstplace.
2. Suppression refers to the attempt to suppress pests below the level atwhich they would be economically damaging.
3. Eradication strives to eliminate entirely certain pests.4. Plant resistance stresses the effort to develop healthy, vigorous
varieties that are resistant to certain pests.
In order to carry out these four basic principles, the following steps arerecommended:
1. The identification of key pests and beneficial organisms is a necessaryfirst step.
2. Preventive cultural practices are selected to minimize pest populationdevelopment.
3. Pest populations must be monitored by trained scouts who routinelysample fields.
315
4. A prediction of loss and risks involved is made by setting an economicthreshold. Pests are controlled only when the pest populationthreatens acceptable levels of quality and yield. The level at which thepest population or its damage endangers quality and yield is oftencalled the economic threshold. The economic threshold is set bypredicting potential loss and risks at a given pest population density.
5. An action decision must be made. In some cases, pesticide applicationis necessary to reduce the crop threat, whereas in other cases, adecision is made to wait and rely on closer monitoring.
6. Evaluation and follow-up must occur throughout all stages in order tomake corrections, assess levels of success, and project futurepossibilities for improvement.
To be effective, IPM must make use of the following tools:
● Pesticides. Some pesticides are applied preventively—for example,herbicides, fungicides, and nematicides. In an effective IPM program,pesticides are applied on a prescription basis tailored to the particularpest and chosen for minimum impact on people and the environment.Pesticides are applied only when a pest population is diagnosed aslarge enough to threaten acceptable levels of yield and quality and noother economic control measure is available.
● Resistant crop varieties are bred and selected when available in orderto protect against key pests.
● Natural enemies are used to regulate the pest population wheneverpossible.
● Pheromone (sex lure) traps are used to lure and destroy male insectsto help monitor populations.
● Preventive measures such as soil fumigation for nematodes andassurance of good soil fertility help provide a healthy, vigorous plant.
● Avoidance of peak pest populations can be brought about by a changein planting times or pest-controlling crop rotation.
● Improved application is achieved by keeping equipment up to dateand in excellent shape.
● Other assorted cultural practices such as flooding and row and plantspacing can influence pest populations.
Resources for Integrated Pest Management:
● Pest Management (IPM), http: / /attra.ncat.org /attra-pub / ipm.html(2001)
316
● UC IPM Online—Statewide Integrated Pest Management Program,http: / /www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/
● The Pennsylvania Integrated Pest Management Program, http: / /paipm.cas.psu.edu/
● North Central Region—National IPM Network, http: / /www.ipm.iastate.edu/ ipm/nipmn/
● Northeastern IPM Center, http: / /northeastipm.org /● Integrated Pest Management in the Southern Region, http: / / ipm-
www.ento.vt.edu/nipmn/● New York State Integrated Pest Management Program at Cornell
University, http: / /www.nysipm.cornell.edu /● IPM Florida, http: / / ipm.ifas.ufl.edu/
317
03SOIL SOLARIZATION
BASICS OF SOIL SOLARIZATION
Soil solarization is a nonchemical pest control method that is particularlyeffective in areas that have high temperatures and long days for therequired 4–6 weeks. In the northern hemisphere, this generally means thatsolarization is done during the summer months in preparation for a fall cropor for a crop in the following spring.
Soil solarization captures radiant heat energy from the sun, therebycausing physical, chemical, and biological changes in the soil. Transparentpolyethylene plastic placed on moist soil during the hot summer monthsincreases soil temperatures to levels lethal to many soil borne plantpathogens, weed seeds, and seedlings (including parasitic seed plants),nematodes, and some soil-residing mites. Soil solarization also improvesplant nutrition by increasing the availability of nitrogen and other essentialnutrients.
Time of Year
Highest soil temperatures are obtained when the days are long, airtemperatures are high, the sky is clear, and there is no wind.
Plastic Color
Clear polyethylene should be used, not black plastic. Transparent plasticresults in greater transmission of solar energy to the soil. Polyethyleneshould be UV stabilized so the tarp does not degrade during the solarizationperiod.
Plastic Thickness
Polyethylene 1 mil thick is the most efficient and economical for soilheating. However, it is easier to rip or puncture and is less able towithstand high winds than thicker plastic. Users in windy areas may preferto use plastic 11⁄2–2 mil thick. Thick transparent plastic (4–6 mil) reflectsmore solar energy than does thinner plastic (1–2 mil) and results in slightlylower temperatures.
318
Preparation of the Soil
It is important that the area to be treated is level and free of weeds, plants,debris, and large clods that would raise the plastic off the ground.Maximum soil heating occurs when the plastic is close to the soil; therefore,air pockets caused by large clods or deep furrows should be avoided. Soilshould be tilled as deep as possible and have moisture at field capacity.
Partial Versus Complete Soil Coverage
Polyethylene tarps may be applied in strips (a minimum of 2–3 ft wide) overthe planting bed or as continuous sheeting glued, heat-fused, or held inplace by soil. In some cases, strip coverage may be more practical andeconomical than full soil coverage, because less plastic is needed and plasticconnection costs are avoided.
Soil Moisture
Soil must be moist (field capacity) for maximum effect because moisture notonly makes organisms more sensitive to heat but also conducts heat fasterand deeper into the soil.
Duration of Soil Coverage
Killing of pathogens and pests is related to time and temperature exposure.The longer the soil is heated, the deeper the control. Although some pestorganisms are killed within days, 4–6 weeks of treatment in full sun duringthe summer is usually best. The upper limit for temperature is about 115�Ffor vascular plants, 130�F for nematodes, 140�F for fungi, and 160–212�F forbacteria.
Original material adapted from G. S. Pullman, J. E. DeVay, C. L Elmore, and W. H. Hart, ‘‘SoilSolarization,’’ California Cooperative Extension Leaflet 21377 (1984), and from D. O. Chellemi, ‘‘SoilSolarization for Management of Soilborne Pests,’’ Florida Cooperative Extension Fact Sheet PPP51(1995).
Additional Resources on Soil Solarization:
● International Workgroup on Soil Solarization and IntegratedManagement of Soilborne Pests, http: / /www.uckac.edu/ iwgss / /
● C. Strausbaugh Soil Solarization for Control of Soilborne PestProblems (University of Idaho, 1996), http: / /www.uidaho.edu/ag /plantdisease /soilsol.htm
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● The Soil Solarization Home (Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1998),http: / /agri3.huji.ac.il /�katan/
● Soil Solarization (University of California), http: / /ucce.ucdavis.edu/files /filelibrary /40 /942.pdf
● A. Hagan and W. Gazaway, Soil Solarization for the Control ofNematodes and Soilborne Diseases (Auburn University, 2002), http: / /www.aces.edu/pubs /docs /A /ANR-0713 /
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04PESTICIDE USE PRECAUTIONS
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR PESTICIDE SAFETY
All chemicals are potentially hazardous and should be used carefully. Followexactly the directions, precautions, and limitations given on the containerlabel. Store all chemicals in a safe place where children, pets, and livestockcannot reach them. Do not reuse pesticide containers. Avoid inhaling fumesand dust from pesticides. Avoid spilling chemicals; if they are accidentallyspilled, remove contaminated clothing and thoroughly wash the skin withsoap and water immediately.
Observe the following rules:
1. Avoid drift from the application area to adjacent areas occupied byother crops, humans, livestock, or bodies of water.
2. Wear goggles, an approved respirator, and neoprene gloves whenloading or mixing pesticides. Aerial applicators should be loaded by aground crew.
3. Pour chemicals at a level well below the face to avoid splashing orspilling onto the face or eyes.
4. Have plenty of soap and water on hand to wash contaminated skin inthe event of spilling.
5. Change clothing and bathe after the job is completed.6. Know the insecticide, the symptoms of overexposure to it, and a
physician who can be called quickly. In case symptoms appear(contracted pupils, blurred vision, nausea, severe headache, dizziness),stop operations at once and contact a physician.
THE WORKER PROTECTION STANDARD (WPS)
Glossary of terms for WPS:
Agricultural employer: Any person who:● employs or contracts for the services of agricultural workers (including
themselves and family members) for any type of compensation toperform tasks relating to the production of agricultural plants;
● owns or operates an agricultural establishment that uses suchworkers;
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● employs pesticide handlers (including family members) for any type ofcompensation; or
● is self-employed as a pesticide handler.
Agricultural establishment: Any farm, greenhouse, nursery, or forest thatproduces agricultural plants.
Agricultural establishment owner: Any person who owns, leases, or rents anagricultural establishment covered by the Worker Protection Standard(WPS).
Agricultural worker: Any person employed by an agricultural employer to dotasks such as harvesting, weeding, or watering related to the productionof agricultural plants on a farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse. Bydefinition, agricultural workers do not apply pesticides or handlepesticide containers or equipment. Any employee can be an agriculturalworker while performing one task and a pesticide handler whileperforming a different task.
Immediate family: The spouse, children, stepchildren, foster children,parents, stepparents, foster parents, brothers and sisters of anagricultural employer.
Personal protective equipment (PPE): Clothing and equipment, such asgoggles, gloves, boots, aprons, coveralls and respirators, that provideprotection from exposure to pesticides.
Pesticide handler: Any person employed by an agricultural establishment tomix, load, transfer, or apply pesticides or do other tasks that involvedirect contact with pesticides.
Restricted entry interval (REI): The time immediately after a pesticideapplication when entry into the treated area is limited. Lengths ofrestricted entry intervals range between 4 and 72 hours. The exactamount of time is product specific and indicated on the pesticide label.
Adapted from O. N. Nesheim and T. W. Dean, ‘‘The Worker Protection Standard,’’ in S. M. Olson andE. H. Simonne (eds.), Vegetable Production Handbook for Florida (Florida Cooperative ExtensionService, 2005–2006), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / CV138.
DESCRIPTION OF THE WORKER PROTECTION STANDARD
The worker protection standard (WPS) is a set of regulations issued by theU.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designed to protectagricultural workers and pesticide handlers from exposure to pesticides.
http: / /www.epa.gov /pesticides /safety /workers /PART170.htm
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The WPS applies to all agricultural employers whose employees areinvolved in the production of agricultural plants on a farm, forest, nursery,or greenhouse. The employers include owners or managers of farms, forests,nurseries, or greenhouses as well as commercial (custom) applicators andcrop advisors who provide services for the production of agricultural plantson these sites. The WPS requires that specific protections be provided toworkers and pesticide handlers to prevent pesticide exposure. Theagricultural employer is responsible for providing those protections toemployees.
Information at a Central Location
An information display at a central location must be provided and contain:
1. An approved EPA safety poster showing how to keep pesticides froma person’s body and how to clean up any contact with a pesticide
2. Name, address, and telephone number of the nearest emergencymedical facility
3. Information about each pesticide application, including description oftreated area, product name, EPA registration number of product,active ingredient of pesticide, time and date of application, and therestricted entry interval (REI) for the pesticide
Pesticide Safety Training
Employers must provide pesticide safety training for pesticide handlers andagricultural workers unless the handler or worker is a certified pesticideapplicator. Workers must receive training within 5 days of beginning work.
Decontamination Areas Must Provide:
1. Water for washing and eye flushing2. Soap3. Single-use towels4. Water for whole-body wash (pesticide handler sites only)5. Clean coveralls (pesticide handler sites only)6. Provide each handler at least 1 pt clean water for flushing eyes
Restricted Entry Interval
Pesticides have restricted entry intervals, a period after a pesticideapplication during which employers must keep everyone, except
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appropriately trained and equipped handlers, out of treated areas.Employers must orally inform all of their agricultural workers who will bewithin a quarter-mile of a treated area. For certain pesticides, treated fieldsmust also be posted with a WPS poster.
Personal Protective Equipment
Personal protective equipment (PPE) must be provided by the employer toall pesticide handlers.
1. All PPE must be clean, in operating condition, used correctly,inspected each day before use, and repaired or replaced as needed.
2. Respirators must fit correctly and filters or canisters replaced atrecommended intervals.
3. Handlers must be warned about symptoms of heat illness whenwearing PPE.
4. Handlers must be provided clean, pesticide-free areas to store PPE.5. Contaminated PPE must not be worn or taken home and must be
cleaned separate from other laundry.6. Employers are responsible for providing clean PPE for each day.7. Coveralls contaminated with undiluted Danger or Warning category
pesticide must be discarded.
Adapted from O. N. Nesheim and T. W. Dean, ‘‘The Worker Protection Standard,’’ http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / CV138, and O. N. Nesheim, ‘‘Interpreting PPE Statements on Pesticide Labels,’’ in S. M.Olson and E. H. Simonne (eds.), Vegetable Production Handbook for Florida (Florida CooperativeExtension Service, 2005–2006), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / CV285.
Additional resource on the Worker Protection Standard:
http: / /www.epa.gov /pesticides /safety /workers /PART170.htm
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON SAFETY AND RULESAFFECTING PESTICIDE USE
Recordkeeping
Growers are required to keep records on applications of restricted-usepesticides.
http: / /www.environment.nsw.gov.au /envirom/recordkeeping.htm
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Sample recordkeeping forms can be found at:
http: / /www.epa.nsw.gov.au /resources /pesticidesrkform.pdf
SARA Title III Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act
This law sets rules for farmers to inform the proper authorities aboutstorage of extremely hazardous materials. Each state has related SARATitle III statutes.
Lists of chemicals are available at:
http: / /www.epa.gov /ceppo /pubs / title3.pdf
Right-to-Know
Employees have a right to know about chemical use on the farm. Right-to-know training is typically provided through the County Extension Office.
Endangered Species Act
The EPA has determined threshold pesticide application rates that mayaffect listed species. This information is presented on the pesticide label.
http: / /www.fws.gov /endangered /esa.html
http: / /www.epa.gov /region5 /defs /html /esa.htm
Invasive Species
An invasive species is defined as a species that is non-native (or alien) to theecosystem under consideration and whose introduction causes or is likely tocause economic or environmental harm, or harm to human health. Somewebsites:
http: / /www.fws.gov /contaminants / Issues / InvasiveSpecies.cfm
http: / / invasivespeciesinfo.gov
http: / /aquat1.ifas.ufl.edu
http: / /plants.nrcs.usda.gov /cgi bin / topics.cgi?earl�noxious.cgi
http: / /www.invasive.org /
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PESTICIDE HAZARDS TO HONEYBEES
Honeybees and other bees are necessary for pollination of vegetables in thegourd family—cantaloupe and other melons, cucumber, pumpkin, squash,and watermelon. Bees and other pollinating insects are necessary for all theinsect-pollinated vegetables grown for seed production. Some pesticides areextremely toxic to bees and other pollinating insects, so certain precautionsare necessary to avoid injury to them.
Recommendations for Vegetable Growers and Pesticide Applicators to ProtectBees
1. Participate actively in areawide integrated crop managementprograms.
2. Follow pesticide label directions and recommendations.
3. Apply hazardous chemicals in late afternoon, night, or early morning(generally 6 P.M. to 7 A.M.) when honeybees are not actively foraging.Evening applications are generally somewhat safer than morningapplications.
4. Use pesticides that are relatively nonhazardous to bees whenever thisis consistent with other pest-management strategies. Choose the leasthazardous pesticide formulations or tank mixes.
5. Become familiar with bee foraging behavior and types of pesticideapplications that are hazardous to bees.
6. Know the location of all apiaries in the vicinity of fields to be sprayed.
7. Avoid drift, overspray, and dumping of toxic materials innoncultivated areas.
8. Survey pest populations and be aware of current treatment thresholdsin order to avoid unnecessary pesticide use.
9. Determine if bees are foraging in target areas so protective measurescan be taken.
TOXICITY OF CHEMICALS USED IN PEST CONTROL
The danger in handling pesticides does not depend exclusively on toxicityvalues. Hazard is a function of both toxicity and the amount and type ofexposure. Some chemicals are very hazardous from dermal (skin) exposureas well as oral (ingestion). Although inhalation values are not given, this
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type of exposure is similar to ingestion. A compound may be highly toxic butpresent little hazard to the applicator if the precautions are followedcarefully.
Toxicity values are expressed as acute oral LD50 in terms of milligramsof the substance per kilogram (mg/kg) of test animal body weight requiredto kill 50% of the population. The acute dermal LD50 is also expressed inmg/kg. These acute values are for a single exposure and not for repeatedexposures such as may occur in the field. Rats are used to obtain the oralLD50, and the test animals used to obtain the dermal values are usuallyrabbits.
TABLE 6.2. CATEGORIES OF PESTICIDE TOXICITY1
Categories Signal Word
LD50 Value (mg/kg)
Oral Dermal
I Danger–Poison 0–50 0–200II Warning 50–500 200–2,000III Caution 500–5,000 2,000–20,000IV None2 5,000 20,000
1 EPA-accepted categories.2 No signal word required based on acute toxicity; however, products in this category usually display‘‘Caution.’’
Resources on Toxicity of Pesticides
● Commercial Vegetable Production Recommendations, MarylandAgricultural Extension Service Bulletin 137 (2005).
● L. Moses, R. Meister, and C. Sine, Farm Chemicals Handbook ’99(Willoughby, Ohio: Meister, 1999).
PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS
Several formulations of many pesticides are available commercially. Someare emulsifiable concentrates, flowables, wettable powders, dusts, andgranules. After any pesticide recommendation, one of these formulations issuggested; however, unless stated to the contrary, equivalent rates of
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another formulation or concentration of that pesticide can be used. In mostcases, pesticide experts suggest that sprays rather than dusts be applied tocontrol pests of vegetables. This is because sprays allow better control andresult in less drift.
PREVENTING SPRAY DRIFT
Pesticides sprayed onto soil or crops may be subject to movement or driftaway from the target, due mostly to wind. Drift may lead to risks to nearbypeople and wildlife, damage to nontarget plants, and pollution of surfacewater or groundwater.
Factors That Affect Drift
1. Droplet size. Smaller droplets can drift longer distances. Droplet sizecan be managed by selecting the proper nozzle type and size,adjusting the spray pressure, and increasing the viscosity of the spraymixture.
2. Equipment adjustments. Routine calibration of spraying equipmentand general maintenance should be practiced. Equipment can be fittedwith hoods or shields to reduce drift away from the sprayed area.
3. Weather conditions. Spray applicators must be aware of wind speedand direction, relative humidity, temperature, and atmosphericstability at time of spraying.
Spraying Checklist to Minimize Drift
1. Do not spray on windy days (�12 mph).2. Avoid spraying on extremely hot and dry days.3. Use minimum required pressure.4. Select correct nozzle size and spray pattern.5. Keep the boom as close as possible to the target.6. Install hoods or shields on the spray boom.7. Leave an unsprayed border of 50–100 ft near water supplies,
wetlands, neighbors, and non-target crops.8. Spray when wind direction is favorable for keeping drift off of non-
target areas.
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05PESTICIDE APPLICATION AND EQUIPMENT
ESTIMATION OF CROP AREA
To calculate approximately the acreage of a crop in the field, multiply thelength of the field by the number of rows or beds. Divide by the factor forspacing of beds.
Examples: Field 726 ft long with 75 rows 48 in. apart.
726 � 75� 5 acres
10890
Field 500 ft long with 150 beds on 40-in. centers.
500 � 150� 5.74 acres
13068
TABLE 6.3. FACTORS USED IN CALCULATING TREATED CROPAREA
Row or BedSpacing (in.) Factor
12 43,56018 29,04024 21,78030 17,42436 14,52040 13,06842 12,44548 10,89060 8,71272 7,26084 6,223
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TABLE 6.4. DISTANCE TRAVELED AT VARIOUS TRACTORSPEEDS
mph ft /min mph ft /min
1.0 88 3.1 2731.1 97 3.2 2821.2 106 3.3 2911.3 114 3.4 2991.4 123 3.5 3081.5 132 3.6 3171.6 141 3.7 3251.7 150 3.8 3341.8 158 3.9 3431.9 167 4.0 3522.0 176 4.1 3612.1 185 4.2 3702.2 194 4.3 3782.3 202 4.4 3872.4 211 4.5 3962.5 220 4.6 4052.6 229 4.7 4142.7 237 4.8 4222.8 246 4.9 4312.9 255 5.0 4403.0 264
CALCULATIONS OF SPEED OF EQUIPMENT AND AREA WORKED
To review the actual performance of a tractor, determine the number ofseconds required to travel a certain distance. Then use the formula
distance traveled (ft) � 0.682speed (mph) �
time to cover distance (sec)
or the formula
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distance traveled (ft)speed (mph) �
time to cover distance (sec) � 1.47
Another method is to walk beside the machine counting the number ofnormal paces (2.93 ft) covered in 20 seconds. Move decimal point 1 place.Result equals tractor speed (mph).
Example: 15 paces /20 sec � 1.5 mph.
The working width of an implement multiplied by mph equals thenumber of acres covered in 10 hr. This includes an allowance of 17.5% forturning at the ends of the field. By moving the decimal point 1 place, whichis equivalent to dividing by 10, the result is the acreage covered in 1 hr.
Example: A sprayer with a 20-ft boom is operating at 3.5 mph. Thus, 20� 3.5 � 70 acres /10 hr or 7 acres /hr.
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TABLE 6.5. APPROXIMATE TIME REQUIRED TO WORK AN ACRE1
Rate (mph): 1 2 3 4 5 10Rate (ft /min): 88 176 264 352 440 880
Effective WorkingWidth of
Equipment (in.) Approximate Time Required (min /acre)
18 440 220 147 110 88 4424 330 165 110 83 66 3336 220 110 73 55 44 2240 198 99 66 50 40 2042 189 95 63 47 38 1948 165 83 55 41 33 1760 132 66 44 33 26 1372 110 55 37 28 22 1180 99 50 33 25 20 1084 94 47 31 24 19 996 83 42 28 21 17 8
108 73 37 24 19 15 7120 66 33 22 17 13 6240 33 17 11 8 7 3360 22 11 7 6 4 2
1 These figures are calculated on the basis of 75% field efficiency to allow for turning and other losttime.
USE OF PESTICIDE APPLICATION EQUIPMENT
Ground Application
Boom-type SprayersHigh-pressure, high-volume sprayers have been used for row-crop pestcontrol for many years. Now a trend exists toward the use of sprayers thatutilize lower volumes and pressures.
Airblast-type SprayersAirblast sprayers are used in the vegetable industry to control insects anddiseases. Correct operation of an airblast sprayer is more critical than for a
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boom-type sprayer. Do not operate an airblast sprayer under high windconditions. Wind speed below 5 mph is preferable unless it becomesnecessary to apply the pesticide for timely control measures, but drift andnearby crops must be considered. Do not overextend the coverage of themachine.
Considerable visible mist from the machine moves into the atmosphereand does not deposit on the plant. If in doubt, use black plastic indicatorsheets in the rows to determine deposit and coverage before a pest problemappears as evidence. Use correct gallonage and pressures to obtain properdroplet size and ensure uniform coverage across the effective swath width.Adjust the vanes and nozzles on the sprayer unit to give best coverage.Vane adjustment must occur in the field, depending on terrain, wind, andcrop. Cross-drives in the field allow the material to be blown down the rowsinstead of across them and help give better coverage in some crops, such asstaked or trellised tomato.
Air-boom SprayersThese sprayers combine the airblast spray with the boom spray deliverycharacteristics. Air-boom sprayers are becoming popular with vegetableproducers in an effort to achieve high levels of spray coverage with minimalquantities of pesticide.
Electrostatic SprayersThese sprayers create an electrical field through which the spray dropletsmove. Charged spray droplets are deposited more effectively onto plantsurfaces, and less drift results.
Aerial Application
Spraying should not be done when wind is more than 6 mph. A slightcrosswind during spraying is advantageous in equalizing the distribution ofthe spray within the swath and between swaths. Proper nozzle angle andarrangements along the boom are critical and necessary to obtain properdistribution at ground level. Use black plastic indicator sheets in the rowsto determine deposit and coverage patterns. Cover a swath no wider than isreasonable for the aircraft and boom being used. Fields of irregular shape ortopography and ones bounded by woods, power lines, or other flight hazardsshould not be sprayed by aircraft.
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CALIBRATION OF FIELD SPRAYERS
Width of Boom
The boom coverage is equal to the number of nozzles multiplied by thespace between two nozzles.
Ground Speed (mph)
Careful control of ground speed is important for accurate spray application.Select a gear and throttle setting to maintain constant speed. A speed of2–3 mph is desirable. From a running start, mark off the beginning andending of a 30-sec run. The distance traveled in this 30-sec period dividedby 44 equals the speed in mph.
Sprayer Discharge (gpm)
Run the sprayer at a certain pressure, and catch the discharge from eachnozzle for a known length of time. Collect all the discharge and measure thetotal volume. Divide this volume by the time in minutes to determinedischarge in gallons per minute.
Before Calibrating
1. Thoroughly clean all nozzles, screens, etc., to ensure proper operation.
2. Check that all nozzles are the same.
3. Check the spray patterns of all nozzles for uniformity. Check thevolume of delivery by placing similar containers under each nozzle.Replace nozzles that do not have uniform patterns or do not fillcontainers at the same rate.
4. Select an operating speed. Note the tachometer reading or mark thethrottle setting. When spraying, be sure to use the same speed asused for calibrating.
5. Select an operating pressure. Adjust to desired pressure (pounds persquare in. [psi]) while the pump is operating at normal speed andwater is actually flowing through the nozzles. This pressure should bethe same during calibration and field spraying.
Calibration (Jar Method)
Either a special calibration jar or a homemade one can be used. If you buyone, carefully follow the manufacturer’s instructions.
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Make accurate speed and pressure readings and jar measurements.Make several checks.
Any 1-qt or larger container, such as a jar or measuring cup, if calibratedin fl oz, can easily be used in the following manner:
1. Measure a course on the same type of surface (sod, plowed, etc.) andsame type of terrain (hilly, level, etc.) as that to be sprayed, accordingto nozzle spacing as follows:
TABLE 6.6. COURSE LENGTH SELECTED BASED ON NOZZLESPACING
Nozzle spacing (in.) 16 20 24 28 32 36 40Course length (ft) 255 204 170 146 127 113 102
2. Time the seconds it takes the sprayer to cover the measured distanceat the desired speed.
3. With the sprayer standing still, operate at selected pressure andpump speed. Catch the water from several nozzles for the number ofseconds measured in step 2.
4. Determine the average output per nozzle in ounces. The ounces pernozzle equal the gal /acre applied for one nozzle per spacing.
Calibration (Boom or Airblast Sprayer)
1. Fill sprayer with water.2. Spray a measured area (width of area covered � distance traveled) at
constant speed and pressure selected from manufacturer’sinformation.
3. Measure amount of water necessary to refill tank (gal used).4. Multiply gallons used by 43,560 and divide by the number of sq ft in
area sprayed. This gives gal /acre.
gal used � 43,560gal /acre �
area sprayed (sq ft)
5. Add correct amount of spray material to tank to give therecommended rate per acre.
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EXAMPLE
Assume: 10 gal water used to spray an area 660 ft long and 20 ft wideTank size: 100 galSpray material: 2 lb (actual) /acreCalculation:
gal used � 43,560 10 � 43,560� � 33 gal /acre
area sprayed (sq ft) 660 � 20
tank capacity 100 (tank size)� 3.03 acres sprayed per tank
gal /acre 33
3.03 � 2 (lb /acre) � 6.06 lb material per tank
If 80% material is used:
6.06� 7.57 lb material needed per tank to give 2 lb /acre rate
0.8
Adapted from Commercial Vegetable Production Recommendations (Maryland Agricultural ExtensionService Bulletin 137, 2005), http: / / / hortweb.cas.psu.edu / extension / images /PA%2005%20commercial%20veg%20Recommends.pdf.
CALIBRATION OF GRANULAR APPLICATORS
Sales of granular fertilizer, herbicides, insecticides, etc., for applicationthrough granular application equipment have been on the increase.
Application rates of granular application equipment are affected byseveral factors: gate openings or settings, ground speed of the applicator,shape and size of granular material, and roughness of the ground.
Broadcast Application
1. From the label, determine the application rate.2. From the operator’s manual, set the dial or feed gate to apply desired
rate.3. On a level surface, fill the hopper to a given level and mark this level.4. Measure the test area—length of run depends on size of equipment. It
need not be one long run but can be multiple runs at shorterdistances.
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5. Apply material to measured area, operating at the speed applicatorwill travel during application.
6. Weigh the amount of material required to refill the hopper to themarked level.
7. Determine the application rate:
area covered �
number of runs � length of run � width of application43,560
application rate �
amount applied (pounds to refill hopper)area covered
Note: Width of application is width of the spreader for drop or gravityspreaders. For spinner applicators, it is the working width (distancebetween runs). Check operator’s manual for recommendations,generally one-half to three-fourths of overall width spread.
Example:Assume: 50 lb /acre rate
Test run: 200 ftFour runs madeApplication width: 12 ft11.5 lb to refill hopper
Calculation:
4 � 200 � 12area covered � � 0.22 acre
43,560
11.5application rate � � 52.27 lb
0.22
8. If application rate is not correct, adjust feed gate opening andrecheck.
Band Application
1. From the label, determine the application rate.2. From the operator’s manual, determine the applicator setting and
adjust accordingly.
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3. Fill the hopper half full.4. Operate the applicator until all units are feeding.5. Stop the applicator; remove the feed tubes at the hopper.6. Attach paper or plastic bags over the hopper openings.7. Operate the applicator over a measured distance at the speed
equipment will be operated.8. Weigh and record the amount delivered from each hopper. (Compare
to check that all hoppers deliver the same amount.)9. Calculate the application rate:
length of run � band width � number of bandsarea covered in bands �
43,560
Application Rate
amount applied in bands � total amount collectedarea covered in bands
Changing from Broadcast to Band Application
broadcastband width in in.� rate � amount needed per acre
row spacing in in. per acre
Adapted from Commercial Vegetable Production Recommendations (Maryland Agricultural ExtensionService Bulletin 137, 2005), http: / / / hortweb.cas.psu.edu / extension / images /PA%2005%20commercial%20veg%20Recommends.pdf.
CALIBRATION OF AERIAL SPRAY EQUIPMENT
Calibration
length of swath (miles) � width (ft)acres covered �
8.25
2 � swath width � mphacres /min �
1000
2 � swath width � mph � gal /acreGPM �
1000
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Adapted from O. C. Turnquist et al., Weed, Insect, and Disease Control Guide for CommercialVegetable Growers, Minnesota Agricultural Extension Service Special Report 5 (1978).
Resources on Calibration of Aerial Sprayers
● D. Overhults, Applicator Training Manual for Aerial Application ofPesticides (University of Kentucky), http: / /www.uky.edu/Agriculture /PAT/Cat11 /Cat11.htm.
● Agricultural Aircraft Calibration and Setup for Spraying (KansasState University Publication MF-1059, 1992), http: / /www.oznet.ksu.edu/ library /ageng2 /mf1059.pdf.
CALIBRATION OF DUSTERS
Select a convenient distance that multiplied by the width covered by theduster, both expressed in feet, equals a convenient fraction of an acre. Withthe hopper filled to a marked level, operate the duster at this distance. Takea known weight of dust in a bag or other container and refill hopper to themarked level. Weigh the dust remaining in the container. The difference isthe quantity of dust applied to the fraction of an acre covered.
Example:
Distance duster is operated � width covered by duster � area dusted
1089 sq ft 1� 108.9 ft � 10 ft � 1089 sq ft � acre
43,560 40
If it takes 1 lb dust to refill the hopper, the rate of application is 40 lb /acre.
MORE INFORMATION ON CALIBRATION OF SPRAYERS
Florida
http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu/WG013http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu/TOPIC Herbicide Calibration and Applicationhttp: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu/TOPIC Calibration
339
Minnesota
http: / /www.extension.umn.edu/distribution /cropsystems/DC3885.html
North Dakota
http: / /www.ext.nodak.edu/extpubs /ageng /machine /ae73-5.htm
Other
http: / /www.dupont.com/ag /vm/ literature /K-04271.pdf
HAND SPRAYER CALIBRATION
Ohio
http: / / ohioline.osu.edu/ for-fact /0020.html
Colorado
http: / /www.co.larimer.co.us /publicworks /weeds /calibration.htm
SPRAY EQUIVALENTS AND CONVERSIONS
Pesticide containers give directions usually in terms of pounds or gallons ofmaterial in 100 gal water. The following tables make the conversion forsmaller quantities of spray solution easy.
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TABLE 6.7. SOLID EQUIVALENT TABLE
100 gal 25 gal 5 gal 1 gal
4 oz 1 oz 3⁄16 oz 1⁄2 oz8 oz 2 oz 3⁄8 oz 1 tsp1 lb 4 oz 7⁄8 oz 2 tsp2 lb 8 oz 13⁄4 oz 4 tsp3 lb 12 oz 23⁄8 oz 2 tbsp4 lb 1 lb 31⁄4 oz 2 tbsp � 2 tsp
TABLE 6.8. LIQUID EQUIVALENT TABLE
100 gal 25 gal 5 gal 1 gal
1 gal 1 qt 61⁄2 oz 11⁄4 oz2 qt 1 pt 31⁄4 oz 5⁄8 oz1 qt 1⁄2 pt 19⁄16 oz 5⁄16 oz11⁄2 pt 6 oz 11⁄4 oz 1⁄4 oz1 pt 4 oz 7⁄8 oz 3⁄16 oz8 oz 2 oz 7⁄16 oz 1⁄2 tsp4 oz 1 oz 1⁄4 oz 1⁄4 tsp
TABLE 6.9. DILUTION OF LIQUID PESTICIDES TO VARIOUSCONCENTRATIONS
Dilution 1 gal 3 gal 5 gal
1�100 2 tbsp � 2 tsp 1⁄2 cup 3⁄4 cup � 5 tsp1�200 4 tsp 1⁄4 cup 61⁄2 tbsp1�800 1 tsp 1 tbsp 1 tbsp � 2 tsp1�1000 3⁄4 tsp 21⁄2 tsp 1 tbsp � 1 tsp
341
TABLE 6.10. PESTICIDE DILUTION CHART
Amount of formulation necessary to obtain various amounts of activeingredients.
InsecticideFormulation
Amount of formulation (at left) needed toobtain the following amounts of active
ingredients
1⁄4 lb 1⁄2 lb 3⁄4 lb 1 lb
1% dust 25 50 75 1002% dust 121⁄2 25 371⁄2 505% dust 5 10 15 2010% dust 21⁄2 5 71⁄2 1015% wettable powder 12⁄3 lb 31⁄3 lb 5 lb 62⁄3 lb25% wettable powder 1 lb 2 lb 3 lb 4 lb40% wettable powder 5⁄8 lb 11⁄4 lb 17⁄8 lb 21⁄2 lb50% wettable powder 1⁄2 lb 1 lb 11⁄2 lb 2 lb73% wettable powder 1⁄3 lb 2⁄3 lb 1 lb 11⁄3 lb23–25% liquid 1 pt 1 qt 3 pt 2 qt
concentrate (2 lbsactive ingredient /gal)
42–46% liquid 1⁄2 pt 1 pt 11⁄2 pt 1 qtconcentrate (4 lbsactive ingredient /gal)
60–65% liquid 1⁄3 pt 2⁄3 pt 1 pt 11⁄3 ptconcentrate (6 lbsactive ingredient /gal)
72–78% liquid 1⁄4 pt 1⁄2 pt 3⁄4 pt 1 ptconcentrate (8 lbsactive ingredient /gal)
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TABLE 6.11. PESTICIDE APPLICATION RATES FOR SMALL CROPPLANTINGS
Distance BetweenRows (ft)
Amount(gal /acre)
Amount(per 100 ft of row)
Length ofRow Covered
(ft /gal)
1 75 22 oz 581100 30 oz 435125 1 qt 5 oz 348150 1 qt 12 oz 290175 1 qt 20 oz 249200 1 qt 27 oz 218
2 75 1 qt 12 oz 290100 1 qt 27 oz 218125 2 qt 10 oz 174150 2 qt 24 oz 145175 3 qt 7 oz 124200 3 qt 21 oz 109
3 75 2 qt 2 oz 194100 2 qt 24 oz 145125 3 qt 14 oz 116150 4 qt 4 oz 97175 4 qt 26 oz 83200 5 qt 16 oz 73
GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE PEST CONTROL
Often, failure to control a pest is blamed on the pesticide when the causelies elsewhere. Some common reasons for failure follow:
1. Delaying applications until pests are already well established.
2. Making applications with insufficient gallonage or clogged or poorlyarranged nozzles.
3. Selecting the wrong pesticide.
The following points are suggested for more effective pest control:
343
1. Inspect fields regularly. Frequent examinations (at least twice perweek) help determine the proper timing of the next pesticideapplication.
2. Control insects and mites according to economic thresholds orschedule. Economic thresholds assist in determining whether pesticideapplications or other management actions are needed to avoideconomic loss from pest damage. Thresholds for insect pests aregenerally expressed as a numerical count of a given life stage or as adamage level based on certain sampling techniques. They areintended to reflect the population size that would cause economicdamage and thus warrant the cost of treatment. Guidelines for otherpests are usually based on the field history, crop development, variety,weather conditions, and other factors.
Rather than using economic thresholds, many pest problems canbe predicted to occur at approximately the same time year after year.One application before buildup often eliminates the need for severalapplications later in the season. Often, less toxic and safer-to-handlechemicals are effective when pests are small in size and population.
3. Take weather conditions into account. Spray only when wind velocityis less than 10 mph. Dust only when it is perfectly calm. Do not spraywhen sensitive plants are wilted during the heat of the day. Ifpossible, make applications when ideal weather conditions prevail.
Biological insecticides are ineffective in cool weather. Somepyrethroid insecticides (permethrin) do not perform well when fieldtemperatures reach 85�F and above. Best control results from theseinsecticides are achieved when the temperature is in the 70s or low80s (evening or early morning).
Sprinkler irrigation washes pesticide deposits from foliage. Wait atleast 48 hr after pesticide application before sprinkler irrigating. Morefrequent pesticide applications may be needed during and afterperiods of heavy rainfall.
4. Strive for adequate coverage of plants. The principal reason aphids,mites, cabbage loopers, and diseases are serious pests is that theyoccur beneath leaves, where they are protected from spray deposit ordust particles. Improved control can be achieved by adding andarranging nozzles so the application is directed toward the plantsfrom the sides as well as from the top. In some cases, nozzles shouldbe arranged so the application is directed beneath the leaves. As theseason progresses, plant size increases, and so does the need forincreased spray gallonage to ensure adequate coverage. Applyingsprays with sufficient spray volume and pressure is important. Spraysfrom high-volume, high-pressure rigs (airblast) should be applied at
344
40–100 gal /acre at approximately 400 psi pressure. Sprays from low-volume, low-pressure rigs (boom type) should be applied at 50–100gal /acre at approximately 100–300 psi pressure.
5. Select the proper pesticide. Know the pests to be controlled and choosethe recommended pesticide and rate of application.
For certain pests that are extremely difficult to control or areresistant, it may be important to alternate labeled insecticides,especially with different classes of insecticides; for example, alternatea pyrethroid insecticide with either a carbamate or anorganophosphate insecticide.
6. Assess pesticide compatibility. To determine if two pesticides arecompatible, use the following jar test before tank-mixing pesticides orpesticides and fluid fertilizers:a. Add 1 pt water or fertilizer solution to a clean quart jar. Then add
the pesticide to the water or fertilizer solution in the sameproportion as used in the field.
b. To a second clean quart jar, add 1 pt water or fertilizer solution.Then add 1⁄2 tsp of an adjuvant to keep the mixture emulsified.Finally, add the pesticide to the water-adjuvant or fertilizer-adjuvant in the same proportion as to be used in the field.
c. Close both jars tightly and mix thoroughly by inverting 10 times.Inspect the mixtures immediately and again after standing for 30min. If the mix in either jar remains uniform for 30 min, thecombination can be used. If either mixture separates but readilyremixes, constant agitation is required. If nondispersible oil,sludge, or clumps of solids form, do not use the mixture.
7. Calibrate application equipment. Periodic calibration of sprayers,dusters, and granule distributors is necessary to ensure accuratedelivery rates of pesticides per acre. See pages 333–338.
8. Select correct sprayer tips. The selection of proper sprayer tips for usewith various pesticides is very important. Flat fan-spray tips aredesigned for preemergence and postemergence application ofherbicides. They can also be used with insecticides, fertilizers, andother pesticides. Flat fan-spray tips produce a tapered-edge spraypattern for uniform coverage where patterns overlap. Some flat fan-spray tips (SP) are designed to operate at low pressure (15–40 psi)and are usually used for preemergence herbicide applications. Theselower pressures result in large spray particles than those fromstandard flat tips operating at higher pressures (30–60 psi). Spraynozzles with even flat-spray tips (often designated E) are designed forband spraying where uniform distribution is desired over a zone 8–14
345
in. wide; they are generally used for herbicides.Flood-type nozzle tips are generally used for complete fertilizer,
liquid nitrogen, and so on, and sometimes for spraying herbicides ontothe soil surface prior to incorporation. They are less suited forspraying postemergence herbicides or for applying fungicides orinsecticides to plant foliage. Coverage of the target is often lessuniform and complete when flood-type nozzles are used, comparedwith the coverage obtained with other types of nozzles. Place flood-type nozzles a maximum of 20 in. apart, rather than the standard 40-in. spacing, for better coverage. This results in an overlapping spraypattern. Spray at the maximum pressure recommended for the nozzle.
Wide-spray angle tips with full or hollow cone patterns are usuallyused for fungicides and insecticides. They are used at higher watervolume and spray pressures than are commonly recommended forherbicide application with flat fan or flood-type nozzle tips.
9. Consider the relationship of pH and pesticides. Unsatisfactory resultswith some pesticides may be related to the pH of the mixing water.Some materials carry a label cautioning the user against mixing thepesticide with alkaline materials because they undergo a chemicalreaction known as alkaline hydrolysis. This reaction occurs when thepesticide is mixed in water with a pH greater than 7. Manymanufacturers provide information on the rate at which their producthydrolyzes. The rate is expressed as half-life, meaning the time ittakes for 50% hydrolysis or breakdown to occur. Check the pH of thewater. If acidification is necessary, use one of the several commercialnutrient buffer materials available on the market.
Adapted from Commercial Vegetable Production Recommendations, Pennsylvania, Delaware,Maryland, Virginia, and New Jersey (2005), http: / / hortweb.cas.psu.edu / extension / images /PA%2005%20Commercial%20Veg%20Recommends.pdf.
SPRAY ADJUVANTS OR ADDITIVES
Adjuvants are chemicals that, when added to a liquid spray, make it mix,wet, spread, stick, or penetrate better. Water is almost a universal diluentfor pesticide sprays. However, water is not compatible with oily pesticides,and an emulsifier may be needed in order to obtain good mixing.Furthermore, water from sprays often remains as large droplets on leafsurfaces. A wetting agent lowers the interfacial tension between the spraydroplet and the leaf surface and thus moistens the leaf. Spreaders areclosely related to wetters and help build a deposit on the leaf and improve
346
weatherability. Stickers cause pesticides to adhere to the sprayed surfaceand are often called spray-stickers. They are oily and serve to increase theamounts of suspended solids held on the leaves or fruits by holding theparticles in a resin-like film. Extenders form a sticky, elastic film that holdsthe pesticide on the leaves and thus reduces the rate of loss caused bysunlight and rainfall.
There are a number of adjuvants on the market. Read the label not onlyfor dosages but also for crop uses and compatibilities, because someadjuvants must not be used with certain pesticides. Although manyformulations of pesticides contain adequate adjuvants, some do requireadditions on certain crops, especially cabbage, cauliflower, onion, and pepper.
Spray adjuvants for use with herbicides often serve a function distinctfrom that of adjuvants used with insecticides and fungicides. For example,adjuvants such as oils used with atrazine greatly improve penetration of thechemical into crop and weed leaves, rather than just give more uniformcoverage. Do not use any adjuvant with herbicides unless there are specificrecommendations for its use. Plant damage or even crop residues can resultfrom using an adjuvant that is not recommended.
Resources
● J. Witt, Agricultural Spray Adjuvants (Cornell University PestManagement Educational Program), http: / /pmep.cce.cornell.edu / facts-slides-self / facts /gen-peapp-adjuvants.html
● B. Young, Compendium of Herbicide Adjuvants, 7th ed. (SouthernIllinois University, 2004), http: / /www.herbicide-adjuvants.com/ index-7th-edition.html.
347
06VEGETABLE SEED TREATMENTS
Various vegetable seed treatments prevent early infection by seedbornediseases, protect the seed from infection by soil microorganisms, and guardagainst a poor crop stand or crop failure caused by attacks on seeds by soilinsects. Commercial seed is often supplied with the appropriate treatment.
Two general categories of vegetable seed treatments are used.Eradication treatments kill disease-causing agents on or within the seed,whereas protective treatments are applied to the surface of the seed toprotect against seed decay, damping off, and soil insects. Hot-watertreatment is the principal means of eradication, and chemical treatmentsusually serve as protectants. Follow time-temperature directions preciselyfor hot-water treatment and label directions for chemical treatment. Wheninsecticides are used, seeds should also be treated with a fungicide.
HOT-WATER TREATMENT
To treat seeds with hot water, fill cheesecloth bags half full, wet seed andbag with warm water, and treat at exact time and temperature whilestirring to maintain a uniform temperature. Use an accurate thermometer.
TABLE 6.12. HOT-WATER TREATMENT OF SEEDS
SeedTemperature
(�F)Time(min) Diseases Controlled
Broccoli, cauliflower,collards, kale,kohlrabi, turnip
122 20 Alternaria, blackleg, black rot
Brussels sprouts,cabbage
122 25 Alternaria, blackleg, black rot
Celery 118 30 Early blight, late blightEggplant 122 30 Phomopsis blight, anthracnosePepper 122 25 Bacterial spot, rhizoctoniaTomato 122 25 Bacterial canker, bacterial
spot, bacterial speck132 30 Anthracnose
348
CHEMICAL SEED TREATMENTS
Several fungicides are commonly used for treating vegetable seed. Theyprotect against fungal attack during the germination process, resulting inmore uniform plant stands. Seed protectants are most effective under coolgermination conditions in a greenhouse or field, when germination is likelyto be slow, and where germinating seeds might be exposed to disease-causing organisms. Seed treatments are applied as a dust or slurry and,when dry, can be dusty. To reduce dust, the fungicide-treated seed can becovered by a thin polymer film; many seed companies offer film-coatedseeds. Large-seeded vegetables may require treatment with a labeledinsecticide as well as a fungicide. Always follow label directions whenpesticides are used.
Certain bacterial diseases on the seed surface can be controlled by otherchemical treatments:
1. Tomato bacterial canker. Soak seeds in 1.05% sodium hypochloritesolution for 20–40 min or 5% hydrochloric acid for 5–10 hr. Rinse anddry.
2. Tomato bacterial spot. Soak seeds in 1.3% sodium hypochlorite for 1min. Rinse and dry.
3. Pepper bacterial spot. Soak seeds in 1.3% sodium hypochlorite for 1min. Rinse and dry.
DO NOT USE CHEMICALLY TREATED SEED FOR FOOD OR FEED.
Adapted from A. F. Sherf and A. A. MacNab, Vegetable Diseases and Their Control, Wiley, New York(1986).
Additional References for Seed Treatment
● M. McGrath, Treatments for Managing Bacterial Pathogens inVegetable Seed (2005), http: / /vegetablemdonline.ppath.cornell.edu /NewsArticles /All BactSeed.htm
● J. Boucher and J. Nixon, Preventing Bacterial Diseases of Vegetableswith Hot-water Seed Treatment, University of Connecticut CooperativeExtension Service; and R. Hazard and R. Wick (University ofMassachusetts Cooperative Extension Service), http: / /www.hort.uconn.edu/ ipm/homegrnd/htms/54sedtrt.htm
● S. Miller and M. Lewis Ivey, Hot Water and Chlorine Treatment ofVegetable Seeds to Eradicate Bacterial Plant Pathogens (CooperativeExtension Service, Ohio State University), http: / / ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact /3000 /3085.html
349
ORGANIC SEED TREATMENTS
With the increasing interest in organic vegetables, the need for informationabout organic seed production, sources, and treatment is greater. Seedquality and vigor are important aspects for high-quality organic seeds. Theseed industry is working to provide vegetable seeds that meet therequirements for organic crop production. Likewise, the seed treatmenttechnology for organic seeds is increasing in scope—for example, seedcoating and treatment to increase germination uniformity and adaptationto mechanized seeding, among other needs. The following lists a fewpublications that address organic seed quality and seed treatment:
● J. Bonina and D. J. Cantliffe, Seed Production and Seed Sources ofOrganic Vegetables (University of Florida Cooperative ExtensionService), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu/hs227
● S. Koike, R. Smith, and E. Brennan, Investigation of Organic SeedTreatments for Spinach Disease Control, http: / /vric.ucdavis.edu/scrp /sum-koike.html
350
07NEMATODES
PLANT PARASITIC NEMATODES
Nematodes are unsegmented round worms that range in size frommicroscopic to many inches long. Some nematodes, usually those that aremicroscopic or barely visible without magnification, attack vegetable cropsand cause maladies, restrict yields, or, in severe cases, lead to total cropfailure. Many kinds of nematode are known to infest the roots and above-ground plant parts of vegetable crops. Their common names are usuallydescriptive of the affected plant part and the resulting injury.
TABLE 6.13. COMMONLY OBSERVED NEMATODES INVEGETABLE CROPS
Common Name Scientific Name
Awl nematode Dolichodorus spp.Bud and leaf nematode Aphelenchoides spp.Cyst nematode Heterodera spp.Dagger nematode Xiphinema spp.Lance nematode Hopolaimus spp.Root-lesion nematode Pratylenchus spp.Root-knot nematode Meloidogyne spp.Spiral nematode Helicotylenchus spp. and Scutellonema spp.Sting nematode Belonolaimus spp.Stubby-root nematode Trichodorus spp.Stunt nematode Tylenchorhynchus spp.
Nematodes are most troublesome in areas with mild winters where soilsare not subject to freezing and thawing. Management practices andchemical control are both required to keep nematode numbers low enoughto permit normal plant growth where populations are not kept in checknaturally by severe winters.
351
The first and most obvious control for nematodes is avoiding theirintroduction into uninfected fields or areas. This may be done by quarantineover large geographical areas or by means of good sanitation in smallerareas. A soil sample for a nematode assay through the County ExtensionService can provide information on which nematodes are present and theirpopulation levels. This information is valuable for planning a nematodemanagement program.
Once nematodes have been introduced into a field, several managementpractices help control them: rotating with crops that a particular species ofnematode does not attack, frequent disking during hot weather, andalternating flooding and drying cycles.
If soil management practices are not possible or are ineffective,chemicals (nematicides) may have to be used to control nematodes. Somefumigants are effective against soilborne disease, insects, and weed seeds;these are termed multipurpose soil fumigants. Growers should select achemical for use against the primary problem to be controlled and use itaccording to label directions.
352
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MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES FOR CONTROLLING NEMATODES
1. Crop rotation. Exposing a nematode population to an unsuitable hostcrop is an effective means of reducing nematodes in a field. Covercrops should be established rapidly and kept weed free. There aremany cover crop options, but growers must consider the species ofnematode in question and how long the alternate crop is needed. Also,certain cover crops may be effective as non-hosts for nematodes butmay not fit into a particular cropping sequence.
2. Fallowing. Practicing clean fallowing in the intercropping season isprobably the single most effective nonchemical means to reducingnematode populations. Clean disking of the field must be practicedfrequently to keep weeds controlled because certain nematodes cansurvive on weeds.
3. Plant resistance. Certain varieties have genetic resistance tonematode damage. Where possible, these varieties should be selectedwhen their other horticultural traits are acceptable. There arenematode-resistant varieties in tomato and pepper.
4. Soil amendments. Certain soil amendments, such as compost,manures, cover crops, chitin, and other materials, have been shown toreduce nematode populations. The age of the material, amountapplied, and level of incorporation affect performance.
5. Flooding. Extended periods of flooding can reduce nematodepopulations. This technique should be practiced only where flooding isapproved by environmental agencies. Alternating periods of floodingand drying seems to be more effective than a single flooding event.
6. Soil solarization. Nematodes can be killed by elevated heat created inthe soil by covering it with clear polyethylene film for extendedperiods. Solarization works best in clear, hot, and dry climates. Moreinformation on solarization can be found on pages 317–319.
7. Crop management. Growers should rapidly destroy and till crops thatare infested with nematodes. Irrigation water should not drain frominfested fields to noninfested fields, and equipment should be cleanedbetween infested and clean fields.
8. Chemical control. Some fumigant and nonfumigant nematicides areapproved for use against nematodes, but not all vegetable crops havenematicides recommended for use. Effectiveness of the treatmentdepends on many factors, including timing, placement in the soil, soilmoisture, soil temperature, soil type, and presence of plastic mulch.Growers should refer to their state Extension recommendations forthe approved chemicals for particular crops.
Adapted from J. Noling, ‘‘Nematodes and Their Management,’’ in S. M. Olson and E. H. Simonne(eds.), Vegetable Production Handbook for Florida (Florida Cooperative Extension Service, 2005–2006),http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / CV112.
354
08DISEASES
GENERAL DISEASE CONTROL PROGRAM
Diseases of vegetable crops are caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, andmycoplasms. For a disease to occur, organisms must be transported to asusceptible host plant. This may be done by infected seeds or plantmaterial, contaminated soil, wind, water, animals (including humans), orinsects. Suitable environmental conditions must be present for the organismto infect and thrive on the crop plant. Effective disease control requiresknowledge of the disease life cycle, time of likely infection, agent ofdistribution, plant part affected, and the symptoms produced by the disease.
Crop rotation: Root-infecting diseases are the usual targets of crop rotation,although rotation can help reduce innocula of leaf- and stem-infectingorganisms. Land availability and costs are making rotation challenging,but a well-planned rotation program is still an important part of aneffective disease control program.
Site selection: Consider using fields that are free of volunteer crops andperimeter weeds that may harbor disease organisms. If aerialapplications of fungicides are to be used, try to select fields that aregeometrically adapted to serial spraying (long and wide), are away fromhomes, and have no bordering trees or power lines.
Deep plowing: Use tillage equipment such as plows to completely bury plantdebris in order to fully decompose plant material and kill diseaseorganisms.
Weed control: Certain weeds, particularly those botanically related to thecrop, may harbor disease agents, especially viruses, that could move tothe crop. Also, weeds within the crop could harbor diseases and by theirphysical presence interfere with deposition of fungicides on the crop.Volunteer plants from previous crops should be carefully controlled innearby fallow fields.
Resistant varieties: Where possible, growers should choose varieties thatcarry genetic resistance to disease. Varieties with disease resistancerequire less pesticide application.
Seed protection: Seeds can be treated with fungicides to offer some degree ofprotection of the young seedling against disease attack. Seeds planted inwarm soil germinate fast and possibly can outgrow disease development.
355
Healthy transplants: Growers should always purchase or grow disease-freetransplants. Growers should contract with good transplant growers andshould inspect their transplants before having them shipped to the farm.Paying a little extra to a reputable transplant producer is goodinsurance.
Field observation: Check fields periodically for disease development bywalking the field and inspecting the plants up close, not from behind thewindshield. Have any suspicious situations diagnosed by a competentdisease diagnosis laboratory.
Foliar fungicides: Plant disease outbreaks sometimes can be prevented orminimized by timely use of fungicides. For some diseases, it is essentialto have a preventative protectant fungicide program in place. Forsuccessful fungicide control, growers should consider proper chemicalselection, use well-calibrated sprayers, use correct application rate, andfollow all safety recommendations for spray application.
Integrated approach: Successful vegetable growers use a combination ofthese strategies or the entire set of strategies listed above. Routineimplementation of combinations of strategies is needed where a growerdesires to reduce the use of fungicides on vegetable crops.
COMMON VEGETABLE DISEASES
Some of the more common vegetable diseases are described below. Consultyour local County Extension Service for recommendations for specificfungicide information, as products and use recommendations changefrequently. When using fungicides, read the label and carefully follow theinstructions. Do not exceed maximum rates given, observe the intervalbetween application and harvest, and apply only to those crops for whichuse is approved. Make a record of the product used, trade name,concentration of the fungicide, dilution, rate applied per acre, and dates ofapplication. Follow local recommendations for efficacy and read thedirections on the label for proper use.
356
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ccu
rsm
ost
com
mon
lyin
cold
,w
etso
ils.
Cro
pro
tati
on.
Tre
atse
edw
ith
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Wh
ite
mol
dW
ater
-soa
ked
spot
son
plan
ts.W
hit
e,co
tton
ym
asse
son
pods
.U
seap
prov
edfu
ngi
cide
s.
Bee
tC
erco
spor
aN
um
erou
sli
ght
tan
tobr
own
spot
sw
ith
redd
ish
toda
rkbr
own
bord
ers
onle
aves
.L
ong
rota
tion
.U
seap
prov
edfu
ngi
cide
s.
Dam
pin
gof
fS
eed
deca
yin
soil
;yo
un
gse
edli
ngs
coll
apse
and
die.
Avo
idw
etso
ils,
rota
tecr
ops.
Tre
atse
edw
ith
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Dow
ny
mil
dew
Lig
hte
rth
ann
orm
alle
afsp
ots
onu
pper
surf
ace
and
wh
ite
mil
dew
area
son
low
ersi
de.
Roo
ts,
leav
es,
flow
ers,
and
seed
ball
sdi
stor
ted
onst
eckl
ings
.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Bro
ccol
i,B
russ
els
spro
uts
,ca
bbag
e,ca
uli
flow
er,
kale
,ko
hlr
abi
Alt
ern
aria
leaf
spot
Dam
pin
gof
fof
seed
lin
gs.S
mal
l,ci
rcu
lar
yell
owar
eas
that
enla
rge
inco
nce
ntr
icci
rcle
san
dbe
com
ebl
ack
and
soot
y.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Bla
ckle
gS
un
ken
area
son
stem
nea
rgr
oun
dli
ne
resu
ltin
gin
gird
lin
g;gr
aysp
ots
spec
kled
wit
hbl
ack
dots
onle
aves
and
stem
s.
Use
hot
-wat
er-t
reat
edse
edan
dlo
ng
rota
tion
.S
anit
atio
n.
358
TA
BL
E6.
15.
DIS
EA
SE
CO
NT
RO
LF
OR
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Cro
pD
isea
seD
escr
ipti
onC
ontr
ol
Bla
ckro
tYe
llow
ing
and
brow
nin
gof
the
foli
age;
blac
ken
edve
ins;
stem
ssh
owbl
acke
ned
rin
gw
hen
cros
s-se
ctio
ned
.
Use
hot
-wat
er-t
reat
edse
edan
dlo
ng
rota
tion
.D
on
otw
ork
wet
fiel
ds.
San
itat
ion
.C
lub
root
Yell
owle
aves
orgr
een
leav
esth
atw
ilt
onh
otda
ys;
larg
e,ir
regu
lar
swel
lin
gsor
clu
bson
root
s.
Sta
rtpl
ants
inn
ew,
stea
med
,or
fum
igat
edpl
ant
beds
.A
dju
stso
ilpH
to7.
2w
ith
hyd
rate
dli
me
befo
repl
anti
ng.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Dow
ny
mil
dew
Beg
ins
assl
igh
tye
llow
ing
onu
pper
side
ofle
aves
;w
hit
em
ilde
won
low
ersi
de;
spot
sen
larg
eu
nti
lpl
ant
dies
.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Fu
sari
um
yell
ows
Yell
owis
hgr
een
leav
es;
stu
nte
dpl
ants
;lo
wer
leav
esdr
op.
Use
yell
ows-
resi
stan
tva
riet
ies.
Can
talo
upe
(See
Vin
eC
rops
)C
arro
tA
lter
nar
iale
afbl
igh
t
Cer
cosp
ora
leaf
blig
ht
Sm
all,
brow
nto
blac
k,ir
regu
lar
spot
sw
ith
yell
owm
argi
ns
may
enla
rge
toin
fect
the
enti
reto
p.S
mal
l,n
ecro
tic
spot
sth
atm
ayen
larg
ean
din
fect
the
enti
reto
p.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Ast
erYe
llow
sP
urp
lin
gof
tops
;ye
llow
edyo
un
gle
aves
atce
nte
rof
crow
nfo
llow
edby
bush
ines
sdu
eto
exce
ssiv
epe
tiol
efo
rmat
ion
.R
oots
beco
me
woo
dyan
dfo
rmn
um
erou
sad
ven
titi
ous
root
s.
Con
trol
leaf
hop
per
carr
ier
wit
hin
sect
icid
es.
359
Cel
ery
Ast
erye
llow
sYe
llow
edle
aves
;st
un
tin
g;ti
ssu
esbr
ittl
ean
dbi
tter
inta
ste.
Use
resi
stan
tva
riet
ies.
Con
trol
leaf
hop
per
carr
ier
wit
hin
sect
icid
es.
Con
trol
wee
dsin
adja
cen
tar
eas.
Bac
teri
albl
igh
tB
righ
tye
llow
leaf
spot
s,ce
nte
rtu
rns
brow
n,
and
aye
llow
hal
oap
pear
sw
ith
enla
rgem
ent.
See
dbed
san
itat
ion
.Cop
per
com
pou
nds
.
Ear
lybl
igh
tD
ead,
ash
gray
,ve
lvet
yar
eas
onle
aves
.U
seap
prov
edfu
ngi
cide
s.L
ate
blig
ht
Yell
owsp
ots
onol
dle
aves
and
stal
ksth
attu
rnda
rkgr
aysp
eckl
edw
ith
blac
kdo
ts.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Mos
aic
Dw
arfe
dpl
ants
wit
hn
arro
w,
gray
,or
mot
tled
leav
es.
Con
trol
wee
dsin
adja
cen
tar
eas.
Con
trol
aph
idca
rrie
rw
ith
inse
ctic
ides
.P
ink
rot
Wat
er-s
oake
dsp
ots;
wh
ite-
topi
nk-
colo
red
cott
ony
grow
that
base
ofst
alk
lead
sto
rott
ing.
Cro
pro
tati
on.
Flo
odin
gfo
r4–
8w
eeks
.U
seap
prov
edfu
ngi
cide
s.
Cu
cum
ber
(See
Vin
eC
rops
)E
ggpl
ant
An
thra
cnos
eS
un
ken
,tan
fru
itle
sion
s.U
sedi
seas
e-fr
eese
ed.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Ph
omop
sis
blig
ht
You
ng
plan
tsbl
acke
nan
ddi
e;ol
der
plan
tsh
ave
brow
nsp
ots
onle
aves
and
fru
itco
vere
dw
ith
brow
nis
hbl
ack
pust
ule
s.
Use
resi
stan
tva
riet
ies.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Ver
tici
lliu
mw
ilt
Slo
ww
ilti
ng;
brow
nin
gbe
twee
nle
afve
ins;
stu
nti
ng.
Fu
mig
ate
soil
wit
hap
prov
edfu
mig
ants
.U
seve
rtic
illi
um
-tol
eran
tva
riet
ies.
Use
lon
gro
tati
on.
En
dive
,es
caro
le,
lett
uce
Ast
erye
llow
sC
ente
rle
aves
blea
ched
,dw
arfe
d,cu
rled
,or
twis
ted.
Hea
dsdo
not
form
;yo
un
gpl
ants
part
icu
larl
yaf
fect
ed.
Con
trol
leaf
hop
per
carr
ier
wit
hin
sect
icid
es.
360
TA
BL
E6.
15.
DIS
EA
SE
CO
NT
RO
LF
OR
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Cro
pD
isea
seD
escr
ipti
onC
ontr
ol
Big
vein
Lea
ves
wit
hli
ght
gree
n,
enla
rged
vein
sde
velo
pin
gin
toye
llow
,cr
inkl
edle
aves
;st
un
tin
g;de
laye
dm
atu
rity
.
Avo
idco
ld,
wet
soil
s.U
seto
lera
nt
vari
etie
s.C
rop
rota
tion
.
Bot
tom
rot
Dam
age
begi
ns
atba
seof
plan
ts;
blad
esof
leav
esro
tfi
rst,
then
the
mid
rib,
but
the
mai
nst
emis
har
dly
affe
cted
.
Avo
idw
et,
poor
lydr
ain
edar
eas.
Pla
nt
onra
ised
beds
.P
ract
ice
3-ye
arro
tati
on.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Dow
ny
mil
dew
Lig
ht
gree
nsp
ots
onu
pper
side
ofle
aves
;le
sion
sen
larg
ean
dw
hit
em
ycel
ium
appe
ars
onop
posi
tesi
deof
spot
s;br
own
ing
and
dwar
fin
gof
plan
t.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Dro
pW
ilti
ng
ofou
ter
leav
es;
wat
ery
deca
yon
stem
san
dol
dle
aves
.C
rop
rota
tion
.D
eep
plow
ing.
Rai
sed
beds
.U
seap
prov
edfu
ngi
cide
s.M
osai
cM
ottl
ing
(yel
low
and
gree
n),
ruffl
ing,
ordi
stor
tion
ofle
aves
;pl
ants
hav
eu
nth
rift
yap
pear
ance
.
Use
viru
s-fr
eeM
TO
seed
.P
lan
taw
ayfr
omol
dle
ttu
cebe
ds.
Con
trol
wee
ds.
Con
trol
aph
idca
rrie
rw
ith
inse
ctic
ide.
Tip
burn
Edg
esof
ten
der
leav
esbr
own
and
die;
may
inte
rfer
ew
ith
grow
th;
mos
tse
vere
onh
ead
lett
uce
.
Use
tole
ran
tva
riet
ies.
Pre
ven
tst
ress
bypr
ovid
ing
good
grow
ing
con
diti
ons.
Lim
abe
anD
own
ym
ilde
wP
urp
lin
gan
ddi
stor
tion
ofle
afve
ins;
wh
ite
dow
ny
mol
don
pods
;bl
acke
ned
bean
s.U
sere
sist
ant
vari
etie
san
ddi
seas
e-fr
eese
ed.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Okr
aS
outh
ern
blig
ht
Mas
sof
pin
kish
fun
gus
bodi
esar
oun
dba
seof
plan
t;su
dden
loss
ofle
aves
.C
rop
rota
tion
.D
eep
plow
ing
ofpl
ant
stu
bble
.V
erti
cill
ium
wil
tS
tun
tin
g;ch
loro
sis;
shed
din
gof
leav
es.
Cro
pro
tati
on.
Avo
idpl
anti
ng
wh
ere
dise
ase
was
prev
iou
sly
pres
ent.
361
On
ion
Bli
ght
(bla
st)
Pap
ery
spot
son
leav
es;
brow
nin
gan
dde
ath
ofu
pper
port
ion
ofle
aves
;de
laye
dm
atu
rity
.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Dow
ny
mil
dew
Beg
ins
aspa
legr
een
spot
nea
rti
pof
leaf
;pu
rple
mol
dfo
un
dw
hen
moi
stu
repr
esen
t;in
fect
edle
aves
oliv
e-gr
een
tobl
ack.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Nec
kro
tS
oft,
brow
nis
hti
ssu
ear
oun
dn
eck;
scal
esar
oun
dn
eck
are
dry,
and
blac
ksc
lero
tia
may
form
.E
ssen
tial
lya
dry
rot
ifso
ftro
tba
cter
ian
otpr
esen
t.
Un
derc
ut
and
win
drow
plan
tsu
nti
lin
side
nec
kti
ssu
esar
edr
ybe
fore
stor
age.
Cu
reat
93–9
5�F
for
5da
ys.
Pin
kro
tP
lan
tsar
eaf
fect
edfr
omse
edli
ng
stag
eon
war
dth
rou
ghou
tli
fecy
cle.
Aff
ecte
dro
ots
turn
pin
k,sh
rive
l,an
ddi
e.
Avo
idin
fect
edso
ils.
Use
tole
ran
tva
riet
ies.
Pu
rple
blot
chS
mal
l,w
hit
esu
nke
nle
sion
sw
ith
purp
lece
nte
rsen
larg
eto
gird
lele
afor
seed
stem
.L
eave
san
dst
ems
fall
over
3–4
wee
ksaf
ter
infe
ctio
nin
seve
reca
ses.
Bu
lbro
tat
and
afte
rh
arve
st.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Sm
ut
Bla
cksp
ots
onle
aves
;cr
acks
deve
lop
onsi
deof
spot
reve
alin
gbl
ack,
soot
ypo
wde
rw
ith
in.
Cro
pro
tati
on.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Par
snip
Can
ker
Bro
wn
disc
olor
atio
nn
ear
shou
lder
orcr
own
ofro
ot.
Rid
geso
ilov
ersh
ould
ers.
Lea
fbl
igh
tL
eave
san
dpe
tiol
estu
rnye
llow
and
then
brow
n.
En
tire
plan
tm
aybe
kill
ed.
Pra
ctic
e2-
year
rota
tion
;u
sew
ell-
drai
ned
soil
wit
hpH
7.0.
Pea
Pow
dery
mil
dew
Wh
ite,
pow
dery
mol
don
leav
es,
stem
s,an
dpo
ds;
affe
cted
area
sbe
com
ebr
own
and
nec
roti
c.
Use
dise
ase-
free
seed
and
resi
stan
tva
riet
ies.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
362
TA
BL
E6.
15.
DIS
EA
SE
CO
NT
RO
LF
OR
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Cro
pD
isea
seD
escr
ipti
onC
ontr
ol
Roo
tro
tR
otte
dan
dye
llow
ish
brow
nor
blac
kst
ems
(bel
owgr
oun
d)an
dro
ots;
oute
rla
yers
ofro
otsl
ough
off,
leav
ing
ace
ntr
alco
re.
Ear
lypl
anti
ng
and
3-ye
arro
tati
on.
Do
not
dou
ble-
crop
wit
hbe
an.
See
dtr
eatm
ent.
Vir
us
Sev
eral
viru
ses
affe
ctpe
a,ca
usi
ng
mot
tlin
g,di
stor
tion
ofle
aves
,ro
sett
ing,
chlo
rosi
s,or
nec
rosi
s.
Use
resi
stan
tva
riet
ies.
Con
trol
aph
idca
rrie
rw
ith
inse
ctic
ides
.
Wil
tYe
llow
ing
leav
es;
dwar
fin
g,br
own
ing
ofxy
lem
;w
ilti
ng.
Ear
lypl
anti
ng
and
3-ye
arro
tati
on.
Use
resi
stan
tva
riet
ies.
Pep
per
An
thra
cnos
eD
ark,
rou
nd
spot
sw
ith
blac
ksp
ecks
onfr
uit
s.U
seap
prov
edfu
ngi
cide
s.
Bac
teri
alle
afsp
otYe
llow
ish
gree
nsp
ots
onyo
un
gle
aves
;ra
ised
,br
own
spot
son
un
ders
ides
ofol
der
leav
es;
brow
n,
crac
ked,
rou
ghsp
ots
onfr
uit
;ol
dle
aves
turn
yell
ow.
Use
dise
ase-
free
seed
,h
ot-w
ater
-tre
ated
seed
.U
seap
prov
edba
cter
icid
es.U
sere
sist
ant
vari
etie
s.
Mos
aic
Mot
tled
(yel
low
edan
dgr
een
)an
dcu
rled
leav
es;
fru
its
yell
owor
show
gree
nri
ng
spot
s;st
un
ted;
redu
ced
yiel
ds.
Use
resi
stan
tva
riet
ies.
Con
trol
inse
ctca
rrie
rs(p
arti
cula
rly
aph
ids)
and
wee
dh
osts
.U
sest
ylet
oil.
Pot
ato
Ear
lybl
igh
tD
ark
brow
nsp
ots
onle
aves
;fo
liag
ein
jure
d;re
duce
dyi
elds
.B
ury
all
cull
pota
toes
.U
seap
prov
edfu
ngi
cide
s.L
ate
blig
ht
Dar
k,th
enn
ecro
tic
area
onle
aves
and
stem
;in
fect
edtu
bers
rot
inst
orag
e.D
isea
seis
favo
red
bym
oist
con
diti
ons.
Bu
rycu
llpi
les.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
363
Rh
izoc
ton
iaN
ecro
tic
spot
s,gi
rdli
ng
and
deat
hof
spro
uts
befo
reor
shor
tly
afte
rem
erge
nce
.B
row
nto
blac
kra
ised
spot
son
mat
ure
tube
rs.
Avo
idde
eppl
anti
ng
toen
cou
rage
earl
yem
erge
nce
.U
sedi
seas
e-fr
eese
ed.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Sca
bR
ough
,sc
abby
,rai
sed,
orpi
tted
lesi
ons
ontu
bers
.C
rop
rota
tion
.U
sere
sist
ant
vari
etie
s.M
ain
tain
soil
pHab
out
5.3.
Vir
us
Ala
rge
nu
mbe
rof
viru
ses
infe
ctpo
tato
,ca
usi
ng
leaf
mot
tlin
g,di
stor
tion
,an
ddw
arfi
ng.
Som
evi
ruse
sca
use
irre
gula
rly
shap
edor
nec
roti
car
eain
tube
rs.
Use
cert
ified
seed
.C
ontr
olap
hid
and
leaf
hop
per
carr
iers
wit
hin
sect
icid
es.
Rad
ish
Dow
ny
mil
dew
Inte
rnal
disc
olor
atio
nof
root
crow
nti
ssu
e.O
ute
rsu
rfac
em
aybe
com
eda
rkan
dro
ugh
atth
eso
illi
ne.
Sel
ect
clea
n,
wel
l-dr
ain
edso
ils.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Fu
sari
um
wil
tYo
un
gpl
ants
yell
owan
ddi
era
pidl
yin
war
mw
eath
er.
Stu
nti
ng,
un
ilat
eral
leaf
yell
owin
g;va
scu
lar
disc
olor
atio
nof
fles
hy
root
s.
Use
tole
ran
tva
riet
ies.
Avo
idin
fest
edso
il.
Rh
uba
rbC
row
nro
tW
ilti
ng
ofle
afbl
ades
;br
own
ing
atba
seof
leaf
stal
kle
adin
gto
deca
y.P
lan
tin
wel
l-dr
ain
edso
il.
Lea
fsp
otT
iny,
gree
nis
hye
llow
spot
s(r
esem
blin
gm
osai
c)on
upp
ersi
deof
leaf
,ev
entu
ally
brow
nin
gan
dfo
rmin
ga
wh
ite
spot
surr
oun
ded
bya
red
ban
d;th
ese
spot
sm
aydr
opou
tto
give
ash
ot-h
ole
appe
aran
ce.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Ru
taba
ga,
turn
ipA
lter
nar
iaS
mal
l,ci
rcu
lar,
yell
owar
eas
that
enla
rge
inco
nce
ntr
icci
rcle
san
dbe
com
ea
blac
kso
oty
colo
r.R
oots
may
beco
me
infe
sted
inst
orag
e.
Use
hot
-wat
er-t
reat
edse
ed.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
364
TA
BL
E6.
15.
DIS
EA
SE
CO
NT
RO
LF
OR
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Cro
pD
isea
seD
escr
ipti
onC
ontr
ol
An
thra
cnos
eS
mal
l,w
ater
-soa
ked
spot
son
all
abov
e-gr
oun
dpa
rts,
wh
ich
beco
me
ligh
t-co
lore
dan
dm
aydr
opou
t.S
mal
l,su
nke
n,
dry
spot
son
turn
ipro
ots,
wh
ich
are
subj
ect
tose
con
dary
deca
y.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Clu
bro
otT
um
or-l
ike
swel
lin
gson
tap
root
.M
ain
root
may
bedi
stor
ted.
Dis
ease
dro
ots
deca
ypr
emat
ure
ly.
Avo
idso
ilpr
evio
usl
yin
fest
edw
ith
clu
bro
ot.
Adj
ust
acid
soil
topH
7.3
byli
min
g.D
own
ym
ilde
wS
mal
l,pu
rpli
sh,i
rreg
ula
rsp
ots
onle
aves
,st
ems,
and
seed
pods
that
prod
uce
flu
ffy
wh
ite
grow
th.
Des
icca
tion
ofro
ots
inst
orag
e.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Mos
aic
viru
sS
tun
ted
plan
tsh
avin
gru
ffled
leav
es.
Infe
cted
root
sst
ore
poor
ly.
Des
troy
volu
nte
erpl
ants
.Con
trol
aph
idca
rrie
rw
ith
inse
ctic
ides
.S
outh
ern
pea
Fu
sari
um
wil
tYe
llow
edle
aves
;w
ilte
dpl
ants
;in
teri
orof
stem
sle
mon
yell
ow.
Avo
idin
fest
edso
il.
Spi
nac
hB
ligh
t(C
MV
)Ye
llow
edan
dcu
rled
leav
es;
stu
nte
dpl
ants
;re
duce
dyi
elds
.U
seto
lera
nt
vari
etie
s.C
ontr
olap
hid
carr
ier
wit
hin
sect
icid
es.
Dow
ny
mil
dew
Yell
owsp
ots
onu
pper
surf
ace
ofle
aves
;do
wn
yor
viol
et-g
ray
mol
don
un
ders
ides
.U
sere
sist
ant
vari
etie
s.U
seap
prov
edfu
ngi
cide
s.S
quas
h(S
eeV
ine
Cro
ps)
365
Str
awbe
rry
An
thra
cnos
eS
pott
ing
and
gird
lin
gof
stol
ens
and
peti
oles
,cr
own
rot,
fru
itro
t,an
da
blac
kle
afsp
ot;
com
mon
lyoc
curs
inso
uth
east
ern
Un
ited
Sta
tes.
Use
dise
ase-
free
plan
tsan
dre
sist
ant
vari
etie
s.U
seap
prov
edfu
ngi
cide
s.
Gra
ym
old
Rot
ongr
een
orri
pefr
uit
,be
gin
nin
gat
caly
xor
con
tact
wit
hin
fect
edfr
uit
;af
fect
edar
easu
ppor
tsw
hit
eor
gray
myc
eliu
m.
Use
less
susc
epti
ble
vari
etie
s.U
seap
prov
edfu
ngi
cide
s.
Lea
fsc
orch
Nu
mer
ous
irre
gula
r,pu
rpli
shbl
otch
esw
ith
brow
nce
nte
rs;
enti
rele
aves
dry
up
and
appe
arsc
orch
ed.
Use
dise
ase-
free
plan
tsan
dre
sist
ant
vari
etie
s.R
enew
pere
nn
ial
plan
tin
gsfr
equ
entl
y.U
seap
prov
edfu
ngi
cide
s.L
eaf
spot
Inde
fin
ite-
shap
edsp
ots
wit
hbr
own
,gr
ay,
orw
hit
ece
nte
rsan
dpu
rple
bord
ers.
Use
dise
ase-
free
plan
tsan
dre
sist
ant
vari
etie
s.U
seap
prov
edfu
ngi
cide
s.P
owde
rym
ilde
wC
har
acte
rist
icw
hit
em
ycel
ium
onle
aves
,fl
ower
,an
dfr
uit
.U
sere
sist
ant
vari
etie
s.U
seap
prov
edfu
ngi
cide
s.R
edst
ele
Stu
nte
dpl
ants
hav
ing
root
sw
ith
red
stel
ese
enw
hen
root
iscu
tle
ngt
hw
ise.
Impr
ove
drai
nag
ean
dav
oid
com
pact
ion
ofso
il.
Use
dise
ase-
free
plan
tsan
dre
sist
ant
vari
etie
s.V
erti
cill
ium
Mar
gin
alan
din
terv
ein
aln
ecro
sis
ofou
ter
leav
es;
inn
erle
aves
rem
ain
gree
n.
Pre
plan
tso
ilfu
mig
atio
n.U
sere
sist
ant
vari
etie
s.S
wee
tco
rnB
acte
rial
blig
ht
Dw
arfi
ng;
prem
atu
reta
ssel
sdi
e;ye
llow
bact
eria
lsl
ime
ooze
sfr
omw
etst
alks
;st
emdr
ies
and
dies
.
Use
resi
stan
tva
riet
ies.
Con
trol
corn
flea
beet
lew
ith
inse
ctic
ides
.
Lea
fbl
igh
tC
anoe
-sh
aped
spot
son
leav
es.
Use
resi
stan
tva
riet
ies.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Mai
zedw
arf
mos
aic
Stu
nti
ng;
mot
tlin
gof
new
leav
esin
wh
orl
and
poor
ear
fill
atth
eba
se.
Use
tole
ran
tva
riet
ies.
Pla
nt
tole
ran
tva
riet
ies
arou
nd
susc
epti
ble
ones
.C
ontr
olap
hid
carr
ier
wit
hin
sect
icid
es.
See
dro
tS
eed
deca
ysin
soil
s.U
sese
edtr
eate
dw
ith
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
366
TA
BL
E6.
15.
DIS
EA
SE
CO
NT
RO
LF
OR
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Cro
pD
isea
seD
escr
ipti
onC
ontr
ol
Sm
ut
Lar
ge,
smoo
th,
wh
ite
gall
s,or
outg
row
ths
onea
rs,
tass
els,
and
nod
es;
cove
rin
gdr
ies
and
brea
ksop
ento
rele
ase
blac
k,po
wde
ry,
orgr
easy
spor
es.
Use
tole
ran
tva
riet
ies.
Con
trol
corn
bore
rsw
ith
inse
ctic
ides
.
Sw
eet
pota
toB
lack
rot
Bla
ckde
pres
sion
son
swee
tpo
tato
;bl
ack
can
kers
onu
nde
rgro
un
dst
empa
rts.
Sel
ect
dise
ase-
free
pota
tose
ed.
Rot
ate
crop
san
dpl
anti
ng
beds
.U
sevi
ne
cutt
ings
for
prop
agat
ion
rath
erth
ansl
ips.
Inte
rnal
cork
Dar
kbr
own
tobl
ack,
har
d,co
rky
lesi
ons
infl
esh
deve
lopi
ng
inst
orag
eat
hig
hte
mpe
ratu
re.
Yell
owsp
ots
wit
hpu
rple
bord
ers
onn
ewgr
owth
ofle
aves
.
Sel
ect
dise
ase-
free
seed
pota
toes
.
Pox
Pla
nts
dwar
fed;
only
one
ortw
ovi
nes
prod
uce
d;le
aves
thin
and
pale
gree
n;
soil
rot
pits
onro
ots.
Use
dise
ase-
free
stoc
kan
dcl
ean
plan
tin
gbe
ds.
Su
lfu
rto
low
erso
ilpH
to5.
2.
Scu
rfB
row
nto
blac
kdi
scol
orat
ion
ofro
ot;
un
ifor
mru
stin
gof
root
surf
ace.
Rot
atio
nof
crop
san
dbe
ds.
Use
dise
ase-
free
stoc
k.U
sevi
ne
cutt
ings
rath
erth
ansl
ips.
Ste
mro
tYe
llow
ing
betw
een
vein
s;vi
nes
wil
t;st
ems
dark
enin
side
and
may
spli
t.S
elec
tdi
seas
e-fr
eese
edpo
tato
es.
Rot
ate
fiel
dsan
dpl
ant
beds
.T
omat
oA
nth
racn
ose
Beg
ins
wit
hci
rcu
lar,
sun
ken
spot
son
fru
it;
assp
ots
enla
rge,
cen
ter
beco
mes
dark
and
fru
itro
ts.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
367
Bac
teri
alca
nke
rW
ilti
ng;
roll
ing,
and
brow
nin
gof
leav
es;
pith
may
disc
olor
ordi
sapp
ear;
fru
itdi
spla
ysbi
rd’s
-eye
spot
s.
Use
hot
-wat
er-t
reat
edse
ed.
Avo
idpl
anti
ng
inin
fest
edfi
elds
for
3ye
ars.
Bac
teri
alsp
otYo
un
gle
sion
son
fru
itap
pear
asda
rk,
rais
edsp
ots;
olde
rle
sion
sbl
acke
nan
dap
pear
sun
ken
wit
hbr
own
cen
ters
;le
aves
brow
nan
ddr
y.
Use
hot
-wat
er-t
reat
edse
ed.
Use
appr
oved
bact
eric
ides
.
Ear
lybl
igh
tD
ark
brow
nsp
ots
onle
aves
;br
own
can
kers
onst
ems;
gird
lin
g;da
rk,
leat
her
y,de
caye
dar
eas
atst
emen
dof
fru
it.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Lat
ebl
igh
tD
ark,
wat
er-s
oake
dsp
ots
onle
aves
;w
hit
efu
ngu
son
un
ders
ides
ofle
aves
;w
ith
erin
gof
leav
es;
wat
er-s
oake
dsp
ots
onfr
uit
turn
brow
n.
Dis
ease
isfa
vore
dby
moi
stco
ndi
tion
s.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Fu
sari
um
wil
tYe
llow
ing
and
wil
tin
gof
low
er,
olde
rle
aves
;di
seas
eev
entu
ally
affe
cts
wh
ole
plan
t.U
sere
sist
ant
vari
etie
s.
Gra
yle
afsp
otS
ympt
oms
appe
arfi
rst
inse
edli
ngs
.Sm
all
brow
nto
blac
ksp
ots
onle
aves
,w
hic
hen
larg
ean
dh
ave
shin
ygr
ayce
nte
rs.
Th
ece
nte
rsm
aydr
opou
tto
give
shot
gun
appe
aran
ce.O
ldes
tle
aves
affe
cted
firs
t.
Use
resi
stan
tva
riet
ies.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Lea
fm
old
Ch
loro
tic
spot
son
upp
ersi
deof
olde
stle
aves
appe
arin
hu
mid
wea
ther
.U
nde
rsid
eof
leaf
spot
may
hav
egr
een
mol
d.S
pots
may
mer
geu
nti
len
tire
leaf
isaf
fect
ed.
Dis
ease
adva
nce
sto
you
nge
rle
aves
.
Use
resi
stan
tva
riet
ies.
Sta
kean
dpr
un
eto
prov
ide
air
mov
emen
t.U
seap
prov
edfu
ngi
cide
s.
368
TA
BL
E6.
15.
DIS
EA
SE
CO
NT
RO
LF
OR
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Cro
pD
isea
seD
escr
ipti
onC
ontr
ol
Mos
aic
Mot
tlin
g(y
ello
wan
dgr
een
)an
dro
ugh
enin
gof
leav
es;
dwar
fin
g;re
duce
dyi
elds
;ru
sset
ing
offr
uit
.
Avo
idco
nta
ctby
smok
ers.
Con
trol
aph
idca
rrie
rw
ith
inse
ctic
ides
.Sty
let
oil
may
beef
fect
ive.
Tom
ato
spot
ted
wil
tvi
rus
Bro
wn
spot
s,so
me
circ
ula
ron
you
nge
stle
aves
,st
un
ted
plan
t.F
ruit
sm
issh
apen
ofte
nw
ith
circ
ula
rbr
own
rin
gs,
adi
agn
osti
cch
arac
teri
stic
ofth
isdi
seas
e.
Use
aco
mbi
nat
ion
ofre
sist
ant
vari
etie
s,h
igh
lyre
flec
tive
mu
lch
tore
pel
the
silv
erle
afw
hit
efl
y,an
dpl
ant
acti
vato
rs.
Ver
tici
lliu
mw
ilt
Dif
fers
from
fusa
riu
mw
ilt
byap
pear
ance
ofdi
seas
eon
all
bran
ches
atth
esa
me
tim
e;ye
llow
area
son
leav
esbe
com
ebr
own
;m
idda
yw
ilti
ng;
drop
pin
gof
leav
esbe
gin
nin
gat
bott
om.
Use
resi
stan
tva
riet
ies.
Vin
eC
rops
:ca
nta
lou
pe,
cucu
mbe
r,pu
mpk
in,
squ
ash
,w
ater
mel
on
Alt
ern
aria
leaf
spot
An
gula
rle
afsp
ot
Cir
cula
rsp
ots
show
ing
con
cen
tric
rin
gsas
they
enla
rge,
appe
arfi
rst
onol
dest
leav
es.
Irre
gula
r,an
gula
r,w
ater
-soa
ked
spot
son
leav
esth
atla
ter
turn
gray
and
die.
Dea
dti
ssu
em
ayte
araw
ay,l
eavi
ng
hol
es.
Nea
rly
circ
ula
rfr
uit
spot
s,w
hic
hbe
com
ew
hit
e.
Fie
ldsa
nit
atio
n.U
sedi
seas
e-fr
eese
ed.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Use
tole
ran
tva
riet
ies.
Use
appr
oved
bact
eric
ides
.
369
An
thra
cnos
eR
eddi
shbl
ack
spot
son
leav
es;
elon
gate
dta
nca
nke
rson
stem
s;fr
uit
sh
ave
sun
ken
spot
sw
ith
fles
h-c
olor
edoo
zein
cen
ter,
late
rtu
rnin
gbl
ack.
Use
tole
ran
tva
riet
ies.
Use
appr
oved
fun
gici
des.
Bac
teri
alw
ilt
Vin
esw
ilt
and
die;
stem
sap
prod
uce
sst
rin
gs;
no
yell
owin
goc
curs
.C
ontr
olst
ripe
dcu
cum
ber
beet
les
wit
hin
sect
icid
es.
Rem
ove
wil
tin
gpl
ants
from
fiel
d.B
lack
rot
(squ
ash
and
pum
pkin
only
)
Wat
er-s
oake
dar
eas
appe
aron
rin
dsof
fru
itin
stor
age.
Bro
wn
orbl
ack
infe
cted
tiss
ue
rapi
dly
inva
des
enti
repl
ant.
Use
dise
ase-
free
seed
.C
rop
rota
tion
.C
ure
fru
itfo
rst
orag
eat
85�F
for
2w
eeks
,st
ore
at50
–55�
F.U
seap
prov
edfu
ngi
cide
s.D
own
ym
ilde
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371
DISEASE IDENTIFICATION WEBSITES WITH DISEASEPHOTOGRAPHS AND DIAGNOSTIC INFORMATION
Plant disease control begins with an accurate diagnosis and identification ofthe disease-causing organism or agent. Although photos are helpful inidentifying plant diseases, we encourage the grower to consult aknowledgeable disease expert to provide confirmation of the identificationbefore any control strategy is implemented. Here are a few websitescontaining photographs and helpful diagnostic information:
Arkansas, http: / /www.aragriculture.org /pestmanagement /diseases / imagelibrary /default.htm
Florida, http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu/VH045Maryland, http: / /www.agnr.umd.edu/users /hgic /diagn/home.htmlMinnesota, http: / /www.extension.umn.edu/projects /yardandgarden/
diagnostics /mainvegetables.htmlNew York, http: / /plantclinic.cornell.edu /vegetable / index.htm; http: / /
vegetablemdonline.ppath.cornell.edu /PhotoPages /PhotoGallery.htmPennsylvania, http: / /vegdis.cas.psu.edu/ Identification.htmlUtah, http: / / extension.usu.edu/plantpath /vegetables /vegetables.htmWashington, http: / /mtvernon.wsu.edu/path team/diseasegallery.htmOther, http: / /www.gardeners.com/gardening /content.asp?copy id�5366
372
09INSECTS
SOME INSECTS THAT ATTACK VEGETABLES
Most vegetable crops are attacked by insects at one time or another in thecrop growth cycle. Growers should strive to minimize insect problems byemploying cultural methods aimed at reducing insect populations. Thesetactics include using resistant varieties, reflective mulches, crop rotation forsoilborne insects, destruction of weed hosts, stylet oils, insect repellants,trap crops, floating row covers, or other tactics. Sometimes insecticides mustbe used in an integrated approach to insect control when the economicthreshold insect population is reached. When using insecticides, read thelabel and carefully follow the instructions. Do not exceed maximum ratesgiven, observe the interval between application and harvest, and apply onlyto crops for which use is approved. Make a record of the product used, tradename, formulation, dilution, rate applied per acre, and dates of application.Read and follow all label precautions to protect the applicator and workersfrom insecticide injury and the environment from contamination. Followlocal recommendations for efficacy and read the label for proper use.
373
TABLE 6.16. INSECTS THAT ATTACK VEGETABLES
Crop Insect Description
Artichoke Aphid Small, green, pink, or blacksoft-bodied insects thatrapidly reproduce to largepopulations. Damage resultsfrom sucking plant sap;indirectly from virustransmission to crop plants.
Plume moth Small wormlike larvae blemishbracts and may destroy thebase of the bract.
Asparagus Beetle and twelve-spotted beetle
Metallic blue or black beetles(1⁄4 in.) with yellowish wingmarkings and reddish,narrow head. Larvae arehumpbacked, slate gray. Bothfeed on shoots and foliage.
Cutworm Dull-colored moths lay eggs inthe soil. The produce dark-colored, smooth worms, 1–2in. long, thatcharacteristically curl upwhen disturbed. May feedbelow ground or above-ground at night.
Bean Aphid See Artichoke.Corn earworm Gray-brown moth (11⁄2 in.) with
dark wing tips deposits eggs,especially on fresh corn silk.Brown, green, or pink larvae(2 in.) feed on silk, kernels,and foliage.
374
TABLE 6.16. INSECTS THAT ATTACK VEGETABLES (Continued )
Crop Insect Description
Leafhopper Green, wedge-shaped, softbodies (1⁄8 in.). When presentin large numbers, sucking ofplant sap causes plantdistortion or burnedappearance. Secondarydamage results fromtransmission of yellowsdisease.
Mexican bean beetle Copper-colored beetle (1⁄4 in.)with 16 black spots on itsback. Orange to yellow spinylarva (1⁄3 in.). Beetle andlarvae feeding on leafundersides cause a laceworkappearance.
Seed corn maggot Grayish brown flies (1⁄5 in.)deposit eggs in the soil nearplants. Cream-colored,wedge-shaped maggots (1⁄4in.) tunnel into seeds, potatoseed pieces, and sprouts.
Spider mite Reddish, yellow, or greenishtiny eight-legged spiders suckplant sap from leafundersides, causingdistortion. Fine webs may bevisible when mites arepresent in large numbers.Mites are not true insects.
Spotted cucumberbeetle
Yellowish, elongated beetle (1⁄4in.) with 11 or 12 black spotson its back. Leaf-feeding maydestroy young plants whenpresent in large numbers.Transmits bacterial wilt ofcurcurbits.
375
TABLE 6.16. INSECTS THAT ATTACK VEGETABLES (Continued )
Crop Insect Description
Striped cucumberbeetle
Yellow (1⁄5 in.) with three blackstripes on its back; feeds onleaves. White larvae (1⁄3 in.)feed on roots and stems.Transmits bacterial wilt ofcurcurbits.
Tarnish plant bug Brownish, flattened, oval bugs(1⁄4 in.) with a cleartriangular marking at therear. Bugs damage plants bysucking plant sap.
Beet Aphid See Artichoke.Flea beetle Small (1⁄6 in.), variable-colored,
usually dark beetles, oftenpresent in large numbers inthe early part of the growingseason. Feeding results innumerous small holes, givinga shotgun appearance.Indirect damage results fromdiseases transmitted.
Leaf miner Tiny black and yellow adults.Yellowish white maggot-likelarvae tunnel within leavesand cause white ortranslucent irregularlydamaged areas.
Webworm Yellow to green worm (11⁄4 in.)with a black stripe andnumerous black spots on itsback.
Broccoli, Brusselssprouts,cabbage,cauliflower, kale,kohlrabi
AphidFlea beetleHarlequin cabbage
bug
See Artichoke.See Beet.Black, shield-shaped bug (3⁄8
in.) with red or yellowmarkings.
376
TABLE 6.16. INSECTS THAT ATTACK VEGETABLES (Continued )
Crop Insect Description
Cabbage maggot Housefly-like adult lays eggs inthe soil at the base of plants.Yellowish, legless maggot(1⁄4–1⁄3 in.) tunnels into rootsand lower stem.
Cabbage looper A brownish moth (11⁄2 in.) thatlays eggs on upper leafsurfaces. Resulting worms(11⁄2 in.) are green with thinwhite lines. Easily identifiedby their looping movement.
Diamondback moth Small, slender gray or brownmoths. The folded wings ofmale moths show threediamond markings. Small (1⁄3in.) larvae with distinctive Vat rear, wiggle whendisturbed.
Imported cabbageworm
White butterflies with blackwing spots lay eggs onundersides of leaves.Resulting worms (11⁄4 in.) aresleek, velvety, green.
Cantaloupe (SeeVine Crops)
Carrot Leafhopper See Bean.Rust fly Shiny, dark fly with a yellow
head; lays eggs in the soil atthe base of plants. Yellowishwhite, legless maggots tunnelinto roots.
Celery Aphid See Beet.Leaf miner Adults are small, shiny, black
flies with a bright yellow spoton upper thorax. Eggs arelaid within the leaf. Larvaemine between upper andlower leaf surfaces.
377
TABLE 6.16. INSECTS THAT ATTACK VEGETABLES (Continued )
Crop Insect Description
Spider mite See Bean.Tarnished plant bug See Bean.Loopers and worms See Broccoli, etc.
Cucumber (SeeVine Crops)
Eggplant Aphid See Artichoke.Colorado potato
beetleOval beetle (3⁄8 in.) with 10
yellow and 10 black stripes,lays yellow eggs onundersides of leaves. Brickred, humpbacked larvae (1⁄2in.) have black spots. Beetlesand larvae are destructiveleaf feeders.
Flea beetle See Beet.Leaf miner See Beet.Spider mite See Bean.
Endive, escarole,lettuce
Aphid See Artichoke.
Flea beetle See Beet.Leafhopper See Bean.Leaf miner See Beet.Looper See Broccoli.
Mustard greens Aphid See Artichoke.Worms See Broccoli, etc.
Okra Aphid See Artichoke.Green stinkbug Large, flattened, shield-shaped,
bright green bugs; various-sized nymphs with reddishmarkings.
Onion Maggot Slender, gray flies (1⁄4 in.) layeggs in soil. Small (1⁄3 in.)maggots bore into stems andbulbs.
Thrips Yellow or brown, winged orwingless, tiny (1⁄25 in.).Damages plant by suckingplant sap, causing whiteareas or brown leaf tips.
378
TABLE 6.16. INSECTS THAT ATTACK VEGETABLES (Continued )
Crop Insect Description
Parsnip Carrot rust fly See Carrot.Pea Aphid See Artichoke.
Seed maggot Housefly-like gray adults layeggs that develop intomaggots (1⁄4 in.) with sharplypointed heads.
Weevil Brown-colored adults, markedby white, black, or gray (1⁄5in.), lay eggs on young pods.Larvae are small andwhitish, with a brown headand mouth. Adults feed onblossoms. May infect seedbefore harvest and remain inhibernation during storage.
Pepper Aphid See Artichoke.Corn borer See Sweet corn.Flea beetle See Beet.Leaf miner See Beet.Maggot Housefly-sized adults have
yellow stripes on body andbrown stripes on wings.Larvae are typical maggotswith pointed heads.
Weevil Black-colored, gray- or yellow-marked snout beetle, withthe snout about half thelength of the body. Grayishwhite larvae are legless andhave a pale brown head.Both adults and larvae feedon buds and pods; adults alsofeed on foliage.
Potato Aphid See Artichoke.Colorado potato
beetleSee Eggplant.
379
TABLE 6.16. INSECTS THAT ATTACK VEGETABLES (Continued )
Crop Insect Description
Cutworm See Asparagus.Flea beetle See Beet.Leafhopper See Bean.Leaf miner See Beet.Tuberworm Small, narrow-winged, grayish
brown moths (1⁄2 in.) lay eggson foliage and exposed tubersin evening. Purplish or greencaterpillars (3⁄4 in.) withbrown heads burrow intoexposed tubers in the field orin storage.
Wireworm Adults are dark-colored,elongated beetles (clickbeetles). Yellowish, tough-bodied, segmented larvaefeed on roots and tunnelthrough fleshy roots andtubers.
Radish Maggot See Broccoli, etc.Rhubarb Curculio Yellow-dusted snout beetle that
damages plants bypuncturing stems.
Rutabaga, turnip Flea beetle See Beet.Maggot See Broccoli, etc.
Squash (See VineCrops)
Southern pea Curculio Black, humpbacked snoutbeetle. Eats small holes inpods and peas. Larvae arewhite with yellowish headand no legs.
Leafhopper See Bean.Leaf miner See Beet.
Spinach Aphid See Artichoke.Leaf miner See Beet.
380
TABLE 6.16. INSECTS THAT ATTACK VEGETABLES (Continued )
Crop Insect Description
Strawberry Aphid See Artichoke.Mites Several mite species attack
strawberry. See Bean.Tarnished plant bug See Bean.Thrips See Onion.Weevils Several weevil species attack
strawberry.Worms Several worm species attack
strawberry.Sweet corn Armyworms Moths (11⁄2 in.) with dark gray
front wings and light-coloredhind wings lay eggs on leafundersides. Tan, green, orblack worms (11⁄4 in.) feed onplant leaves and corn ears.
Earworm See Bean.European corn borer Pale, yellowish moths (1 in.)
with dark bands lay eggs onundersides of leaves.Caterpillars hatch, feed onleaves briefly, and tunnel intostalk and to the ear.
Flea beetle See Beet.Japanese beetle Shiny, metallic green with
coppery brown wing covers,oval beetles (1⁄2 in.). Severeleaf feeding results in alacework appearance. Larvaeare grubs that feed on grassroots.
Seed corn maggot See Bean.
381
TABLE 6.16. INSECTS THAT ATTACK VEGETABLES (Continued )
Crop Insect Description
Stalk borer Grayish moths (1 in.) lay eggson weeds. Small, white,brown-striped caterpillarshatch and tunnel into weedand crop stalks. Mostdamage is usually at edges offields.
Sweet potato Flea beetle See Beet.Weevil Blue-black and red adult (1⁄4
in.) feeds on leaves andstems; grub-like larvatunnels into roots in the fieldand storage.
Wireworm See Potato.Tomato Aphid See Artichoke.
Colorado potatobeetle
See Eggplant.
Corn earworm(tomato fruitworm)
See Bean.
Flea beetle See Beet.Fruit fly Small, dark-colored flies
usually associated withoverripe or decayingvegetables.
Hornworm Large (4–5 in.) moths lay eggsthat develop into large (3–4in.) green fleshy worms withprominent white lines onsides and a distinct horn atthe rear. Voracious leaffeeders.
Leaf miner See Beet.
382
TABLE 6.16. INSECTS THAT ATTACK VEGETABLES (Continued )
Crop Insect Description
Pinworm Tiny yellow, gray, or greenpurple-spotted, brown-headedcaterpillars cause small fruitlesions, mostly near calyx.Presence detected by largewhite blotches near foldedleaves.
Mite See Bean.Stink bug See Okra.White fly Small, white flies that move
when disturbed.Vine Crops:
cantaloupe,cucumber,pumpkinsquash,watermelon
AphidCucumber beetle
(spotted or striped)
See Artichoke.
Leafhopper See Bean.Leaf miner See Beet.Mite See Bean.Pickleworm White moths (1 in.), later
become greenish with blackspots, with brown heads andbrown-tipped wings withwhite centers and aconspicuous brush at the tipof the body, lay eggs onfoliage. Brown-headed, white,later becoming greenish withblack spots. Larvae (3⁄4 in.)feed on blossoms, leaves, andfruit.
Squash bug Brownish, flat stinkbug (5⁄8 in.).Nymphs (3⁄8 in.) are gray togreen. Plant damage is dueto sucking of plant sap.
383
TABLE 6.16. INSECTS THAT ATTACK VEGETABLES (Continued )
Crop Insect Description
Squash vine borer Black, metallic moth (11⁄2 in.)with transparent hind wingsand abdomen ringed with redand black; lays eggs at thebase of the plant. Whitecaterpillars bore into thestem and tunnel throughout.
White fly See Tomato.
IDENTIFICATION OF VEGETABLE INSECTS
Effective insect management requires accurate identification and a thoroughknowledge of the insect’s habits and life cycle. Previous editions ofHandbook for Vegetable Growers contained drawings of selected insect pestsof vegetables. Today, many fine websites that contain photographs of insectpests are available. Some Extension Services also have available CD-ROMscontaining insect photographs. We have chosen to direct the reader to someof these websites to assist in the identification of insect pests. Although thephotos are helpful in identifying pests, we encourage the grower to consult aknowledgeable insect expert to confirm the identification before any controlstrategy is implemented.
SOME USEFUL WEBSITES FOR INSECT IDENTIFICATION
California, http: / /www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/crops-agriculture.html; http: / /www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PCA/pcapath.html#SPECIFIC
Colorado, http: / / lamar.colostate.edu/�gec /vg.htm
Florida, http: / /pests.ifas.ufl.edu (for a listing of web sites on insects, mites,and other topics and information regarding vegetable pest images andCDs)
Georgia, http: / /www.ent.uga.edu/veg /veg crops.htm
Indiana, http: //www.entm.purdue.edu/entomology/vegisite/
384
Iowa, http: / /www.ent.iastate.edu/ imagegallery /Kentucky, http: / /www.uky.edu/Agriculture /Entomology /entfacts /efveg.htmMississippi, http: / /msucares.com/ insects /vegetable /North Carolina, http: / /www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts /hort / consumer /
hortinternet /vegetable.html; http: / /www.ces.ncsu.edu/chatham/ag /SustAg/ insectlinks.html
South Carolina, http: / / entweb.clemson.edu/cuentres / cesheets /veg /Texas, http: / /vegipm.tamu.edu/ imageindex.html; http: / / insects.tamu.edu/
images / insects / color /veindex.html
385
10PEST MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Diseases, insects, and nematodes can be controlled in organic vegetableproduction systems by combinations of tactics, including certain approvedcontrol materials. Pest management practices useful in organic vegetableproduction include:
Understanding the biology and ecology of pestsEncouraging natural enemies, predators, and parasitesCrop rotationTrap cropsCrop diversificationResistant varietiesScouting for early detectionOptimal timing of planting (avoidance)Controlling weed hostsControlling alternate host plantsSanitation of fieldPest-free transplantsTilling crop refuseExclusion, e.g., row coversTraps, sticky tape, pheromone traps, etc.Maintaining healthy cropsMaintaining optimum plant nutritionOptimal pH controlMulchesSpatial separation of crop and pestAvoiding splashing water (drip irrigation instead of sprinklers)Destroying cull pilesProviding for good air movement (proper plant and row spacing)Using raised beds for water drainageFlaming for weeds and Colorado potato beetleTrellising or staking for air movement and to keep fruits from contact with
the groundHand removalCompost use (may contain antagonistic organism)Using approved control materials
386
SELECTED RESOURCES FOR PEST CONTROL IN ORGANICFARMING SYSTEMS
We located a variety of websites with information on organic pestmanagement, many of which also contain links to other helpful sources ofinformation. Some of these websites are listed below:
● B. Caldwell, E. Rosen, E. Sideman, A. Shelton, and C. Smart,Resource Guide for Organic Insect and Disease Management (CornellUniversity, 2005), http: / /www.nysaes.cornell.edu /pp /resourceguide /index.php.
● C. Weeden, A. Shelton, Y. Li, and M. Hoffman, Biological Control: AGuide to Natural Enemies in North America (Cornell University,2005), http: / /www.nysaes.cornell.edu /ent /biocontrol /.
● R. Hazzard and P. Westgate, Organic Insect Management in SweetCorn (University of Massachusetts, 2004), http: / /www.umassvegetable.org /soil crop pest mgt /pdf files /organic insectmanagement in sweet corn.pdf.
● Organic Farming—National Sustainable Agriculture InformationService, http: / /attra.ncat.org /organic.html 2005). This site has manylinks to other organic farming publications by NCAT (National Centerfor Appropriate Technology).
● S. Koike, M. Gaskell, C. Fouche, R. Smith, and J. Mitchell, PlantDisease Management for Organic Crops (University of California—Davis, 2000), http: / /anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf7252.pdf.
● Insect and Disease Management in Organic Crop Systems (ManitobaAgriculture, Food, and Rural Initiatives, 2004), http: / /www.gov.mb.ca /agriculture / crops / insects / fad64s00.html.
● Alternative Disease, Pest, and Weed Control (Alternative FarmingSystems Information Center, 2003), http: / /www.nal.usda.gov /afsic /sbjdpwc.htm.
● Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education, http: / /www.sare.org /publications /organic /organic03.htm.
● Organic Gardening: A Guide to Resources, 1989–September 2003,http: / /www.nal.usda.gov /afsic /AFSIC pubs /org gar.htm#toc2c.
● Organic Trade Association, http: / /www.ota.com/ index.html.● Organic /Sustainable Farming: Idaho OnePlan (The Idaho Association
of Soil Conservation Districts, 2004), http: / /www.oneplan.org /index.shtml.
387
11WILDLIFE CONTROL
DEER
Repellants. May be effective for low-density deer populations. Apply beforedamage is expected, when no precipitation is expected, and whentemperatures are 40–80�F.
Fencing. Woven wire fences are the most effective and should be 8–10 fttall. Electric fences may act as a deterrent. Some growers have successwith 5- or 6-ft high-tensile electric fences, even though deer may be ableto jump them.
RACCOONS
Many states have laws controlling the manner in which raccoons can beremoved. Usually trapping is the only means of ridding a field of raccoons.Crops can be protected with a double-strand electric fence with wires at 5and 10 in. above the ground.
BIRDS
Exclusion. Bird proof netting can be used to protect vegetables of highvalue.
Sound devices. Some success has been reported with recorded distress calls.Other sound devices such as propane guns may be effective for shortperiods. Use of these devices should be random and with a range ofsound frequency and intervals.
Visual devices. Eye-spot balloons have been used with some success againstgrackles, blue jays, crows, and starlings and might be the control methodof choice for urban farms. Reflective tape has been used with variablesuccess and is labor intensive to install.
MICE
Habitat control. Remove any possible hiding or nesting sites near the field.Sometimes mice nest underneath polyethylene mulch not applied tightlyto the ground, or in thick windbreaks.
388
Traps and baits. Strategically placed traps and bait stations can be used toreduce mouse populations.
Transplanting. The seed of some particularly attractive crops, such ascurcurbits, is a favorite mouse food, and the seed is often removed fromthe ground soon after planting. One option to reduce stand losses istransplanting instead of direct seeding.
PART 5WATER AND IRRIGATION
01 SUGGESTIONS FOR SUPPLYING WATER TO VEGETABLES
02 ROOTING OF VEGETABLES
03 SOIL MOISTURE
04 SURFACE IRRIGATION
05 OVERHEAD IRRIGATION
06 DRIP OR TRICKLE IRRIGATION
07 WATER QUALITY
Knott’s Handbook for Vegetable Growers, Fifth Edition. D. N. Maynard and G. J. Hochmuth© 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-73828-2
250
01SUGGESTIONS ON SUPPLYING WATER TO VEGETABLES
Plants in hot, dry areas lose more moisture into the air than those in cooler,more humid areas. Vegetables utilize and evaporate more water in the laterstages of growth when size and leaf area are greater. The root systembecomes deeper and more widespread as the plant ages.
Some vegetables, especially lettuce and sweet corn, have sparse rootsystems that do not come into contact with all the soil moisture in theirroot-depth zone. Cool-season vegetables normally root to a shallower depththan do warm-season vegetables and perennials.
When applying water, use enough to bring the soil moisture content ofthe effective rooting zone of the crop up to field capacity. This is thequantity of water that the soil holds against the pull of gravity.
The frequency of irrigation depends on the total supply of availablemoisture reached by the roots and the rate of water use. The first is affectedby soil type, depth of wetted soil, and the depth and dispersion of roots. Thelatter is influenced by weather conditions and the age of the crops. Addwater when the moisture in the root zone has been used to about thehalfway point in the range of available moisture. Do not wait untilvegetables show signs of wilting or develop color or texture changes thatindicate they are not growing rapidly. A general rule is that vegetables needan average of 1 in. water per week from rain or supplemental irrigation inorder to grow vigorously. In arid regions, about 2 in. /week is required.These amounts of water may vary from 0.5 in. /week early in the season tomore than 1 in. later in the season.
IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT AND NUTRIENT LEACHING
Irrigation management is critical to success in nutrient management formobile nutrients such as nitrogen. Irrigation management is particularlyimportant in vegetable production in sandy soils where nitrogen is highlyprone to leaching from the root zone with heavy rainfall or excessiveirrigation. Leaching can occur with all irrigation systems if more water isapplied than the soil can hold at one time. If the water-holding capacity ofthe soil is exceeded with any irrigation event, nutrient leaching can occur.Information is provided here to assist growers in understanding the rootingzone for crops and water-holding capacity of soils as well as applicationrates for various irrigation systems. Optimum irrigation managementinvolves attention to these factors, knowing crop water needs, and keeping
251
an eye on soil moisture levels during the season. These factors vary for thecrop being grown, the soil used, the season, and the climate, among otherfactors. Please consult your local Extension Service for specific informationfor your production area.
252
02ROOTING OF VEGETABLES
ROOTING DEPTH OF VEGETABLES
The depth of rooting of vegetables is influenced by the soil profile. If it is aclay pan, hard pan, compacted layer, or other dense formation, the normaldepth of rooting is not possible. Also, some transplanted vegetables may notdevelop root systems as deep as those of seeded crops. Although vegetablesmay root as deep as 18–24 in., most of the active root system for wateruptake may be between 8 and 12 in.
TABLE 5.1. CHARACTERISTIC MAXIMUM ROOTING DEPTHS OFVARIOUS VEGETABLES
Shallow(18–24 in.)
Moderately Deep(36–48 in.)
Deep(More than 48 in.)
Broccoli Bean, bush ArtichokeBrussels sprouts Bean, pole AsparagusCabbage Beet Bean, limaCauliflower Cantaloupe ParsnipCelery Carrot PumpkinChinese cabbage Chard Squash, winterCorn Cucumber Sweet potatoEndive Eggplant TomatoGarlic Mustard WatermelonLeek PeaLettuce PepperOnion RutabagaParsley Squash, summerPotato TurnipRadishSpinachStrawberry
253
03SOIL MOISTURE
DETERMINING MOISTURE IN SOIL BY APPEARANCE OR FEEL
A shovel serves to obtain a soil sample from a shallow soil or when ashallow-rooted crop is being grown. A soil auger or soil tube is necessary todraw samples from greater depths in the root zone.
Squeeze the soil sample in the hand and compare its behavior with thoseof the soils listed in the Practical Soil-Moisture Interpretation Chart to geta rough idea of its moisture content.
254
TA
BL
E5.
2.P
RA
CT
ICA
LS
OIL
-MO
IST
UR
EIN
TE
RP
RE
TA
TIO
NC
HA
RT
Am
oun
tof
Rea
dily
Ava
ilab
leM
oist
ure
Rem
ain
ing
for
the
Pla
nt
Soi
lT
ype
San
d(g
ritt
yw
hen
moi
st,
alm
ost
like
beac
hsa
nd)
San
dyL
oam
(gri
tty
wh
enm
oist
;di
rtie
sfi
nge
rs;
con
tain
sso
me
silt
and
clay
)
Cla
yL
oam
(sti
cky
and
plas
tic
wh
enm
oist
)
Cla
y(v
ery
stic
kyw
hen
moi
st;
beh
aves
like
mod
elin
gcl
ay)
Clo
seto
0%.
Lit
tle
orn
om
oist
ure
avai
labl
e
Dry
,lo
ose,
sin
gle-
grai
ned
;flow
sth
rou
ghfi
nge
rs.
Dry
,lo
ose,
flow
sth
rou
ghfi
nge
rs.
Dry
clod
sth
atbr
eak
dow
nin
topo
wde
ryco
ndi
tion
.
Har
d,ba
ked,
crac
ked
surf
ace.
Har
dcl
ods
diffi
cult
tobr
eak,
som
etim
esh
ave
loos
ecr
um
bson
surf
ace.
50%
orle
ss.
App
roac
hin
gti
me
toir
riga
te
Sti
llap
pear
sto
bedr
y;w
ill
not
form
aba
llw
ith
pres
sure
.
Sti
llap
pear
sto
bedr
y;w
ill
not
form
aba
ll.
Som
ewh
atcr
um
bly,
but
wil
lh
old
toge
ther
wit
hpr
essu
re.
Som
ewh
atpl
iabl
e;w
ill
ball
un
der
pres
sure
.
50–7
5%.E
nou
ghav
aila
ble
moi
stu
re
Sam
eas
san
du
nde
r50
%.
Ten
dsto
ball
un
der
pres
sure
but
seld
omh
olds
toge
ther
.
For
ms
aba
ll,
som
ewh
atpl
asti
c;so
met
imes
stic
kssl
igh
tly
wit
hpr
essu
re.
For
ms
aba
ll;
ribb
ons
out
betw
een
thu
mb
and
fore
fin
ger.
255
75%
tofi
eld
capa
city
.P
len
tyof
avai
labl
em
oist
ure
Ten
dsto
stic
kto
geth
ersl
igh
tly,
som
etim
esfo
rms
ave
ryw
eak
ball
un
der
pres
sure
.
For
ms
wea
kba
ll,
brea
ksea
sily
,doe
sn
otbe
com
esl
ick.
For
ms
aba
llan
dis
very
plia
ble;
beco
mes
slic
kre
adil
yif
hig
hin
clay
.
Eas
ily
ribb
ons
out
betw
een
fin
gers
;fe
els
slic
k.
At
fiel
dca
paci
ty.
Soi
lw
ill
not
hol
dan
ym
ore
wat
er(a
fter
drai
nin
g)
Upo
nsq
uee
zin
g,n
ofr
eew
ater
appe
ars;
moi
stu
reis
left
onh
and.
Sam
eas
san
d.S
ame
assa
nd.
Sam
eas
san
d.
Abo
vefi
eld
capa
city
.U
nle
ssw
ater
drai
ns
out,
soil
wil
lbe
wat
er-
logg
ed
Fre
ew
ater
appe
ars
wh
enso
ilis
bou
nce
din
han
d.
Fre
ew
ater
isre
leas
edw
ith
knea
din
g.C
ansq
uee
zeou
tfr
eew
ater
.P
udd
les
and
free
wat
erfo
rmon
surf
ace.
Ada
pted
from
R.
W.
Har
ris
and
R.
H.
Cop
pock
(eds
.),‘
‘Sav
ing
Wat
erin
Lan
dsca
peIr
riga
tion
,’’U
niv
ersi
tyof
Cal
ifor
nia
Div
isio
nof
Agr
icu
ltu
ral
Sci
ence
Lea
flet
2976
(197
8).A
lso
from
N.
Klo
cke
and
P.F
isch
bach
,Est
imat
ion
,Soi
lM
oist
ure
byA
ppea
ran
cean
dF
eel
(Un
iver
sity
ofN
ebra
ska
Coo
pera
tive
Ext
ensi
onS
ervi
ce,
1998
),h
ttp:
//ia
nrp
ubs
.un
l.edu
/irr
igat
ion
/g69
0.h
tm.
256
TABLE 5.3. FIELD DEVICES FOR MONITORING SOIL MOISTURE
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Neutronmoderation
inexpensive per locationlarge sensing volumenot affected by salinitystabile
safety hazardcumbersomeexpensiveslow
Time DomainReflectometry(TDR)
accurateeasily expandedinsensitive to normal
salinitysoil-specific calibration not
needed
expensiveproblems under high
salinitysmall sensing volume
Frequency Domain(FD)
Capacitance andFDR
accurate after specific-soilcalibration
better than TDR in salinesoils
more flexible in probes thanTDR
less expensive than TDR(some devices)
small sensing sphereneeds careful
installationneeds specific soil
calibration
Tensiometer direct readingminimal skillinexpensivenot affected by salinity
limited suction rangeslow response timefrequent maintenancerequires intimate contact
with soilResistance blocks no maintenance
simple, inexpensivelow resolutionslow reaction timenot suited for claysblock properties change
with timeGranular matrix
sensorsno maintenancesimple, inexpensivereduced problems compared
to gypsum blocks
low resolutionslow reaction timenot suited for claysneed to resaturate in dry
soils
Adapted from R. Munoz-Carpena, Field Devices for Monitoring Soil Water Content (University ofFlorida Extension Service Bulletin 343, 2004), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / ae266.
257
TABLE 5.4. APPROXIMATE SOIL WATER CHARACTERISTICS FORTYPICAL SOIL CLASSES
Characteristic Sandy Soil Loamy Soil Clay Soil
Dry weight 1 cu ft 90 lb 80 lb 75 lbField capacity—% of dry weight 10% 20% 35%Permanent wilting percentage 5% 10% 19%Percent available water 5% 10% 16%Water available to plants
lb / cu ft 4 lb 8 lb 12 lbin. / ft depth 3⁄4 in. 11⁄2 in. 21⁄4 in.gal / cu ft 1⁄2 gal 1 gal 11⁄2 gal
Approximate depth of soil that willbe wetted by each 1 in. waterapplied if half the availablewater has been used
24 in. 16 in. 11 in.
Suggested lengths of irrigationruns
330 ft 660 ft 1,320 ft
258
Figure 5.1. Arrangement of beds for furrow irrigation. Beds intended fortwo rows are usually on 36-, 40-, or 42-in. centers, with the surface 4–6 in.above the bottom of the furrow. The depth of penetration of an equal quantityof water varies with the class of soil as indicated.
259
04SURFACE IRRIGATION
RATES OF WATER APPLICATION FOR VARIOUS IRRIGATIONMETHODS
The infiltration rate has an important bearing on the intensity andfrequency with which water should be applied by any method of irrigation.
Normally, sandy soils have a high infiltration rate and clay soils have alow one. The rate is affected by soil texture, structure, dispersion, and thedepth of the water table. The longer the water is allowed to run, the morethe infiltration rate decreases.
With furrows, use a flow of water initially 2–3 times that indicated to fillthe run as quickly as possible. Then cut back the flow to the indicatedamount. This prevents excessive penetration at the head and equalizes theapplication of water throughout the whole furrow.
TABLE 5.5. APPROXIMATE FLOW OF WATER PER FURROWAFTER WATER REACHES THE END OF THE FURROW
Slope of Land (%)
0–0.2 0.2–0.5 0.5–1
Infiltration Rate of Soil(in. /hr)
Length of Furrow(ft)
Flow of Water per Furrow(gal /min)
High (1.5 or more) 330 9 4 3660 20 9 7
1,320 45 20 15Medium (0.5–1.5) 330 4 3 1.5
660 10 7 3.51,320 25 15 7.5
Low (0.1–0.5) 330 2 1.5 1660 4 3.5 2
1,320 9 7.5 4
260
TABLE 5.6. APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM WATER INFILTRATIONRATES FOR VARIOUS SOIL TYPES
Soil TypeInfiltration
Rate1 (in. /hr)
Sand 2.0Loamy sand 1.8Sandy loam 1.5Loam 1.0Silt and clay loam 0.5Clay 0.2
1 Assumes a full crop cover. For bare soil, reduce the rate by half.
TABLE 5.7. PERCENT OF AVAILABLE WATER DEPLETED FROMSOILS AT VARIOUS TENSIONS
Tension—less than—
(bars)1LoamySand
SandyLoam Loam Clay
0.3 55 35 15 70.5 70 55 30 130.8 77 63 45 201.0 82 68 55 272.0 90 78 72 455.0 95 88 80 75
15.0 100 100 100 100
Adapted from Cooperative Extension, University of California Soil and Water Newsletter No. 26(1975).1 1 bar � 100 kilopascals
261
TABLE 5.8. SPRINKLER IRRIGATION: APPROXIMATEAPPLICATION OF WATER
Slope of Land (%)
0–5 5–12
Infiltration Rate of Soil(in. /hr)
ApproximateApplication (in. /hr)
High (1.5 or more) 1.0 0.75Medium (0.5–1.5) 0.5 0.40Low (0.1–0.5) 0.2 0.15
TABLE 5.9. BASIN IRRIGATION: APPROXIMATE AREA
Quantity of Water to be Supplied
450 gal /min or1 cu ft / sec
900 gal /min or2 cu ft / sec
Infiltration Rate of Soil(in. /hr)
Approximate Area(acre /basin)
High (1.5 or more) 0.1 0.2Medium (0.5–1.5) 0.2 0.4Low (0.1–0.5) 0.5 1.0
262
TABLE 5.10. VOLUME OF WATER APPLIED FOR VARIOUS FLOWRATES AND TIME PERIODS
Flow Rate (gpm)
Volume (acre-in.) Applied
1 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr
25 0.06 0.44 0.66 1.3350 0.11 0.88 1.33 2.65
100 0.22 1.77 2.65 5.30200 0.44 3.54 5.30 10.60300 0.66 5.30 7.96 15.90400 0.88 7.07 10.60 21.20500 1.10 8.84 13.30 26.50
1,000 2.21 17.70 26.50 53.001,500 3.32 26.50 39.80 79.602,000 4.42 35.40 53.00 106.00
Adapted from A. Smajstrla and D. S. Harrison, Florida Cooperative Extension, AgriculturalEngineering Fact Sheet AE18 (1982).
263
TA
BL
E5.
11.
AP
PR
OX
IMA
TE
TIM
ER
EQ
UIR
ED
TO
AP
PL
YV
AR
IOU
SD
EP
TH
SO
FW
AT
ER
PE
RA
CR
EW
ITH
DIF
FE
RE
NT
FL
OW
S1
Flo
wof
Wat
erA
ppro
xim
ate
Tim
eR
equ
ired
per
Acr
efo
ra
Dep
thof
:
1in
.2
in.
3in
.4
in.
gpm
sec-
ftA
ppro
xim
ate
acre
-in
./h
rh
rm
inh
rm
inh
rm
inh
rm
in
500.
111⁄8
903
1806
2709
3612
100
0.22
1⁄4
432
903
1335
1806
150
0.33
5⁄16
301
602
903
1204
200
0.45
7⁄16
216
432
647
903
250
0.56
9⁄16
149
337
526
714
300
0.67
11⁄16
131
301
432
602
350
0.78
3⁄4
118
235
353
510
400
0.89
7⁄8
108
216
324
432
450
1.00
11
002
013
014
0150
01.
1111
⁄854
149
243
337
550
1.23
13⁄16
491
392
283
1860
01.
3415
⁄1645
131
216
301
650
1.45
17⁄16
421
242
052
4870
01.
5619
⁄1639
118
156
235
750
1.67
121⁄32
361
121
492
24
264
TA
BL
E5.
11.
AP
PR
OX
IMA
TE
TIM
ER
EQ
UIR
ED
TO
AP
PL
YV
AR
IOU
SD
EP
TH
SO
FW
AT
ER
PE
RA
CR
EW
ITH
DIF
FE
RE
NT
FL
OW
S1
(Con
tin
ued
)
Flo
wof
Wat
erA
ppro
xim
ate
Tim
eR
equ
ired
per
Acr
efo
ra
Dep
thof
:
1in
.2
in.
3in
.4
in.
gpm
sec-
ftA
ppro
xim
ate
acre
-in
./h
rh
rm
inh
rm
inh
rm
inh
rm
in
800
1.78
13⁄4
341
081
422
1685
01.
8917
⁄832
104
136
208
900
2.01
230
100
131
201
950
2.12
23⁄32
2957
126
154
1,00
02.
2323
⁄1627
541
211
491,
050
2.34
25⁄16
2652
118
144
1,10
02.
4527
⁄1625
491
141
381,
150
2.56
21⁄2
2447
111
134
1,20
02.
6725
⁄823
451
081
311,
300
2.90
27⁄8
2142
103
124
1,40
03.
1231
⁄1620
3958
118
1,50
03.
3435
⁄1618
3654
112
1 If
asp
rin
kler
syst
emis
use
d,th
eti
me
requ
ired
shou
ldbe
incr
ease
dby
2–10
%to
com
pen
sate
for
the
wat
erth
atw
ill
evap
orat
ebe
fore
reac
hin
gth
eso
il.
265
TO DETERMINE THE WATER NEEDED TO WET VARIOUS DEPTHSOF SOIL
Example: You wish to wet a loam soil to a 12-in. depth when half theavailable water in that zone is gone. Move across the chartfrom the left on the 12-in. line. Stop when you reach thediagonal line marked ‘‘loams.’’ Move upward from that point tothe scale at the top of the chart. You will see that about 3⁄4 in.water is needed.
Depth of water required, inches, based on depletion of about half the availablewater in the effective root zone.
Figure 5.2. Chart for determining the amount of water needed to wet var-ious depths of soil.
266
USE OF SIPHONS
Siphons of metal, plastic, or rubber can be used to carry water from a ditchto the area or furrow to be irrigated.
The inside diameter of the pipe and the head—the vertical distance fromthe surface of the water in the ditch to the surface of the water on theoutlet side—determine the rate of flow.
When the outlet is not submerged, the head is measured to the center ofthe siphon outlet. You can determine how many gallons per minute areflowing through each siphon from the chart below.
Example: You have a head of 4 in. and are using 2-in. siphons. Followthe 4-in. line across the chart until you reach the curve for 2-in. siphons. Move straight down to the scale at the bottom.You will find that you are putting on about 28 gal /min.
Figure 5.3. Method of measuring the head for water carried from a supplyditch to a furrow by means of a siphon. Adapted from University of CaliforniaDivision of Agricultural Science Leaflet 2956 (1977).
267
Figure 5.4. Chart for determining the flow of water through small siphons.Adapted from University of California Division of Agricultural Science Leaflet2956 (1977). Also: E. C. Martin, Measuring Water Flow in Surface Irrigationand Gated Pipe (University of Arizona College Agriculture and Life Scien-ces, Arizona Water Series 31, 2004), http: / / cals.arizona.edu/pubs /water /az1329.pdf.
APPLICATION OF FERTILIZER IN WATER FOR FURROWIRRIGATION
There are certain limitations to the method of applying fertilizer solutionsor soluble fertilizers in water supplied by furrow irrigation. You do not getuniform distribution of the fertilizer over the whole irrigated area. More ofthe dissolved material may enter the soil near the head than at the end ofthe furrow. You must know how long it will be necessary to run water inorder to irrigate a certain area so as to meter the fertilizer solutionproperly. Soils vary considerably in their ability to absorb water.
Fertilizer solutions can be dripped from containers into the water.Devices are available that meter dry fertilizer materials into the irrigationwater where they dissolve.
268
The rate of flow of dry soluble fertilizer or of fertilizer solutions into anirrigation head ditch can be calculated as follows:
area to be amount of nutrientflow rate ofirrigated (acres /hr) � wanted (lb /acre)
� fertilizer solutionnutrients in solution (lb /gal) (gal /hr)
area to be amount of solubleflow rate ofirrigated (acres) � fertilizer (lb /acre or gal /acre)
� fertilizer solutiontime of irrigation (hr) (lb /hr or gal /hr)
Knowing the gallons of solution per hour to be added to the irrigationwater, you can adjust the flow from the tank as directed by the followingtable.
269
TABLE 5.12. RATE OF FLOW OF FERTILIZER SOLUTIONS
Amount ofSolution Desired
(gal /hr)
ApproximateTime (sec) to
Fill a 4-ozContainer
ApproximateTime (sec) toFill an 8-ozContainer
1⁄2 225 4501 112 2242 56 1123 38 764 28 565 22 446 18 367 16 328 14 289 12 24
10 11 2212 9 1814 8 1616 7 1418 6 1220 5.5 11
270
05OVERHEAD IRRIGATION
LAYOUT OF A SPRINKLER SYSTEM
Each irrigation system presents a separate engineering problem. The adviceof a competent engineer is essential. Many factors must be taken intoconsideration in developing a plan for the equipment:
Water supply available at period of greatest useDistance from source of water to field to be irrigatedHeight of field above water source and topography of the landType of soil (rate at which it absorbs water and its water-holding capacity)Area to be irrigatedDesired frequency of irrigationQuantity of water to be appliedTime on which application is to be madeType of power availableNormal wind velocity and directionPossible future expansion of the installation
Specific details of the plan must then include the following:
Size of power unit and pump to do the particular jobPipe sizes and lengths for mains and lateralsOperating pressures of sprinklersSize and spacing of sprinklersFriction losses in the system
271
Figure 5.5. The diagram shows the approximate depth of penetration ofavailable water from a 3-in. irrigation on various classes of soil. To avoid un-even water distribution, there should be enough distance between sprinklersto allow a 40% overlap in diameter of the area they are to cover.
272
TABLE 5.13. ACREAGE COVERED BY MOVES OF PIPE OFVARIOUS LENGTHS
Lateral Moveof Pipe (ft)
Length of SprinklerPipe (ft)
Area Coveredper Move (acres)
20 2,640 1.2120 1,320 0.6120 660 0.3020 330 0.1530 2,640 1.8230 1,320 0.9130 660 0.4630 330 0.2340 2,640 2.4240 1,320 1.2140 660 0.6140 330 0.3050 2,640 3.0350 1,320 1.5250 660 0.7650 330 0.3860 2,640 3.6460 1,320 1.8260 660 0.9160 330 0.4680 2,640 4.8580 1,320 2.4280 660 1.2180 330 0.61
100 2,640 6.06100 1,320 3.03100 660 1.52100 330 0.76
273
CALCULATION OF RATES OF SPRINKLER APPLICATIONS
To determine the output per sprinkler needed to put on the desired rate ofapplication:
distance between distance between precipitation� �
sprinklers (ft) line settings (ft) rate (in. /hr)96.3
� sprinkler rate (gal /minute)
Example: � 6.23 gal /minute per sprinkler30 � 50 � 0.4
96.3
To determine the rate at which water is being applied:
sprinkler rate� 96.3
(gal /minute)� precipitation rate (in. /hr)
distance between distance between�sprinklers (ft) line settings (ft)
Manufacturer’s specifications give the gallons per minute for each type ofsprinkler at various pressures.
Example: � 0.481 in. /hr10 � 96.340 � 50
274
TA
BL
E5.
14.
PR
EC
IPIT
AT
ION
RA
TE
SF
OR
VA
RIO
US
NO
ZZ
LE
SIZ
ES
,PR
ES
SU
RE
,AN
DS
PA
CIN
GS
Noz
zle
Siz
e(i
n.)
Pre
ssu
re(p
si)
Dis
char
ge1
(gpm
)D
iam
eter
ofS
pray
2
(ft)
Pre
cipi
tati
onR
ate
atS
paci
ngs
(in
./h
r)1
30�
40ft
30�
45ft
40�
40ft
1⁄16
450.
7660
–72
0.06
11⁄16
500.
8061
–73
0.06
41⁄16
550.
8562
–74
0.06
81⁄16
600.
8863
–75
0.07
11⁄16
650.
9364
–76
0.07
55⁄64
451.
1959
–73
0.09
50.
085
5⁄64
501.
2562
–72
0.10
00.
089
5⁄64
551.
3064
–74
0.10
40.
094
0.07
95⁄64
601.
3667
–76
0.11
00.
097
0.08
25⁄64
651.
4568
–77
0.11
60.
103
0.08
73⁄32
451.
7268
–76
0.13
80.
123
0.10
33⁄32
501.
8069
–77
0.14
50.
128
0.10
83⁄32
551.
8870
–78
0.15
10.
134
0.11
33⁄32
601.
9871
–79
0.15
90.
141
0.11
93⁄32
652.
0872
–80
0.16
70.
148
0.12
57⁄64
452.
3271
–78
0.18
60.
165
0.14
07⁄64
502.
4472
–80
0.19
60.
174
0.14
77⁄64
552.
5674
–81
0.20
50.
182
0.15
4
275
7⁄64
602.
6976
–82
0.21
60.
192
0.16
17⁄64
652.
7977
–83
0.22
40.
199
0.16
81⁄8
453.
0476
–82
0.24
40.
217
0.18
31⁄8
503.
2278
–82
0.23
00.
193
1⁄8
553.
3979
–83
0.24
20.
204
1⁄8
603.
5580
–84
0.25
30.
213
1⁄8
653.
7081
–85
0.22
2
Ada
pted
from
A.
W.
Mar
shet
al.,
‘‘Sol
idS
etS
prin
kler
sfo
rS
tart
ing
Veg
etab
leC
rops
,’’U
niv
ersi
tyof
Cal
ifor
nia
Div
isio
nof
Agr
icu
ltu
ral
Sci
ence
Lea
flet
2265
(197
7).A
lso,
H.
W.
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TABLE 5.15. GUIDE FOR SELECTING SIZE OF ALUMINUM PIPEFOR SPRINKLER LATERAL LINES
SprinklerDischarge
(gpm)
Maximum Number of Sprinklersto Use on Single Lateral Line
30-ft Sprinkler Spacingfor Pipe Diameter (in.):2 3 4
40-ft Sprinkler Spacingfor Pipe Diameter (in.):2 3 4
0.75 47 95 200 43 85 1801.00 40 80 150 36 72 1251.25 34 69 118 31 62 1041.50 30 62 100 28 56 921.75 27 56 92 25 50 832.00 25 51 84 23 46 762.25 23 47 78 21 43 712.50 21 44 73 19 40 662.75 20 42 68 18 38 623.00 19 40 65 17 36 583.25 18 38 62 16 34 563.50 17 36 59 15 32 533.75 16 34 56 14 31 514.00 16 33 54 14 30 48
Adapted from A. W. Marsh et al., ‘‘Solid Set Sprinklers for Starting Vegetable Crops,’’ University ofCalifornia Division of Agricultural Science Leaflet 2265 (1977). Also, H. W. Otto and J. Meyer, ‘‘Tipson Irrigating Vegetables,’’ Family Farm Series Publications: Vegetable Crop Production (University ofCalifornia), http: / / www.sfc.ucdavis.edu / pubs / family farm series / veg / irrigating / irrigating.html.
277
TABLE 5.16. GUIDE TO MAIN-LINE PIPE SIZES1
Distance(ft)
Water Flow (gpm) for Pipe Diameter (in.):
200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800
200 3 4 5 5 6 6 6 7 7400 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8600 4 5 6 7 7 7 8 8 8800 4 5 6 7 7 8 8 8 10
1,000 5 6 6 7 8 8 8 10 101,200 5 6 7 7 8 8 10 10 10
Adapted from A. W. Marsh et al., ‘‘Solid Set Sprinklers for Starting Vegetable Crops,’’ University ofCalifornia Division of Agricultural Science Leaflet 2265 (1977). Also, H. W. Otto and J. Meyer, ‘‘Tipson Irrigating Vegetables,’’ Family Farm Series Publications: Vegetable Crop Production (University ofCalifornia), http: / / www.sfc.ucdavis.edu / pubs / family farm series / veg / irrigating / irrigating.html.1 Using aluminum pipe (C � 120) with pressure losses ranging from 5 to 15 psi, average about 10.
278
TABLE 5.17. CONTINUOUS POWER OUTPUT REQUIRED ATTRACTOR POWER TAKEOFF TO PUMP WATER
Flow (gpm)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 1,000
Pressure1
(psi)Head1
(ft) Horsepower Required2
50 116 3.9 7.8 11.7 16 20 23 27 31 3955 128 4.3 8.7 13 17 22 26 30 35 4360 140 4.7 9.5 14 19 24 28 33 38 4765 151 5.1 10 15 20 25 30 36 41 5170 162 5.5 11 16 22 27 33 38 44 5575 173 5.8 12 17 23 29 35 41 47 5880 185 6.2 12 19 25 31 37 44 50 62
Adapted from A. W. Marsh et al., ‘‘Solid Set Sprinklers for Starting Vegetable Crops,’’ University ofCalifornia Division of Agricultural Science Leaflet 2265 (1977). Also, H. W. Otto and J. Meyer, ‘‘Tipson Irrigating Vegetables,’’ Family Farm Series Publications: Vegetable Crop Production (University ofCalifornia), http: / / www.sfc.ucdavis.edu / pubs / family farm series / veg / irrigating / irrigating.html.1 Including nozzle pressure, friction loss, and elevation lift.2 Pump assumed to operate at 75% efficiency.
279
TABLE 5.18. FLOW OF WATER REQUIRED TO OPERATE SOLIDSET SPRINKLER SYSTEMS
Irrigationrate
(in. /hr)
Area Irrigated per Set (acres)
4
gpm1 cfs2
8
gpm cfs
12
gpm cfs
16
gpm cfs
20
gpm cfs
0.06 108 0.5 217 0.5 326 1.0 435 1.0 543 1.50.08 145 0.5 290 1.0 435 1.0 580 1.5 725 2.00.10 181 0.5 362 1.0 543 1.5 724 2.0 905 2.50.12 217 0.5 435 1.0 652 1.5 870 2.0 1,086 2.50.15 271 1.0 543 1.5 815 2.0 1,086 2.5 1,360 3.50.20 362 1.0 724 2.0 1,086 2.5 1,448 2.5 1,810 4.5
Adapted from A. W. Marsh et al., ‘‘Solid Set Sprinklers for Starting Vegetable Crops,’’ University ofCalifornia Division of Agricultural Science Leaflet 2265 (1977). Also, H. W. Otto and J. Meyer, ‘‘Tipson Irrigating Vegetables,’’ Family Farm Series Publications: Vegetable Crop Production (University ofCalifornia), http: / / www.sfc.ucdavis.edu / pubs / family farm series / veg / irrigating / irrigating.html.1 Gallons per minute pumped into the sprinkler system to provide an average precipitation rate asshown. Pump must have this much or slightly greater capacity.2 Cubic feet per second—the flow of water to the next larger 1⁄2 cfs that must be ordered from thewater district, assuming that the district accepts orders only in increments of 1⁄2 cfs. Actually, 1⁄2 cfs �
225 gpm.
280
APPLYING FERTILIZER THROUGH A SPRINKLER SYSTEM
Anhydrous ammonia, aqua ammonia, and nitrogen solutions containing freeammonia should not be applied by sprinkler irrigation because of theexcessive loss of the volatile ammonia. Ammonium nitrate, ammoniumsulfate, calcium nitrate, sodium nitrate, and urea are all suitable materialsfor use through a sprinkler system. The water containing the ammonia saltsshould not have a reaction on the alkaline side of neutrality, or the loss ofammonia will be considerable.
It is best to put phosphorus fertilizers directly in the soil by a bandapplication. Potash fertilizers can be used in sprinkler lines. However, a soilapplication ahead of or at planting time usually proves adequate and can bemade efficiently at that time.
Manganese, boron, and copper can be applied through the sprinklersystem. See pages 242–243 for possible rates of application.
The fertilizing material is dissolved in a tank of water. Calcium nitrate,ammonium sulfate, and ammonium nitrate dissolve completely. The solutioncan then be introduced into the water line, either by suction or by pressurefrom a pump. See page 172 for relative solubility of fertilizer materials.
Introduce the fertilizer into the line slowly, taking 10–20 min to completethe operation.
After enough of the fertilizer solution has passed into the pipelines, shutthe valve if suction by pump is used. This prevents unpriming the pump.Then run the system for 10–15 min to wash the fertilizer off the leaves.This also flushes out the lines, valves, and pump, if one has been used toforce or suck the solution into the main line.
281
TABLE 5.19. AMOUNT OF FERTILIZER TO USE FOR EACHSETTING OF THE SPRINKLER LINE
Nutrient per Setting of Sprinkler Line (lb):
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100Lengthof Line
(ft)
LateralMove
of Line(ft) Nutrient Application Desired (lb /acre)
330 40 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 3060 4 9 12 18 22 27 31 36 40 4580 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
660 40 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 6060 9 18 24 36 45 54 63 72 81 9080 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120
990 40 9 18 24 36 45 54 63 72 81 9060 13 27 40 54 67 81 94 108 121 13580 18 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180
1,320 40 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 12060 18 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 18080 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240
It is necessary to calculate the actual pounds of a fertilizing materialthat must be dissolved in the mixing tank in order to supply a certainnumber of pounds of the nutrient to the acre at each setting of the sprinklerline. This is done as follows. To apply 40 lb nitrogen to the acre when thesprinkler line is 660 ft long and will be moved 80 ft, if sodium nitrate isused, divide 48 (as shown in the table) by 0.16 (the percentage of nitrogenin sodium nitrate). This equals 300 lb, which must be dissolved in the tankand applied at each setting of the pipe. Do the same with ammoniumnitrate: Divide 48 by 0.33, which equals about 145 lbs.
282
SPRINKLER IRRIGATION FOR COLD PROTECTION
Sprinklers are often used to protect vegetables from freezing. Sprinklingprovides cold protection because the latent heat of fusion is released whenwater changes from liquid to ice. When water is freezing, its temperature isnear 32�F. The heat liberated as the water freezes maintains thetemperature of the vegetable near 32�F even though the surroundings maybe colder. As long as there is a mixture of both water and ice present, thetemperature remains near 32�F. For all of the plant to be protected, it mustbe covered or encased in the freezing ice-water mixture. Enough water mustbe applied so that the latent heat released compensates for the heat losses.
References
● R. Evans and R. Sneed, Selection and Management of Efficient Hand-move, Solid-set, and Permanent Sprinkler Irrigation Systems (NorthCarolina State University. Publication EBAE 91-152, 1996), http: / /www.bae.ncsu.edu/programs/extension /evans /ebae-91-152.html.
● R. Snyder, Principles of Frost Protection (University of CaliforniaFP005, 2001), http: / /biomet.ucdavis.edu/ frostprotection /Principles%20of%20Frost%20Protection /FP005.html.
283
TABLE 5.20. APPLICATION RATE RECOMMENDED FOR COLDPROTECTION UNDER DIFFERENT WIND ANDTEMPERATURE CONDITIONS
Wind Speed (mph)
0–1 2–4 5–8
Minimum TemperatureExpected (�F) (in. /hr)
27 0.10 0.10 0.1026 0.10 0.10 0.1424 0.10 0.16 0.3022 0.12 0.24 0.5020 0.16 0.30 0.60
Adapted from D. S. Harrison, J. F. Gerber, and R. E. Choate, Sprinkler Irrigation for Cold Protection,Florida Cooperative Extension Circular 348 (1974).
284
06DRIP OR TRICKLE IRRIGATION
Drip or trickle irrigation refers to the frequent slow application of waterdirectly to the base of plants. Vegetables are usually irrigated by double-wall, thin-wall, or heavy-wall tubing to supply a uniform rate along theentire row.
Pressure in the drip lines typically varies from 8 to 10 psi and about 12psi in the submains. Length of the drip lines may be as long as 600 ft, but200–250 ft is more common. Rate of water application is about 1⁄4–1⁄2 gpm/100 ft of row. One acre of plants in rows 100 ft long and 4 ft apart use about30 gpm water. Unless clear, sediment-free water is available, it is necessaryto install a filter in the main line in order to prevent clogging of the smallpores in the drip lines.
Drip irrigation provides for considerable saving in water application,particularly during early plant growth. The aisles between rows remain drybecause water is applied only next to plants in the row.
Figure 5.6. Drip or trickle irrigation system components.
285
TABLE 5.21. VOLUME OF WATER TO APPLY (GAL) BY DRIPIRRIGATION PER 100 LINEAR FT BED FOR A GIVENWETTED SOIL VOLUME, AVAILABLE WATER-HOLDING CAPACITY, AND AN ALLOWABLEDEPLETION OF 1/21
Wetted SoilVolume per
100 ft(cubic ft)
Available Water-holding Capacity(in. water per ft soil)
0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00
(gal per 100 linear bed feet)
25 2.2 4.3 6.5 8.7 10.8 13.0 15.2 17.350 4.3 8.7 13.0 17.3 21.6 26.0 30.3 34.675 6.5 13.0 19.5 26.0 32.5 39.0 45.5 51.9
100 8.7 17.3 26.0 34.6 43.3 51.9 60.6 69.3125 10.8 21.6 32.5 43.3 54.1 64.9 75.8 86.6150 13.0 26.0 39.0 51.9 64.9 77.9 90.9 103.9175 15.2 30.3 45.5 60.6 75.8 90.9 106.1 121.2200 17.3 34.6 51.9 69.3 86.6 103.9 121.2 138.5225 19.5 39.0 58.4 77.9 97.4 116.9 136.4 155.8250 21.6 43.3 64.9 86.6 108.2 129.9 151.5 173.1275 23.8 47.6 71.4 95.2 119.0 142.8 166.7 190.5300 26.0 51.9 77.9 103.9 129.9 155.8 181.8 207.8350 30.3 60.6 90.9 121.2 151.5 181.8 212.1 242.4400 34.6 69.3 103.9 138.5 173.1 207.8 242.4 277.0450 39.0 77.9 116.9 155.8 194.8 233.8 272.7 311.7500 43.3 86.6 129.9 173.1 216.4 259.7 303.0 346.3550 47.6 95.2 142.8 190.5 238.1 285.7 333.3 380.9600 51.9 103.9 155.8 207.8 259.7 311.7 363.6 415.6700 60.6 121.2 181.8 242.4 303.0 363.6 424.2 484.8800 69.3 138.5 207.8 277.0 346.3 415.6 484.8 554.1900 77.9 155.8 233.8 311.7 389.6 467.5 545.4 623.3
Adapted from G. A. Clark, C. D. Stanley, and A. G. Smajstrla, Micro-irrigation on Mulched BedSystems: Components, System Capacities, and Management (Florida Cooperative Extension ServiceBulletin 245, 2002), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / ae042.1 An irrigation application efficiency of 90% is assumed.
286
TABLE 5.22. DISCHARGE PER GROSS ACRE (GPM/ACRE) FORDRIP IRRIGATION BASED ON IRRIGATED LINEARBED FEET AND EMITTER DISCHARGE
LinearBedFeet
per Acre
Emitter Discharge (gpm/100 ft)
0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.50
(gal per min /acre)
3,000 7.5 9.0 12.0 15.0 22.5 30.0 45.03,500 8.8 10.5 14.0 17.5 26.3 35.0 52.54,000 10.0 12.0 16.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 60.04,500 11.3 13.5 18.0 22.5 33.8 45.0 67.55,000 12.5 15.0 20.0 25.0 37.5 50.0 75.05,500 13.8 16.5 22.0 27.5 41.3 55.0 82.56,000 15.0 18.0 24.0 30.0 45.0 60.0 90.06,500 16.3 19.5 26.0 32.5 48.8 65.0 97.57,000 17.5 21.0 28.0 35.0 52.5 70.0 105.07,500 18.8 22.5 30.0 37.5 56.3 75.0 112.58,000 20.0 24.0 32.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 120.08,500 21.3 25.5 34.0 42.5 63.8 85.0 127.59,000 22.5 27.0 36.0 45.0 67.5 90.0 135.09,500 23.8 28.5 38.0 47.5 71.3 95.0 142.5
10,000 25.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 75.0 100.0 150.0
Adapted from G. A. Clark, C. D. Stanley, and A. G. Smajstrla, Micro-irrigation on Mulched BedSystems: Components, System Capacities, and Management (Florida Cooperative Extension ServiceBulletin 245, 2002), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / ae042.
287
TABLE 5.23. VOLUME OF WATER (GAL WATER PER ACRE PERMINUTE) DELIVERED UNDER VARIOUS BEDSPACINGS WITH ONE TAPE LATERAL PER BEDAND FOR SEVERAL EMITTER FLOW RATES
Bed Spacing(in.)
Drip Tapeper Acre
(ft)
Emitter Flow Rate(gal per min per 100 ft)
0.50 0.40 0.30 0.25
(gal per acre /min)
24 21,780 108.9 87.1 65.3 54.530 17,420 87.1 69.7 52.3 43.636 14,520 72.6 58.1 43.6 36.642 12,450 62.2 49.8 37.3 31.148 10,890 54.5 43.6 32.7 27.254 9,680 48.4 38.7 29.0 24.260 8,710 43.6 34.9 26.1 21.872 7,260 36.3 29.0 21.8 18.284 6,220 31.1 24.9 18.7 15.696 5,450 27.2 21.8 16.3 13.6
108 4,840 24.2 19.4 14.5 12.1120 4,360 21.8 17.4 13.1 10.0
288
TABLE 5.24. VOLUME OF AVAILABLE WATER IN THE WETTEDCYLINDRICAL DISTRIBUTION PATTERN UNDER ADRIP IRRIGATION LINE BASED ON THE AVAILABLEWATER-HOLDING CAPACITY OF THE SOIL
AvailableWater (%)
Wetted Radius (in.)1
6 9 12 15 18
(gal available water per 100 emitters)
3 9 20 35 55 794 12 26 47 74 1065 15 33 59 92 1326 18 40 71 110 1597 21 46 82 129 1858 24 53 94 147 2129 26 60 106 165 238
10 29 66 118 184 26511 32 73 129 202 29112 35 79 141 221 31813 38 86 153 239 34414 41 93 165 257 37115 44 99 176 276 397
Adapted from G. A. Clark and A. G. Smajstrla, Application Volumes and Wetted Patterns forScheduling Drip Irrigation in Florida Vegetable Production, Florida Cooperative Extension ServiceCircular 1041 (1993).1 For a 1-ft depth of wetting.
289
TABLE 5.25. MAXIMUM APPLICATION TIMES FOR DRIP-IRRIGATED VEGETABLE PRODUCTION ON SANDYSOILS WITH VARIOUS WATER-HOLDINGCAPACITIES
Available Water-holding Capacity(in. water per in.
soil)
Tubing Flow Rate (gpm per 100 ft)
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
(maximum min per application)1
0.02 41 27 20 16 140.03 61 41 31 24 200.04 82 54 41 33 270.05 102 68 51 41 340.06 122 82 61 49 410.07 143 95 71 57 480.08 163 109 82 65 540.09 184 122 92 73 610.10 204 136 102 82 680.11 224 150 112 90 750.12 245 163 122 98 82
Adapted from C. D. Stanley and G. A. Clark, ‘‘Maximum Application Times for Drip-irrigatedVegetable Production as Influenced by Soil Type or Tubing Emission Characteristics,’’ FloridaCooperative Extension Service Drip Tip No. 9305 (1993).1 Assumes 10-in.-deep root zone and irrigation at 50% soil moisture depletion.
290
TREATING IRRIGATION SYSTEMS WITH CHLORINE
Chlorine can be used in irrigation systems to control the growth of algaeand other microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. These organisms arefound in surface and ground water and can proliferate with the nutrientspresent in the water inside the drip tube. Filtration alone cannot remove allof these contaminants. Hypochlorous acid, the agent responsible forcontrolling microorganisms in drip tubes, is more active under slightlyacidic water conditions. Chlorine gas, solid (calcium hypochlorite), or liquid(sodium hypochlorite) are sources of chlorine; however, all forms might notbe legal for injecting into irrigation systems. For example, only sodiumhypochlorite is legal for use in Florida.
When sodium hypochlorite is injected, the pH of the water rises. Theresulting chloride and sodium ions are not detrimental to crops at typicalinjection rates. Chlorine materials should be injected at a rate to provide1–2 ppm free residual chlorine at the most distant part of the irrigationsystem.
In addition to controlling microorganisms, hypochlorous acid also reactswith iron in solution to oxidize the ferrous form to the ferric form, whichprecipitates as ferric hydroxide. If irrigation water contains iron, thisreaction with injected chlorine should occur before the filter system so theprecipitate can be removed.
Adapted from G. A. Clark and A. G. Smajstrla, Treating Irrigation Systems with Chlorine (FloridaCooperative Extension Service Circular 1039, 2002), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / ae080.
291
TABLE 5.26. LIQUID CHLORINE (SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE)INJECTION
Treatmentlevel (ppm)
% Concentration of chlorine in stock
1 3 5.25 10
gal /hr injection per 100 gal /min irrigation flow rate
1 0.54 0.18 0.10 0.052 1.1 0.36 0.21 0.143 1.6 0.54 0.31 0.164 2.2 0.72 0.41 0.225 2.7 0.90 0.51 0.276 3.3 1.1 0.62 0.328 4.4 1.5 0.82 0.43
10 5.5 1.8 1.0 0.5415 8.3 2.8 1.5 0.8120 11.0 3.7 2.1 1.130 16.5 5.5 3.1 1.6
Adapted from G. Clark and A. Smajstrla, Treating Irrigation Systems with Chlorine (FloridaCooperative Extension Service Circular 1039, 2002), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / ae080.
METHODS OF INJECTING FERTILIZER AND OTHER CHEMICALSOLUTIONS INTO IRRIGATION PIPELINE
Four principal methods are used to inject fertilizers and other solutions intodrip irrigation systems: (1) pressure differential; (2) the venturi (vacuum);(3) centrifugal pumps; and (4) positive displacement pumps. It is essentialthat irrigation systems equipped with a chemical injection system have avacuum breaker (anti-siphon device) and a backflow preventer (check valve)installed upstream from the injection point. The vacuum-breaking valve andbackflow preventer prevent chemical contamination of the water source incase of a water pressure loss or power failure. Operators may need a licenseto chemigate in some states. Local backflow regulations should be consultedprior to chemigation to insure compliance.
292
TABLE 5.27. REQUIRED VOLUME (GAL) OF CHEMICAL MIXTURETO PROVIDE A DESIRED LEVEL OF AN ACTIVECHEMICAL FOR DIFFERENT CONCENTRATIONS(LB/GAL) OF THE CHEMICAL IN THE STOCKSOLUTION
Weight of ChemicalDesired (lb)
Smx
Mass of Chemical (lb) Per Gal Stock Solution
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
(gal stock solution)
20 100 50 33 25 20 10 7 540 200 100 67 50 40 20 13 1060 300 150 100 75 60 30 20 1580 400 200 133 100 80 40 27 20
100 500 250 167 125 100 50 33 25150 750 375 250 188 150 75 50 38200 1,000 500 333 250 200 100 67 50250 1,250 625 417 313 250 125 83 63300 1,500 750 500 375 300 150 100 75350 1,750 875 583 438 350 175 117 88400 2,000 1,000 667 500 400 200 133 100450 2,250 1,125 750 563 450 225 150 113500 2,500 1,250 833 625 500 250 167 125
Adapted from G. A. Clark, D. Z. Haman, and F. S. Zazueta, Injection of Chemicals into IrrigationSystems: Rates, Volumes, and Injection Periods (Florida Cooperative Extension Service Bulletin 250,2002), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / ae116.
293
Figure 5.7. Classification of chemical injection methods for irrigationsystems.
Adapted from D. Z. Haman, A. G. Smajstrla, and F. S. Zazueta, Chemical Injection Methods forIrrigation (Florida Cooperative Extension Service Circular 864, 2003). http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / wi004.
294
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Adapted from A. G. Smajstrla, D. S. Harrison, W. J. Becker, F. S. Zazueta, and D. Z. Haman, BackflowPrevention Requirements for Florida Irrigation Systems, Florida Cooperative Extension ServiceBulletin 217 (1985).
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Figure 5.10. Centrifugal pump chemical injector.
Adapted from D. Z. Haman, A. G. Smajstrla, and F. S. Zazueta, Chemical Injection Methods forIrrigation (Florida Cooperative Extension Service Circular 864, 2003), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / wi004.
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Figure 5.12. Diaphragm pump—discharge stroke.
Adapted from D. Z. Haman, A. G. Smajstrla, and F. S. Zazueta, Chemical Injection Methods forIrrigation (Florida Cooperative Extension Service Circular 864, 2003), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / wi004.
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Adapted from D. Z. Haman, A. G. Smajstrla, and F. S. Zazueta, Chemical Injection Methods forIrrigation (Florida Cooperative Extension Service Bulletin 864, 2003), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / wi004.
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TABLE 5.30. MAXIMUM CONCENTRATIONS OF TRACEELEMENTS IN IRRIGATION WATERS
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For Use Up to 20Years on Fine-
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Aluminum 5.0 20.0Arsenic 0.10 2.0Beryllium 0.10 0.50Boron 0.75 2.0–10.0Cadmium 0.01 0.05Chromium 0.10 1.0Cobalt 0.05 5.0Copper 0.20 5.0Fluoride 1.0 15.0Iron 5.0 20.0Lead 5.0 10.0Lithium 2.5 2.5Manganese 0.20 10.0Molybdenum 0.01 0.051
Nickel 0.20 2.0Selenium 0.02 0.02Vanadium 0.10 1.0Zinc 2.00 10.0
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306
TABLE 5.31. ESTIMATED YIELD LOSS TO SALINITY OFIRRIGATION WATER
Crop
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Adapted from R. S. Ayers, Journal of the Irrigation and Drainage Division 103 (1977): 135–154.
307
TABLE 5.32. RELATIVE TOLERANCE OF VEGETABLE CROPS TOBORON IN IRRIGATION WATER1
10–15 ppm 4–6 ppm 2–4 ppm 1–2 ppm 0.5–1 ppm
Asparagus Beet Artichoke Broccoli BeanParsley Cabbage Carrot GarlicTomato Cantaloupe Cucumber Lima bean
Cauliflower Pea OnionCelery PepperCorn PotatoLettuce RadishTurnip
Adapted from E. V. Mass, ‘‘Salt Tolerance of Plants,’’ Applied Agricultural Research 1(1):12–26 (1986).1 Maximum concentrations of boron in soil water without yield reduction
PART 7WEED MANAGEMENT
01 WEED MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
02 WEED IDENTIFICATION
03 NOXIOUS WEEDS
04 WEED CONTROL IN ORGANIC FARMING
05 COVER CROPS AND ROTATION IN WEED MANAGEMENT
06 HERBICIDES
07 WEED CONTROL RECOMMENDATIONS
Knott’s Handbook for Vegetable Growers, Fifth Edition. D. N. Maynard and G. J. Hochmuth© 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-73828-2
390
01WEED MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Weeds reduce yield and quality of vegetables through direct competition forlight, moisture, and nutrients as well as by interference with harvestoperations. Early season competition is most critical, and a major emphasison control should be made during this period. Common amaranth reducesyields of lettuce, watermelon, and muskmelon at least 20% if allowed tocompete with these crops for only the first 3 weeks of growth. Weeds can becontrolled, but this requires good management practices in all phases ofproduction. Because there are many kinds of weeds, with much variation ingrowth habit, they obviously cannot be managed by a single method. Theincorporation of several of the following management practices intovegetable strategies increases the effectiveness for controlling weeds.
Crop Competition
An often overlooked tool in reducing weed competition is to establish a goodcrop stand in which plants emerge and rapidly shade the ground. The plantthat emerges first and grows the most rapidly is the plant with thecompetitive advantage. Utilization of good production management practicessuch as fertility, well-adapted varieties, proper water control (irrigation anddrainage), and establishment of adequate plant populations is very helpfulin reducing weed competition. Everything possible should be done to ensurethat vegetables, not weeds, have the competitive advantage.
Crop Rotation
If the same crop is planted in the same field year after year, usually someweed or weeds are favored by the cultural practices and herbicides used onthat crop. By rotating to other crops, the cultural practices and herbicideprogram are changed. This often reduces the population of specific weedstolerant in the previous cropping rotation. Care should be taken, however, tonot replant vegetables in soil treated with a nonregistered herbicide. Cropinjury as well as vegetables containing illegal residues may result. Checkthe labels for plant-back limitations before application and plantingrotational crops.
Mechanical Control
Mechanical control includes field preparation by plowing or disking,cultivation, mowing, hoeing, and hand pulling of weeds. Mechanical control
391
practices are among the oldest weed management techniques. Weed controlis a primary reason for preparing land for crops planted in rows. Seedbedpreparation by plowing or disking exposes many weed seeds to variations inlight, temperature, and moisture. For some weeds, this process breaks weedseed dormancy, leading to early season control with herbicides or additionalcultivation. Cultivate only deep enough in the row to achieve weed control;deep cultivation may prune roots, bring weed seeds to the surface, anddisturb the soil previously treated with a herbicide. Follow the sameprecautions between rows. When weeds can be controlled withoutcultivation, there is no advantage to the practice. In fact, there may bedisadvantages, such as drying out the soil surface, bringing weed seeds tothe surface, and disturbing the root system of the crop.
Mulching
The use of polyethylene mulch increases yield and earliness of vegetables.The proper injection of fumigants under the mulch controls nematodes, soilinsects, soil borne diseases, and weed seeds. Mulches act as a barrier to thegrowth of many weeds. Nutsedge, however, is one weed that can and willgrow through the mulch.
Prevention
Preventing weeds from infesting or reinfesting a field should always beconsidered. Weed seed may enter a field in a number of ways. It may bedistributed by wind, water, machinery, in cover crop seed, and other means.Fence rows and ditch banks are often neglected when controlling weeds inthe crop. Seed produced in these areas may move into the field. Weeds inthese areas can also harbor insects and diseases (especially viruses) thatmay move onto the crop. It is also important to clean equipment beforeentering fields or when moving from a field with a high weed infestation toa relatively clean field. Nutsedge tubers especially are moved easily ondisks, cultivators, and other equipment.
Herbicides
Properly selected herbicides are effective tools for weed control. Herbicidesmay be classified several ways depending on how they are applied and theirmode of action in or on the plant. Generally, herbicides are either soilapplied or foliage applied. They may be selective or nonselective, and theymay be either contact or translocated through the plant. For example,paraquat is a foliage-applied, contact, nonselective herbicide, whereas
392
atrazine usually is described as a soil-applied, translocated, selectiveherbicide.
Foliage-applied herbicides may be applied to leaves, stems, and shoots ofplants. Herbicides that kill only those parts of the plants they touch arecontact herbicides. Those herbicides that are taken into the plant and movedthroughout it are translocated herbicides. Paraquat is a contact herbicide,whereas glyphosate (Roundup) or Sethoxydim (Poast) are translocatedherbicides. For foliage-applied herbicides to be effective, they must enter theplant. Good coverage is very important. Most foliage-applied herbicidesrequire either the addition of a specified surfactant or a specifiedformulation to be used for best control.
Soil-applied herbicides are either applied to the surface or incorporated.Surface-applied herbicides require rainfall or irrigation shortly afterapplication for best results. Lack of moisture often results in poor weedcontrol. Incorporated herbicides are not dependent on rainfall or irrigationand generally give more consistent and wider-spectrum control. They do,however, require more time and equipment for incorporation. Herbicidesthat specify incorporation into the soil improve the contact of the herbicidewith the weed seed and/or minimize the loss of the herbicide byvolatilization or photodecomposition. Some herbicides, if not incorporated,may be lost from the soil surface. Although most soil-applied herbicidesmust be moved into the soil to be effective, the depth of incorporation intothe soil can be used to achieve selectivity. For example, if a crop seed isplanted 2 in. deep in the soil and the herbicide is incorporated by irrigationonly in the top 1 in., where most of the problem weed seeds are found, thecrop roots will not come in contact with the herbicide. If too much irrigationor rain moves the herbicide down into the crop seed zone or if the herbicideis incorporated mechanically too deep, crop injury may result.
Adapted from W. M. Stall, ‘‘Weed Management,’’ in S. M. Olson and E. H. Simone (eds.), CommercialVegetable Production Handbook for Florida (Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Serv. SP-170,2004), http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / cv113.
393
02WEED IDENTIFICATION
Accurate identification of the particular weed species is the first step tocontrolling the problem. Several university and cooperative extensionwebsites offer information about and assistance with identifying weeds.Some sources offer information across crops and commodities, and manyhave very good photos of weed species. As good as these websites are forassisting in weed identification, the grower is encouraged to obtainconfirmation of identification from a knowledgeable weed expert beforeimplementing a weed control strategy. The following websites, among manyothers, offer photos and guides to the identification of weeds.
California, www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/weeds common.htmlIllinois, http: / /web.aces.uiuc.edu/weedidIowa, http: / /www.weeds.iastate.edu/weed-id /weedid.htmMinnesota, http: / /www.extension.umn.edu/distribution /cropsystems/
DC1352.htmlMissouri, http: / /www.plantsci.missouri.edu /fishel /field crops.htmNew Jersey, http: / /www.rce.rutgers.edu/weedsVirginia, http: / /www.ppws.vt.edu/weedindex.htm
03NOXIOUS WEEDS
Noxious weeds are plant species so injurious to agricultural crop intereststhat they are regulated or controlled by federal and/or state laws.Propagation, growing, or sales of these plants may be controlled. Somestates divide noxious weeds into ‘‘prohibited’’ species, which may not begrown or sold, and ‘‘restricted’’ species, which may occur in the state andare considered nuisances or of economic concern for agriculture. States havedifferent lists of plants considered noxious. The federal website below leadsto state-based information about noxious weeds.
http: / /www.ars-grin.gov /cgi-bin /npgs /html / taxweed.pl (2005)
394
04WEED CONTROL IN ORGANIC FARMING
Weeds can be a serious threat to vegetable production in organic systems.Weed control is one of the most costly activities in successful organicvegetable production. Some of the recommended main organic weed controlstrategies include:
Rotate crops.Cover crops to compete with weeds in the non-crop season.Be knowledgeable about potential weed contamination of manures,
composts, and organic soil amendments.Employ mechanical and manual control through cultivation, hoeing,
mowing, hand weeding, etc.Clean equipment to minimize transfer of weed propagules from one field to
another.Control weeds at the crop perimeter.Completely till crop and weeds after final harvest.Plan for fallow periods with mechanical destruction of weeds.Use the stale seedbed technique when appropriate.Use approved weed control materials selected from the Standards lists
below.Encourage crop competition due to optimum crop vigor, correct plant
spacing, or shading of weeds.Use approved soil mulching practices to smother weed seedlings around
crops or in crop alleys.Practice precise placement of fertilizers and irrigation water to minimize
availability to weeds in walkways and row middles.
Websites offering information on weed control practices in organic vegetableproduction include:
● Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI), http: / /www.omri.org● National Organic Standards Board (NOSB), http: / /www.ams.usda.gov /
nosb / index.htm● National Organic Program (NOP), http: / /www.ams.usda.gov /nop /nop /
nophome.html● Weed Management Menu—Sustainable Farming Connection, http: / /
www.ibiblio.org / farming-connection /weeds /home.htm
395
● National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service, http: / /www.attra.org
● G. Boyhan, D. Granberry, W. T. Kelley, and W. McLaurin, GrowingVegetables Organically (University of Georgia, 1999), http: / /pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs /pubcd /b1011-w.html.
05COVER CROPS AND ROTATION IN WEED MANAGEMENT
Vegetable growers can take advantage of certain cover crops to help controlweeds in vegetable production systems and crop rotation systems. Covercrops compete with weeds, reducing the growth and weed seed productioncapacity of weeds. Cover crops help build soil organic matter and can lead tomore vigorous vegetable crops that compete more effectively with weeds.Rotation introduces weed populations to different crops with different weedcontrol options and helps keep herbicide-resistant weed populations frombecoming established.
Some websites for cover crops and rotation in vegetable production:
Michigan, www.kbs.msu.edu/extension /covercrops /home.htmNew York, http: / /www.nysaes.cornell.edu /recommends /4frameset.html
396
06HERBICIDES
WEED CONTROL WITH HERBICIDES
Chemical weed control minimizes labor and is effective if used with care.The following precautions should be observed:
1. Do not use a herbicide unless the label states that it is registered forthat particular crop. Be sure to use as directed by the manufacturer.
2. Use herbicides so that no excessive residues remain on the harvestedproduct, which may otherwise be confiscated. Residue tolerances areestablished by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
3. Note that some herbicides kill only certain weeds.
4. Make certain the soil is sufficiently moist for effective action ofpreemergence sprays. Do not expect good results in dry soil.
5. Keep in mind that postemergence herbicides are most effective whenconditions favor rapid weed germination and growth.
6. Avoid using too much herbicide. Overdoses can injure the vegetablecrop. Few crops, if any, are entirely resistant.
7. Use less herbicide on light sandy soils than on heavy clay soils.Muck soils require somewhat greater rates than do heavy mineralsoils.
8. When using wettable powders, be certain the liquid in the tank isagitated constantly as spraying proceeds.
9. Use a boom and nozzle arrangement that fans out the material closeto the ground in order to avoid drift.
10. Thoroughly clean spray tank after use.
CLEANING SPRAYERS AFTER APPLYING HERBICIDES
Sprayers must be kept clean to avoid injury to the crop on which they are tobe used for applying insecticides or fungicides as well as to prevent possibledeterioration of the sprayers after use of certain materials.
1. Rinse all parts of sprayer with water before and after any specialcleaning operation is undertaken.
397
2. If in doubt about the effectiveness of water alone to clean theherbicide from the tank, pump, boom, hoses, and nozzles, use acleaner. In some cases, it is desirable to use activated carbon toreduce contamination.
3. Fill the tank with water. Use one of the following materials for each100 gal water: 5 lb paint cleaner (trisodium phosphate), 1 galhousehold ammonia, or 5 lb sal soda.
4. If hot water is used, let the solution stand in the tank for 18 hr. Ifcold water is used, leave it for 36 hr. Pump the solution through thesprayer.
5. Rinse the tank and parts several times with clear water.6. If copper has been used in the sprayer before a weed control operation
is performed, put 1 gal vinegar in 100 gal water and let the solutionstay in the sprayer for 2 hr. Drain the solution and rinse thoroughly.Copper interferes with the effectiveness of some herbicides.
DETERMINING RATES OF APPLICATION OF WEED CONTROLMATERIALS
Commercially available herbicide formulations differ in their content of theactive ingredient. The label indicates the amount of the active ingredient(lb /gal). Refer to this amount in the table to determine how much of theformulation you need in order to supply the recommended amount of theactive ingredient per acre. For calibration of herbicide applicationequipment, see pages 328–339.
398
TABLE 7.1. HERBICIIDE DILUTION TABLE: QUANTITY OFLIQUID CONCENTRATES TO USE TO GIVE DESIREDDOSAGE OF ACTIVE CHEMICAL
Active IngredientContent of Liquid
Concentrate(lb /gal)
Active Ingredient Needed(lb /acre):
0.125 0.25 0.50 1 2 3 4
Liquid Concentrate to Use (pint /acre)
1 1.0 2.0 4.0 8.0 16.0 24.0 32.011⁄2 0.67 1.3 2.6 5.3 10.6 16.0 21.32 0.50 1.0 2.0 4.0 8.0 12.0 16.03 0.34 0.67 1.3 2.7 5.3 8.0 10.74 0.25 0.50 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.05 0.20 0.40 0.80 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.46 0.17 0.34 0.67 1.3 2.6 4.0 5.37 0.14 0.30 0.60 1.1 2.3 3.4 4.68 0.125 0.25 0.50 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.09 0.11 0.22 0.45 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6
10 0.10 0.20 0.40 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2
Adapted from Spraying Systems Co., Catalog 36, Wheaton, Ill. (1978).
Additional Conversion Tables
http: / /pmep.cce.cornell.edu / facts-slides-self / facts /gen-peapp-conv-table.htmlhttp: / /pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs /pubcd /b931.htm
SUGGESTED CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL PRACTICES
State recommendations for herbicides vary because the effect of herbicidesis influenced by growing area, soil type, temperature, and soil moisture.Growers should consult local authorities for specific recommendations. TheEPA has established residue tolerances for those herbicides that may leaveinjurious residues in or on a harvested vegetable and has approved certainmaterials, rates, and methods of application. Laws regarding vegetation andherbicides are constantly changing. Growers and commercial applicatorsshould not use a chemical on a crop for which the compound is notregistered. Herbicides should be used exactly as stated on the labelregardless of information presented here. Growers are advised to givespecial attention to plant-back restrictions.
399
07WEED CONTROL RECOMMENDATIONS
The Cooperative Extension Service in each state publishes recommendationsfor weed control practices. We present below some websites containingrecommendations for weed control in vegetable crops. The list is notexhaustive, and these websites are presented for information purposes.Because weed control recommendations, especially recommended herbicides,may differ from state to state and year to year, growers are encouraged toconsult the proper experts in their state for the latest information aboutweed control.
SELECTED WEBSITES FOR VEGETABLE WEED CONTROLRECOMMENDATIONS
● A. S. Culpepper, ‘‘Commercial Vegetables: Weed Control,’’ in 2005Georgia Pest Management Handbook, Commercial Edition, http: / /pubs.caes.uga /caespubs /PMH/PMH-com-veggie-weed.pdf.
● D. W. Monks and W. E. Mitchem, ‘‘Chemical Weed Control inVegetable Crops,’’ in 2005 North Carolina Agricultural ChemicalsManual, http: / / ipm.ncsu.edu/agchem/chptr8 /817.pdf.
● R. D. William, ‘‘Weed Management in Vegetable Crops,’’ in PacificNorthwest Weed Management Handbook. (2005), http: / /pnwpest.org /pnw/weeds.
● B. H. Zandstra, 2005 Weed Control Guide for Vegetable CropsMichigan State University Extension Bulletin E-433 (Nov. 2004),http: / /web4.msue.msu.edu/veginfo /bulletins /E433 2005.pdf.
● Commercial Vegetables Disease, Nematode, and Weed ControlRecommendations for 2005 (Alabama), http: / /www.aces.edu/pubs /docs /A /ANR-0500-A/veg.pdf.
● Weed Management, (New York) Integrated Crop and PestManagement Guidelines for Commercial Vegetable Production, (2005),http: / /www.nysaes.cornell.edu /recommends /4frameset.html.
● S. Post, F. Hale, D. Robinson, R. Straw, and J. Wills, The 2005Tennessee Commercial Vegetable Disease, Insect, and Weed ControlGuide, http: / /www.utextension.utk.edu/publications /pbfiles /PB1282.pdf.
● Florida weed control information can be found at http: / /edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ and search for ‘‘weed control’’ and author � ‘‘W. M.Stall.’’ This brings up weed control documents for individualvegetables.
● Ontario, Canada, http: / /www.omafra.gov.on.ca /english /environment /hort / references.htm (2005).
PART 8HARVESTING, HANDLING, AND STORAGE
01 FOOD SAFETY
02 GENERAL POSTHARVEST HANDLING PROCEDURES
03 PREDICTING HARVEST DATES AND YIELDS
04 COOLING VEGETABLES
05 VEGETABLE STORAGE
06 CHILLING AND ETHYLENE INJURY
07 POSTHARVEST DISEASES
08 VEGETABLE QUALITY
09 U.S. STANDARDS FOR VEGETABLES
10 MINIMALLY PROCESSED VEGETABLES
11 CONTAINERS FOR VEGETABLES
12 VEGETABLE MARKETING
Knott’s Handbook for Vegetable Growers, Fifth Edition. D. N. Maynard and G. J. Hochmuth© 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-73828-2
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01FOOD SAFETY
Additional information on food safety can be found on these websites:
http: / /www.jifsan.umd.edu/gaps.htmlhttp: / /www.cfsan.fda.gov.htmlhttp: / /www.cals.ncsu.edu/hort sci /hsfoodsafety.htmlhttp: / /www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts / foodsci /agentinfo /http: / / foodsafe.msu.edu/http: / /ucgaps.ucdavis.edu/http: / /www.gaps.cornell.edu /http: / /www.foodriskclearinghouse.umd.edu/http: / /www.foodsafety.gov /http: / /www.extension.iastate.edu/ foodsafety /http: / /www.cdc.gov / foodsafety /edu.htm
FOOD SAFETY ON THE FARM
Potential On-Farm Contamination Sources
● Soil● Irrigation water● Animal manure● Inadequately composted manure● Wild and domestic animals● Inadequate field worker hygiene● Harvesting equipment● Transport containers (field to packing facility)● Wash and rinse water● Unsanitary handling during sorting and packaging, in packing
facilities, in wholesale or retail operations, and at home● Equipment used to soak, pack, or cut produce● Ice● Cooling units (hydrocoolers)● Transport vehicles
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● Improper storage conditions (temperatures)● Improper packaging● Cross-contamination in storage, display, and preparation
From Food Safety Begins on the Farm: A Grower’s Guide (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University),www.hort.cornell.edu / commercialvegetables / issues / foodsafe.html.
FOOD SAFETY IN VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
Plan Before Planting
● Select site for produce based on land history and location.● Use careful manure handling.● Keep good records.
Field Management Considerations
● Optimize irrigation water quality and methods.● Avoid manure sidedressing.● Practice good field sanitation.● Exclude animals and wildlife.● Emphasize worker training and hygiene.● Keep records of the above activities.
From Food Safety Begins on the Farm: A Grower’s Guide (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University),www.hort.cornell.edu / commercialvegetables / issues / foodsafe.html.
FOOD SAFETY IN VEGETABLE HARVEST AND POSTHARVESTPRACTICES
Harvest Considerations
● Clean and sanitize storage facilities and produce contact surfacesprior to harvest.
● Clean harvesting aids each day.● Emphasize worker hygiene and training.● Emphasize hygiene to U-Pick customers.● Keep animals out of the fields.
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Postharvest Considerations
● Enforce good worker hygiene.● Clean and sanitize packing area and lines daily.● Maintain clean and fresh water.● Cool produce quickly and maintain cold chain.● Sanitize trucks before loading.● Keep animals out of packinghouse and storage facilities.
From Food Safety Begins on the Farm: A Grower’s Guide (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University),www.hort.cornell.edu / commercialvegetables / issues / foodsafe.html.
Human Pathogens That May Be Associated with Fresh Vegetables
● Soil-associated pathogenic bacteria (Clostridium botulinum, Listeriamoncytogenes)
● Fecal-associated pathogenic bacteria (Salmonella spp., Shigella spp.,E. coli O157:H7, and others)
● Pathogenic parasites (Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora)● Pathogenic viruses (Hepatitis, Norwalk virus, and others)
Basic Principles of Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs)
● Prevention of microbial contamination of fresh produce is favored overreliance on corrective actions once contamination has occurred.
● To minimize microbial food safety hazards in fresh produce, growersor packers should use GAPs in those areas over which they have adegree of control while not increasing other risks to the food supply orthe environment.
● Anything that comes in contact with fresh produce has the potentialto contaminate it. For most foodborne pathogens associated withproduce, the major source of contamination is human or animal feces.
● Whenever water comes in contact with fresh produce, its source andquality dictate the potential for contamination.
● Practices using manure or municipal biosolid wastes should be closelymanaged to minimize the potential for microbial contamination offresh produce.
● Worker hygiene and sanitation practices during production,harvesting, sorting, packing, and transport play a critical role inminimizing the potential for microbial contamination of fresh produce.
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● Follow all applicable local, state, and federal laws and regulations, orcorresponding or similar laws. regulations, or standards for operatorsoutside the United States for agricultural practices.
● Accountability at all levels of the agricultural environment (farms,packing facility, distribution center, and transport operation) isimportant to a successful food safety program. There must bequalified personnel and effective monitoring to ensure that allelements of the program function correctly and to help track produceback through the distribution channels to the producer.
Adapted from James R. Gorny and Devon Zagory, ‘‘Food Safety,’’ in The Commercial Storage of Fruits,Vegetables, and Florist and Nursery Stocks (USDA Agriculture Handbook 66, 2004), http: / /www.ba.ars.usda.gov / hb66 / contents.html.
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TABLE 8.1. SANITIZING CHEMICALS FOR PACKINGHOUSES
Compound Advantages Disadvantages
Chlorine(most widelyused sanitizerinpackinghousewater systems)
Relatively inexpensive.Broad spectrum—
effective on manymicrobes.
Practically no residueleft on the commodity.
Corrosive to equipment.Sensitive to pH. Below
6.5 or above 7.5reduces activity orincreases noxiousodors.
Can irritate skin anddamage mucousmembranes.
Chlorine Dioxide Activity is much less pHdependent thanchlorine.
Must be generated on-site.
Greater human exposurerisk than chlorine. Offgassing of noxiousgases is common.
Concentrated gases canbe explosive.
Peroxyacetic Acid No known toxic residuesor byproducts.
Produces very little offgassing.
Less affected by organicmatter than chlorine.
Low corrosiveness toequipment.
Activity is reduced in thepresence of metal ions.
Concentrated product istoxic to humans.
Sensitive to pH. Greatlyreduced activity at pHabove 7–8.
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TABLE 8.1. SANITIZING CHEMICALS FOR PACKINGHOUSES(Continued )
Compound Advantages Disadvantages
Ozone Very strong oxidizer /sanitizer.
Can reduce pesticideresidues in the water.
Less sensitive to pHthan chlorine (butbreaks down muchfaster above �pH 8.5).
No known toxic residuesor byproducts.
Must be generated on-site.
Ozone gas is toxic tohumans. Off gassingcan be a problem.
Treated water should befiltered to removeparticulates andorganic matter.
Corrosive to equipment(including rubber andsome plastics).
Highly unstable inwater—half-life �15min; may be less than1 min in water withorganic matter or soil.
Note: Although quaternary ammonia is an effective sanitizer with useful properties and can be usedto sanitize equipment, it is not registered for contact with food.
Adapted from S. A. Sargent, M. A. Ritenour, and J. K. Brecht, ‘‘Handling, Cooling, and SanitationTechniques for Maintaining Postharvest Quality,’’ in Vegetable Production Handbook (University ofFlorida, 2005–2006).
TRACEABILITY OF PRODUCE IN THE UNITED STATES
Traceability has been a critical component of the produce industry for manyyears. Historically, the perishability of produce and the potential fordeterioration during cross-country shipment demanded better recordkeepingto ensure correct payment to growers. Because produce must be packed inrelatively small boxes to minimize damage, implementation of traceabilityhas also been relatively low in cost. The industry is in a much betterposition to adapt to new concerns than industries where bulk sales are thenorm and segregation and traceability involves new costs. Currently, two
408
Consumers
Shippers
Growers Processors
Food service Retailers
Exports Imports
Intermediaries:wholesalers/brokers/repackers/exporters/importers
Farmers’ markets/roadside stands
Figure 8.1. Tracing fresh produce through the food marketing system.
systems of information are involved in produce. First, there are physicallabels on boxes and sometimes on pallets. For general business purposes, itis important to be able to identify the product in the boxes. Various statelaws require box information, and marketing orders also often requireadditional box information. Pallet tags are completely voluntary. Second, apaper or electronic trail allows traceback between links in the marketingchain, though each link may use a different traceability system. U.S. andCanadian produce organizations are looking at ways to promote a universaltraceability system. They recommend that shipper name, pallet tag number(if available), and lot number be part of the paperwork at each link. Thiswould effectively combine information on boxes and the paper or electronictrail. Such a system would require developing a standardized system ofbarcodes or other machine-readable information as well as shipper andbuyer investment in machines to apply and read codes. One of thechallenges to developing a compelling technical solution that all marketparticipants would use voluntarily is to ensure that all segments of theindustry can afford the costs of the new system.
Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act
Key Legislation and Dates: Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act (PACA)was enacted in 1930.
409
Objective: PACA was enacted to promote fair trading practices in the fruitand vegetable industry. The objective of the recordkeeping is to facilitatethe marketing of fruit and vegetables, to verify claims, and to minimizemisrepresentation of the condition of the item, particularly when longdistances separate the traders.
Coverage: Fruit and vegetables.Recordkeeping Required: PACA calls for complete and accurate
recordkeeping and disclosure for shippers, brokers, and other firsthandlers of produce selling on behalf of growers. PACA has extensiverecordkeeping requirements with respect to who buyers and sellers are,what quantities and kinds of produce is transacted, and when and howthe transaction takes place. PACA regulations recognize that the variedfruit and vegetable industries have different recordkeeping needs, andthe regulations allow for this variance. Records must be kept for 2 yearsfrom the closing date of the transaction.
Elise Golan et al., Traceability in the U.S. Food Supply: Economic Theory and Industry Studies(USDA ERS AER830, 2004), http: / / www.ers.usda.gov / publications / aer830.
410
02GENERAL POSTHARVEST HANDLING PROCEDURES
Additional information on postharvest handling can be found on thesewebsites:
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, www.agr.gc.caCalifornia Department of Food and Agriculture, www.cdfa.ca.govEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA), Office of Pesticide Programs,
www.epa.govFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Information Network on
Postharvest Operations (InPhO), www.fao.org / inphoHawaii Agriculture Food Quality and Safety, http: / /www.hawaiiag.org /
foodsaf.htmInformation Network on Postharvest Operations, www.fao.org / inphoNorth Carolina State University Cooling and Handling Publications, http: / /
www.bae.ncsu.edu/programs/extension /publicat /postharv / index.htmlUC Davis Postharvest Technology Research and Information Center, http: / /
postharvest.ucdavis.eduUSDA/Agricultural Marketing Service /Fruit and Vegetable Division,
www.usda.gov /ams/ fruitveg.htmUSDA/Economic Research Service, http: / /www.ers.usda.gov /USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service, www.fsis.usda.govUSDA National Agricultural Statistics Service, http: / /www.nass.usda.gov /University of Florida Market Information System, http: / /
marketing.ifas.ufl.edu/University of Florida Postharvest Programs, http: / /postharvest.ifas.ufl.edu
411
TABLE 8.2. LEAFY, FLORAL, AND SUCCULENT VEGETABLES
Step Function
1. Harvesting mostly by hand; some harvesting aids are in use.2. Transport to packinghouse and unloading if not field packed.3. Cutting and trimming (by harvester or by different worker on mobile
packing line or in packinghouse).4. Sorting and manual sizing (as above).5. Washing or rinsing.6. Wrapping (e.g., cauliflower, head lettuce) or bagging (e.g., celery).7. Packing in shipping containers (waxed fiberboard or plastic to
withstand water or ice exposure for cooling).8. Palletization of shipping containers.9. Cooling methods.
● Vacuum cooling: lettuce● Hydrovacuum cooling: cauliflower, celery● Hydrocooling: artichoke, celery, green onion, leaf lettuce, leek,
spinach● Package ice: broccoli, parsley, spinach● Room cooling: artichoke, cabbage
10. Transport, destination handling, retail handling.
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TABLE 8.3. UNDERGROUND STORAGE ORGAN VEGETABLES
Step Function
1. Mechanical harvest (digging, lifting), except hand harvesting of sweetpotato.
2. Curing (in field) of potato, onion, garlic, and tropical crops.3. Field storage of potatoes and tropical storage organ vegetables in pits,
trenches, or clamps.4. Collection into containers or into bulk trailers.5. Transport to packinghouse and unloading.6. Cleaning by dry brushing or with water.7. Sorting to eliminate defects.8. Sizing.9. Packing in bags or cartons; consumer packs placed within master
containers.10. Palletization of shipping containers.11. Cooling methods.
a. Hydrocooling of temperate storage roots and tubers.b. Room cooling of potato, onion, garlic, and tropical storage organs.
12. Curing.a. Forced-air drying (onion and garlic).b. High temperature and relative humidity (potato and tropical storage
organs).13. Storage.
a. Ventilated storage of potato, onion, garlic, and sweet potato incellars and warehouses.
b. Temporary storage of temperate storage organ vegetables.c. Long-term storage of potato, onion, garlic, and tropical crops
following curing.14. Fungicide treatment (sweet potato); sprout inhibitor (potato).15. Transport, destination handling, retail handling.
413
TABLE 8.4. IMMATURE FRUIT VEGETABLES
Step Function
1. Harvesting mostly by hand into buckets or trays; some harvesting aidsare in use.a. Sweet corn, snap bean, and pea are also harvested mechanically.b. Field-packed vegetables are usually not washed, but they may be
wiped with a moist cloth or spray-washed on a mobile packing line.2. For packinghouse operations, stacking buckets or trays on trailers or
transferring to shallow pallet bins.3. Transporting harvested vegetables to packinghouse.4. Unloading by dry or wet dump.5. Washing or rinsing.6. Sorting to eliminate defects.7. Waxing cucumber and pepper.8. Sizing.9. Packing in shipping containers by weight or count.
10. Palletizing shipping containers.11. Cooling methods:
a. Hydrocooling: bean, pea, sweet corn.b. Forced-air cooling: chayote, cucumber, eggplant, okra, summer
squash.c. Slush-ice cooling and vacuum cooling: sweet corn.
12. Temporary storage.13. Transporting, destination handling, retail handling.
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TABLE 8.5. MATURE FRUIT VEGETABLES
Step Function
1. Harvesting.2. Hauling to the packinghouse or processing plant.3. Cleaning.4. Sorting to eliminate defects.5. Waxing (tomato, pepper).6. Sizing and sorting into grades.7. Packing—shipping containers.8. Palletization and unitization.
9a. Curing of winter squash and pumpkin.9b. Ripening of melon and tomato with ethylene.10. Cooling (hydrocooling, room cooling, forced-air cooling).11. Temporary storage.12. Loading into transport vehicles.13. Destination handling (distribution centers, wholesale markets, etc.).14. Delivery to retail.15. Retail handling.
Copyright 2003 from Postharvest Physiology and Pathology of Vegetables, 2nd ed., by J. R. Bartz andJ. K. Brecht (eds.). Reproduced by permission of Routledge / Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
415
03PREDICTING HARVEST DATES AND YIELDS
TABLE 8.6. APPROXIMATE TIME FROM VEGETABLE PLANTINGTO MARKET MATURITY UNDER OPTIMUM GROWINGCONDITIONS
Vegetable
Time to Market Maturity1 (days)
EarlyVariety
LateVariety
CommonVariety
Bean, broad — — 120Bean, bush 48 60 —Bean, edible soy 84 115 —Bean, pole 58 70 —Bean, lima, bush 65 80 —Bean, lima, pole 80 88 —Beet 50 65 —Broccoli2 60 85 —Broccoli raab — — 70Brussels sprouts2 90 120 —Cabbage 70 120 —Cardoon — — 120Carrot 50 95 —Cauliflower2 55 90 —Celeriac — — 110Celery2 90 125 —Chard, Swiss 50 60 —Chervil — — 60Chicory 65 150 —Chinese cabbage 50 80 —Chive — — 90Collards 70 85 —Corn, sweet 60 95 —Corn salad — — 60Cress — — 45Cucumber, pickling 48 58 —Cucumber, slicing 55 70 —Dandelion — — 85
416
TABLE 8.6. APPROXIMATE TIME FROM VEGETABLE PLANTINGTO MARKET MATURITY UNDER OPTIMUM GROWINGCONDITIONS (Continued )
Vegetable
Time to Market Maturity1 (days)
EarlyVariety
LateVariety
CommonVariety
Eggplant2 60 80 —Endive 80 100 —Florence fennel — — 100Kale — — 55Kohlrabi 50 60 —Leek — — 120Lettuce, butterhead 55 70 —Lettuce, cos 65 75 —Lettuce, head 70 85 —Lettuce, leaf 40 50 —Melon, cantaloupe 75 105Melon, casaba — — 110Melon, honeydew 90 110 —Melon, Persian — — 110Okra 50 60 —Onion, dry 90 150 —Onion, green 45 70 —Parsley 65 75 —Parsley root — — 90Parsnip — — 120Pea 56 75 —Pea, edible-podded 60 75 —Pepper, hot2 60 95 —Pepper, sweet2 65 80 —Potato 90 120 —Pumpkin 85 120 —Radicchio 90 95 —Radish 22 30 —Radish, winter 50 65 —Roselle — — 175Rutabaga — — 90
417
TABLE 8.6. APPROXIMATE TIME FROM VEGETABLE PLANTINGTO MARKET MATURITY UNDER OPTIMUM GROWINGCONDITIONS (Continued )
Vegetable
Time to Market Maturity1 (days)
EarlyVariety
LateVariety
CommonVariety
Salsify — — 150Scolymus — — 150Scorzonera — — 150Sorrel — — 60Southern pea 65 85 —Spinach 37 45 —Squash, summer 40 50 —Squash, winter 80 120 —Sweet potato 120 150 —Tomatillo — — 80Tomato2 60 85 —Tomato, processing 118 130 —Turnip 35 50 —Watercress — — 180Watermelon 75 95 —
1 Maturity may vary depending on season, latitude, production practices, variety, and other factors.2 Time from transplanting. See page 63–64.
418
TABLE 8.7. APPROXIMATE TIME FROM POLLINATION OFVEGETABLES TO MARKET MATURITY UNDER WARMGROWING CONDITIONS
VegetableTime to Market Maturity1
(days)
Bean 7–10Cantaloupe 42–46Corn,2 market 18–23Corn,2 processing 21–27Cucumber, pickling (3⁄4–11⁄8 in. in diameter) 4–5Cucumber, slicing 15–18Eggplant (2⁄3 maximum size) 25–40Okra 4–6Pepper, green stage (about maximum size) 45–55Pepper, red stage 60–70Pumpkin, Connecticut Field 80–90Pumpkin, Dickinson 90–110Pumpkin, Small Sugar 65–75Squash, summer, crookneck 6–73
Squash, summer, straightneck 5–63
Squash, summer, scallop 4–53
Squash, summer, zucchini 3–43
Squash, winter, banana 70–80Squash, winter, Boston Marrow 60–70Squash, winter, buttercup 60–70Squash, winter, butternut 60–70Squash, winter, Golden Delicious 60–70Squash, winter, hubbard 80–90Squash, winter, Table Queen or acorn 55–60Strawberry 25–42Tomato, mature green stage 35–45Tomato, red ripe stage 45–60Watermelon 42–45
1 Maturity may vary depending on season, latitude, production practices, variety, and other factors.2 Days from 50% silking.3 For a weight of 1⁄4–1⁄2 lb.
419
TABLE 8.8. ESTIMATING YIELDS OF CROPSPredicting crop yields before the harvest aids in scheduling the harvests ofvarious fields for total yields and allows harvesting to obtain highest yieldsof a particular grade or stage of maturity. To estimate yields, follow thesesteps:
1. Select and measure a typical 10-ft section of a row. If the field isvariable or large, you may want to select several 10-ft sections.
2. Harvest the crop from the measured section or sections.3. Weigh the entire sample for total yields, or grade the sample and
weigh the graded sample for yield of a particular grade.4. If you have harvested more than one 10-ft section, divide the yield by
the number of sections harvested.5. Multiply the sample weight by the conversion factor in the table for
your row spacing. The value obtained will equal hundredweight (cwt)per acre.
Conversion Factors for Estimating Yields
Row Spacing(in.)
Multiply Sample Weight (lb) byConversion Factor to Obtain cwt /acre
12 43.615 34.818 29.020 26.121 24.924 21.830 17.436 14.540 13.142 12.448 10.9
Example 1: A 10-ft sample of carrots planted in 12-in. rows yields 9 lb ofNo. 1 carrots.
9 � 43.6 � 392.4 cwt /acre
Example 2: The average yield of three 10-ft samples of No. 1 potatoesplanted in 36-in. rows is 26 lb.
26 � 14.5 � 377 cwt /acre
420
TABLE 8.9. YIELDS OF VEGETABLE CROPS
Vegetable
Approximate AverageYield in the UnitedStates (cwt /acre)
Good Yield(cwt /acre)
Artichoke 125 160Asparagus 30 45Bean, fresh market 62 100Bean, processing 75 135Bean, lima, processing 25 40Beet, fresh market 140 200Beet, processing 320 400Broccoli 145 200Brussels sprouts 180 200Cabbage, fresh market 320 450Cabbage, processing 500 800Carrot, fresh market 350 800Carrot, processing 520 700Cauliflower 170 200Celeriac — 200Celery 650 750Chard, Swiss — 150Chinese cabbage, napa — 400Chinese cabbage, pak choi — 300Collards 120 200Corn, fresh market 110 200Corn, processing 150 200Cucumber, fresh market 185 300Cucumber, processing 110 300Eggplant 250 350Endive, escarole 180 200Garlic 165 200Horseradish — 80Lettuce, head 360 400Lettuce, leaf 200 325Lettuce, romaine 300 350Melon, cantaloupe 250 250Melon, honeydew 205 250Melon, Persian 130 160
421
TABLE 8.9. YIELDS OF VEGETABLE CROPS (Continued )
Vegetable
Approximate AverageYield in the UnitedStates (cwt /acre)
Good Yield(cwt /acre)
Okra 60 150Onion 420 650Pea, fresh market 40 60Pea, processing (shelled) 30 45Pepper, bell 290 375Pepper, chile (fresh and
dried)100 230
Pepper, pimiento — 100Potato 315 400Pumpkin 215 400Radish 90 200Rhubarb — 200Rutabaga — 400Snowpea — 80Southern pea — 35Spinach, fresh market 160 225Spinach, processing 180 220Squash, summer 160 300Squash, winter — 400Sweet potato 145 300Strawberry 400 600Tomato, fresh market 290 400Tomato, processing 700 900Tomato, cherry — 600Turnip — 400Watermelon 260 500
422
TABLE 8.10. STATUS OF HAND VERSUS MECHANICAL HARVESTOF VEGETABLES
Acreage HandHarvested
(%)
Vegetable
76–100 Artichoke Asparagus Broccoli1 CabbageCauliflower Celery Cucumber1 LettuceGreen onion Collards Cress DandelionEggplant Endive Escarole FennelKale Kohlrabi Mushroom1 OkraPepper Rapini Rhubarb1 RomaineSorrel Squash Watercress CassavaCeleriac Ginger Parsley root ParsnipRutabaga Salsify Turnip Taro1
Jerusalemartichoke
51–75 Sweet potatoTurnip greens
Mustardgreens
Parsley Swiss chard
26–50 Dry onion Pumpkin1 Tomato1
0–25 Beet1 Carrot Potato1 Lima bean1
Snap bean1
Pea1
Boniato
Sweetcorn1
GarlicRadish
Spinach1
Brusselssprouts1
Horseradish1
Malanga
Adapted from A. A. Kader (ed.), Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, 2nd ed., (University ofCalifornia, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 3311, 1992).1 More than 50% of the crop is processed.
423
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for
mos
tpe
rish
able
com
mod
itie
s.C
ooli
ng
rate
sva
ryex
ten
sive
lyw
ith
inlo
ads,
pall
ets,
and
con
tain
ers.
For
ced-
air
cool
ing
(pre
ssu
reco
olin
g)
Str
awbe
rry,
fru
it-t
ype
vege
tabl
es,
tube
rs,
cau
lifl
ower
Mu
chfa
ster
than
room
cool
ing;
cool
ing
rate
su
nif
orm
ifpr
oper
lyu
sed.
Con
tain
erve
nti
ng
and
stac
kin
gre
quir
emen
tsar
ecr
itic
alto
effe
ctiv
eco
olin
g.H
ydro
cool
ing
Ste
ms,
leaf
yve
geta
bles
,som
efr
uit
-typ
eve
geta
bles
Ver
yfa
stco
olin
g;u
nif
orm
cool
ing
inbu
lkif
prop
erly
use
d,bu
tm
ayva
ryex
ten
sive
lyin
pack
edsh
ippi
ng
con
tain
ers;
dail
ycl
ean
ing
and
san
itat
ion
mea
sure
ses
sen
tial
;pro
duct
mu
stto
lera
tew
etti
ng;
wat
er-t
oler
ant
ship
pin
gco
nta
iner
sm
aybe
nee
ded.
Pac
kage
icin
gR
oots
,st
ems,
som
efl
ower
-typ
eve
geta
bles
,gre
enon
ion
,B
russ
els
spro
uts
Fast
cool
ing;
lim
ited
toco
mm
odit
ies
that
can
tole
rate
wat
er-i
ceco
nta
ct;
wat
er-t
oler
ant
ship
pin
gco
nta
iner
sar
ees
sen
tial
.
425
Vac
uu
mco
olin
gL
eafy
vege
tabl
es;s
ome
stem
and
flow
er-
type
vege
tabl
esC
omm
odit
ies
mu
sth
ave
afa
vora
ble
surf
ace-
to-
mas
sra
tio
for
effe
ctiv
eco
olin
g.C
ause
sab
out
1%w
eigh
tlo
ssfo
rea
ch10
�Fco
oled
.A
ddin
gw
ater
duri
ng
cool
ing
prev
ents
this
wei
ght
loss
but
equ
ipm
ent
ism
ore
expe
nsi
ve,a
nd
wat
er-
tole
ran
tsh
ippi
ng
con
tain
ers
are
nee
ded.
Tra
nsi
tco
olin
g:M
ech
anic
alre
frig
erat
ion
All
vege
tabl
esC
ooli
ng
inm
ost
avai
labl
eeq
uip
men
tis
too
slow
and
vari
able
;gen
eral
lyn
otef
fect
ive.
Top
icin
gan
dch
ann
elic
ing
Som
ero
ots,
stem
s,le
afy
vege
tabl
es,
can
talo
upe
.S
low
and
irre
gula
r,to
p-ic
ew
eigh
tre
duce
sn
etpa
yloa
d;w
ater
-tol
eran
tsh
ippi
ng
con
tain
ers
nee
ded.
Ada
pted
from
A.
A.
Kad
er(e
d.),
Pos
thar
vest
Tec
hn
olog
yof
Hor
ticu
ltu
ral
Cro
p,2n
ded
.(U
niv
ersi
tyof
Cal
ifor
nia
,Div
isio
nof
Agr
icu
ltu
rean
dN
atu
ral
Res
ourc
esP
ubl
icat
ion
3311
,199
2).
1F
orth
ese
met
hod
sto
beef
fect
ive,
the
prod
uct
mu
stbe
cool
edco
nti
nu
ousl
yu
nti
lre
ach
ing
the
con
sum
er.
426
TA
BL
E8.
13.
SP
EC
IFIC
CO
OL
ING
ME
TH
OD
SF
OR
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
Veg
etab
le
Siz
eof
Ope
rati
on
Lar
geS
mal
lR
emar
ks
Lea
fyV
eget
able
sC
abba
geV
C,
FA
FA
Iceb
erg
lett
uce
VC
FA
Kal
e,co
llar
dsV
C,
R,
WV
CF
AL
eaf
lett
uce
s,sp
inac
h,e
ndi
ve,
esca
role
,C
hin
ese
cabb
age,
pak
choi
,ro
mai
ne
VC
,F
A,
WV
C,
HC
FA
Roo
tV
eget
able
sW
ith
tops
HC
,P
I,F
AH
C,
FA
Car
rots
can
beV
C.
Top
ped
HC
,P
IH
C,
PI,
FA
Iris
hpo
tato
Rw
/eva
pco
oler
sW
ith
evap
cool
ers,
faci
liti
essh
ould
bead
apte
dto
curi
ng.
Sw
eet
pota
toH
CR
Ste
man
dF
low
erV
eget
able
sA
rtic
hok
eH
C,
PI
FA
,P
IA
spar
agu
sH
CH
CB
rocc
oli,
Bru
ssel
ssp
rou
tsH
C,
FA
,P
IF
A,
PI
Cau
lifl
ower
FA
,V
CF
A
427
Cel
ery,
rhu
barb
HC
,W
VC
,V
CH
C,
FA
Gre
enon
ion
,le
ekP
I,H
C,
WV
CP
I
Mu
shro
omF
A,
VC
FA
Pod
Veg
etab
les
Bea
nH
C,
FA
FA
Pea
FA
,P
I,V
CF
A,
PI
Bu
lbV
eget
able
sD
ryon
ion
RR
,F
AS
hou
ldbe
adap
ted
tocu
rin
g.G
arli
cR
Fru
it-t
ype
Veg
etab
les
Cu
cum
ber,
eggp
lan
tR
,F
A,
FA
-EC
FA
,F
A-E
CF
ruit
-typ
eve
geta
bles
are
chil
lin
gse
nsi
tive
,bu
tat
vary
ing
tem
pera
ture
.See
page
s44
4–44
8.M
elon
sC
anta
lou
peH
C,
FA
,P
IF
A,
FA
-EC
Cre
nsh
aw,h
oney
dew
,ca
saba
FA
,R
FA
,F
A-E
C
Wat
erm
elon
FA
,H
CF
A,
FA
-EC
Pep
per
R,
FA
,F
A-E
C,
VC
FA
,F
A-E
CS
um
mer
squ
ash
,okr
aR
,F
A,
FA
-EC
FA
,F
A-E
CS
wee
tco
rnH
C,
VC
,P
IH
C,
FA
,P
IT
omat
illo
R,
FA
,F
A-E
CF
A,
FA
-EC
Tom
ato
R,
FA
,F
A-E
C
428
TA
BL
E8.
13.
SP
EC
IFIC
CO
OL
ING
ME
TH
OD
SF
OR
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Veg
etab
le
Siz
eof
Ope
rati
on
Lar
geS
mal
lR
emar
ks
Win
ter
squ
ash
RR
Fre
shH
erb
sN
otpa
ckag
edH
C,
FA
FA
,R
Can
beea
sily
dam
aged
byw
ater
beat
ing
inH
C.
Pac
kage
dF
AF
A,
R
Cac
tus
Lea
ves
(nop
alit
os)
RF
AF
ruit
(tu
nas
orpr
ickl
ype
ars)
RF
A
Ada
pted
from
A.
A.
Kad
er(e
d.),
Pos
thar
vest
Tec
hn
olog
yof
Hor
ticu
ltu
ral
Cro
ps,3
rded
.(U
niv
ersi
tyof
Cal
ifor
nia
,Div
isio
nof
Agr
icu
ltu
rean
dN
atu
ral
Res
ourc
esP
ubl
icat
ion
3311
,200
2).
R�
Roo
mC
ooli
ng;
FA
�F
orce
d-ai
rC
ooli
ng;
HC
�H
ydro
cool
ing;
VC
�V
acu
um
Coo
lin
g;W
VC
�W
ater
Spr
ayV
acu
um
Coo
lin
g;F
A-E
C�
For
ced-
air
Eva
pora
tive
Coo
lin
g;P
I�
Pac
kage
Icin
g.
429
05VEGETABLE STORAGE
TABLE 8.14. RELATIVE PERISHABILITY AND POTENTIALSTORAGE LIFE OF FRESH VEGETABLES IN AIR ATNEAR OPTIMUM STORAGE TEMPERATURE ANDRELATIVE HUMIDITY
Potential Storage Life (weeks)
�2 2–4 4–8 8–16
Asparagus Artichoke Beet GarlicBean sprouts Green bean Carrot OnionBroccoli Brussels sprouts Potato (immature) Potato (mature)Cantaloupe Cabbage Radish PumpkinCauliflower Celery Winter squashGreen onion Eggplant Sweet potatoLeaf lettuce Head lettuce TaroMushroom Mixed melons YamPea OkraSpinach PepperSweet corn Summer squashTomato (ripe)Fresh-cut
vegetables
Tomato(partially ripe)
Adapted from A. A. Kader (ed.), Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, 3rd ed. (University ofCalifornia, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 3311, 2002).
430
TABLE 8.15. RECOMMENDED TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVEHUMIDITY CONDITIONS AND APPROXIMATESTORAGE LIFE OF FRESH VEGETABLES
For more detailed information about specific commodities, go to one of thefollowing websites:
http: / /www.ba.ars.usda.gov /hb66 / index.html
http: / /postharvest.ucdavis.edu/produce /producefacts / index.shtml
Vegetable
Storage Conditions
Temperature(�F)
Relative Humidity(%)
ApproximateStorage Life
Amaranth 32–36 95–100 10–14 daysAnise 32–36 90–95 2–3 weeksArtichoke, globe 32 95–100 2–3 weeksArtichoke, Jerusalem 31–32 90–95 4 monthsAsparagus 36 95–100 2–3 weeksBean, fava 32 90–95 1–2 weeksBean, lima 37–41 95 5–7 daysBean, snap 40–45 95 7–10 daysBean, yardlong 40–45 95 7–10 daysBeet, bunched 32 98–100 10–14 daysBeet, topped 32 98–100 4 monthsBitter melon 50–54 85–90 2–3 weeksBok choy 32 95–100 3 weeksBoniato 55–60 85–90 4–5 monthsBroccoli 32 95–100 10–14 daysBrussels sprouts 32 95–100 3–5 weeksCabbage, early 32 98–100 3–6 weeksCabbage, late 32 95–100 5–6 monthsCabbage, Chinese 32 95–100 2–3 monthsCactus, leaves 41–50 90–95 2–3 weeksCactus, pear 41 90–95 3 weeksCalabaza 50–55 50–70 2–3 monthsCarrot, bunched 32 98–100 10–14 daysCarrot, topped 32 98–100 6–8 monthsCassava 32–41 85–90 1–2 months
431
TABLE 8.15. RECOMMENDED TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVEHUMIDITY CONDITIONS AND APPROXIMATESTORAGE LIFE OF FRESH VEGETABLES(Continued )
Vegetable
Storage Conditions
Temperature(�F)
Relative Humidity(%)
ApproximateStorage Life
Cauliflower 32 95–98 3–4 weeksCeleriac 32 98–100 6–8 monthsCelery 32 98–100 1–2 monthsChard 32 95–100 10–14 daysChayote 45 85–90 4–6 weeksChicory, witloof 36–38 95–98 2–4 weeksChinese broccoli 32 95–100 10–14 daysCollards 32 95–100 10–14 daysCucumber, slicing 50–54 85–90 10–14 daysCucumber, pickling 40 95–100 7 daysDaikon 32–34 95–100 4 monthsEggplant 50 90–95 1–2 weeksEndive, escarole 32 95–100 2–4 weeksGarlic 32 65–70 6–7 monthsGinger 55 65 6 monthsGreens, cool-season 32 95–100 10–14 daysGreens, warm-
season45–50 95–100 5–7 days
Horseradish 30–32 98–100 10–12 monthsJicama 55–65 85–90 1–2 monthsKale 32 95–100 2–3 weeksKohlrabi 32 98–100 2–3 monthsLeek 32 95–100 2 monthsLettuce 32 98–100 2–3 weeksMalanga 45 70–80 3 monthsMelon
Cantaloupe 36–41 95 2–3 weeksCasaba 45–50 85–90 3–4 weeksCrenshaw 45–50 85–90 2–3 weeksHoneydew 41–50 85–90 3–4 weeks
432
TABLE 8.15. RECOMMENDED TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVEHUMIDITY CONDITIONS AND APPROXIMATESTORAGE LIFE OF FRESH VEGETABLES(Continued )
Vegetable
Storage Conditions
Temperature(�F)
Relative Humidity(%)
ApproximateStorage Life
Persian 45–50 85–90 2–3 weeksWatermelon 50–59 90 2–3 weeks
Mushroom 32 90 7–14 daysMustard greens 32 90–95 7–14 daysOkra 45–50 90–95 7–10 daysOnion, dry 32 65–70 1–8 monthsOnion, green 32 95–100 3 weeksParsley 32 95–100 8–10 weeksParsnip 32 98–100 4–6 monthsPea, English, snow,
snap32–34 90–98 1–2 weeks
Pepino 41–50 95 4 weeksPepper, chile 41–50 85–95 2–3 weeksPepper, sweet 45–50 95–98 2–3 weeksPotato, early1 50–59 90–95 10–14 daysPotato, late2 40–54 95–98 5–10 monthsPumpkin 54–59 50–70 2–3 monthsRadicchio 32–34 95–100 3–4 weeksRadish, spring 32 95–100 1–2 monthsRadish, winter 32 95–100 2–4 monthsRhubarb 32 95–100 2–4 weeksRutabaga 32 98–100 4–6 monthsSalisfy 32 95–98 2–4 monthsScorzonera 32–34 95–98 6 monthsShallot 32–36 65–70 —Southern pea 40–41 95 6–8 daysSpinach 32 95–100 10–14 daysSprouts
Alfalfa 32 95–100 7 daysBean 32 95–100 7–9 days
433
TABLE 8.15. RECOMMENDED TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVEHUMIDITY CONDITIONS AND APPROXIMATESTORAGE LIFE OF FRESH VEGETABLES(Continued )
Vegetable
Storage Conditions
Temperature(�F)
Relative Humidity(%)
ApproximateStorage Life
Radish 32 95–100 5–7 daysSquash, summer 45–50 95 1–2 weeksSquash, winter 3 54–59 50–70 2–3 monthsStrawberry 32 90–95 5–7 daysSweet corn,
shrunken-232 90–95 10–14 days
Sweet corn, sugary 32 95–98 5–8 daysSweet potato4 55–59 85–95 4–7 monthsTamarillo 37–40 85–95 10 weeksTaro 45–50 85–90 4 monthsTomatillo 45–55 85–90 3 weeksTomato, mature
green50–55 90–95 2–5 weeks
Tomato, firm ripe 46–50 85–90 1–3 weeksTurnip greens 32 95–100 10–14 daysTurnip root 32 95 4–5 monthsWater chestnut 32–36 85–90 2–4 monthsWatercress 32 95–100 2–3 weeksYam 59 70–80 2–7 months
Adapted from A. A. Kader (ed.), Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, 3rd ed. (University ofCalifornia, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 3311, 2002).1 Winter, spring, or summer-harvested potatoes are usually not stored. However, they can be held 4–5months at 40�F if cured 4 or more days at 60–70�F before storage. Potatoes for chips should be held at70�F or conditioned for best chip quality.2 Fall-harvested potatoes should be cured at 50–60�F and high relative humidity for 10–14 days.Storage temperatures for table stock or seed should be lowered gradually to 38–40�F. Potatoesintended for processing should be stored at 50–55�F; those stored at lower temperatures or with ahigh reducing sugar content should be conditioned at 70�F for 1–4 weeks or until cooking tests aresatisfactory.3 Winter squash varieties differ in storage life.4 Sweet potatoes should be cured immediately after harvest by holding at 85�F and 90–95% relativehumidity for 4–7 days.
434
TABLE 8.16. POSTHARVEST HANDLING OF FRESH CULINARYHERBS
Herb
Storage Conditions
Temperature(�F)
Relative Humidity(%)
EthyleneSensitivity
ApproximateStorage Life
Basil 50 90 High 7 daysChives 32 95–100 Medium —Cilantro 32–34 95–100 High 2 weeksDill 32 95–100 High 1–2 weeksEpazote 32–41 90–95 Medium 1–2 weeksMint 32 95–100 High 2–3 weeksOregano 32–41 90–95 Medium 1–2 weeksParsley 32 95–100 High 1–2 monthsPerilla 50 95 Medium 7 daysSage 32–50 90–95 Medium 2–3 weeksThyme 32 90–95 — 2–3 weeks
Adapted from A. A. Kader (ed.), Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, 3rd ed. (University ofCalifornia, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 3311, 2002).
435
TABLE 8.17. RESPIRATION RATES OF FRESH CULINARY HERBS
Herb
Respiration Rates (mg/kg /hr of CO2)
32�F 50�F 68�F
Basil 36 71 167Chervil 12 80 170Chinese chive 54 99 432Chives 22 110 540Coriander 22 nd ndDill 22 103 ndFennel 191 nd 32Ginger nd nd 62
Ginseng 6 15 ndMarjoram 28 68 ndMint 20 76 252Oregano 22 101 176Sage 36 103 157Tarragon 40 94 234Thyme 12 25 52
Adapted from The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetables, and Florist and Nursery Stocks (USDA,ARS Agriculture Handbook 66, 2004), http: / / www.ba.ars.usda.gov / hb66 / contents.html.1 At 36�F2 At 55�F
436
TA
BL
E8.
18.
AV
ER
AG
ER
ES
PIR
AT
ION
RA
TE
SO
FV
EG
ET
AB
LE
SA
TV
AR
IOU
ST
EM
PE
RA
TU
RE
S
Veg
etab
le
Res
pira
tion
Rat
e(m
g/k
g/h
rof
CO
2)
32�F
41�F
50�F
59�F
68�F
77�F
Art
ich
oke,
glob
e30
4371
110
193
nd1
Art
ich
oke,
Jeru
sale
m10
1219
50n
dn
dA
spar
agu
s260
105
215
235
270
nd
Bea
n,
snap
2034
5892
130
nd
Bea
n,
lon
g40
4692
202
220
nd
Bee
t5
1118
3160
nd
Bro
ccol
i21
3481
170
300
nd
Bru
ssel
ssp
rou
ts40
7014
720
027
6n
dC
abba
ge5
1118
2842
62C
abba
ge,C
hin
ese
1012
1826
39n
dC
arro
t,to
pped
1520
3140
25n
dC
auli
flow
er17
2134
4679
92C
eler
iac
713
2335
45n
dC
eler
y15
2031
4071
nd
Ch
icor
y3
613
2137
nd
Cu
cum
ber
nd
nd
2629
3137
Egg
plan
t,A
mer
ican
nd
nd
nd
693
nd
nd
Egg
plan
t,Ja
pan
ese
nd
nd
nd
1313
nd
nd
437
Egg
plan
t,w
hit
eeg
gn
dn
dn
d11
33n
dn
dE
ndi
ve45
5273
100
133
200
Gar
lic
816
2422
20n
dJi
cam
a6
1114
nd
6n
dK
ohlr
abi
1016
3146
nd
nd
Lee
k15
2560
9611
011
5L
ettu
ce,
hea
d12
1731
3956
82L
ettu
ce,
leaf
2330
3963
101
147
Lu
ffa
1427
3663
79n
dM
elon
Can
talo
upe
610
1537
5567
Hon
eyde
wn
d8
1424
3033
Wat
erm
elon
nd
48
nd
21n
dM
ush
room
3570
97n
d26
4n
dN
opal
ito
nd
1840
5674
nd
Okr
an
d40
9114
626
134
5O
nio
n,
dry
35
77
8n
dP
akch
oi6
1120
3956
nd
Par
sley
3060
114
150
199
274
Par
snip
1213
2237
nd
nd
Pea
,E
ngl
ish
3864
8617
527
131
3P
ea,
edib
le-p
odde
d39
6489
176
273
nd
Pep
per
nd
712
2734
nd
Pot
ato,
cure
dn
d12
1617
22n
dP
rick
lype
arn
dn
dn
dn
d32
nd
Rad
icch
io8
134
235
nd
nd
45R
adis
h,t
oppe
d16
2034
7413
017
2R
adis
h,w
ith
tops
610
1632
5175
Rh
uba
rb11
1525
4049
nd
Ru
taba
ga5
1014
2637
nd
438
TA
BL
E8.
18.
AV
ER
AG
ER
ES
PIR
AT
ION
RA
TE
SO
FV
EG
ET
AB
LE
SA
TV
AR
IOU
ST
EM
PE
RA
TU
RE
S(C
onti
nu
ed)
Veg
etab
le
Res
pira
tion
Rat
e(m
g/k
g/h
rof
CO
2)
32�F
41�F
50�F
59�F
68�F
77�F
Sal
sify
2543
49n
d19
3n
dS
pin
ach
2145
110
179
230
nd
Squ
ash
,su
mm
er25
3267
153
164
nd
Sw
eet
corn
4163
105
159
261
359
Sw
iss
char
d19
6n
dn
dn
d29
nd
Sou
ther
npe
a,po
ds24
625
nd
nd
148
nd
Sou
ther
npe
a,pe
as29
6n
dn
dn
d12
6n
dT
omat
illo
nd
1316
nd
32n
dT
omat
on
dn
d15
2235
43T
urn
ip,t
oppe
d8
1016
2325
nd
Wat
ercr
ess
2250
110
175
322
377
Ada
pted
from
Th
eC
omm
erci
alS
tora
geof
Fru
its,
Veg
etab
les,
and
Flo
rist
and
Nu
rser
yS
tock
s(U
SD
AA
gric
ult
ure
Han
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TABLE 8.19. RECOMMENDED CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE ORMODIFIED ATMOSPHERE CONDITIONS DURINGTRANSPORT AND/OR STORAGE OF SELECTEDVEGETABLES
Vegetable
Temperature 1 (�F)
Optimum Range
ControlledAtmosphere2
(%)
O2 CO2 Application
Artichoke 32 32–41 2–3 2–3 ModerateAsparagus 36 34–41 air 10–14 HighBean, green 46 41–50 2–3 4–7 SlightBean, processing 46 41–50 8–10 20–30 ModerateBroccoli 32 32–41 1–2 5–10 HighBrussels sprouts 32 32–41 1–2 5–7 SlightCabbage 32 32–41 2–3 3–6 HighCantaloupe 37 36–41 3–5 10–20 ModerateCauliflower 32 32–41 2–3 3–4 SlightCeleriac 32 32–41 2–4 2–3 SlightCelery 32 32–41 1–4 3–5 SlightChinese cabbage 32 32–41 1–2 0–5 SlightCucumber, slicing 54 46–54 1–4 0 SlightCucumber, processing 39 34–39 3–5 3–5 SlightHerbs 3 34 32–41 5–10 4–6 ModerateLeek 32 32–41 1–2 2–5 SlightLettuce, crisphead 32 32–41 1–3 0 ModerateLettuce, cut or shredded 32 32–41 1–5 5–20 HighLettuce, leaf 32 32–41 1–3 0 ModerateMushroom 32 32–41 3–21 5–15 ModerateOkra 50 45–54 air 4–10 SlightOnion, dry 32 32–41 1–2 0–10 SlightOnion, green 32 32–41 2–3 0–5 SlightParsley 32 32–41 8–10 8–10 SlightPea, sugar 32 32–50 2–3 2–3 SlightPepper, bell 46 41–54 2–5 2–5 SlightPepper, chile 46 41–54 3–5 0–5 SlightPepper, processing 41 41–54 3–5 10–20 ModerateRadish, topped 32 32–41 1–2 2–3 Slight
440
TABLE 8.19. RECOMMENDED CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE ORMODIFIED ATMOSPHERE CONDITIONS DURINGTRANSPORT AND/OR STORAGE OF SELECTEDVEGETABLES (Continued )
Vegetable
Temperature 1 (�F)
Optimum Range
ControlledAtmosphere2
(%)
O2 CO2 Application
Spinach 32 32–41 7–10 5–10 SlightSweet corn 32 32–41 2–4 5–10 SlightTomato, mature, green 54 54–59 3–5 3–5 ModerateTomato ripe 50 50–59 3–5 3–5 ModerateWitloof chicory 32 32–41 3–4 4–5 Slight
Adapted from A. A. Kader (ed.), Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, 3rd ed. (University ofCalifornia, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 3311, 2002).1 Usual and / or recommended range. A relative humidity of 90–98% is recommended.2 Specific CA recommendations depend on varieties, temperature, and duration of storage.3 Herbs: chervil, chives, coriander, dill, sorrel, and watercress.
441
TABLE 8.20. OPTIMUM CONDITIONS FOR CURING ROOT,TUBER, AND BULB VEGETABLES PRIOR TOSTORAGE
Vegetable Temperature (�F) RH (%) Duration (days)
Cassava 86–95 85–90 4–7Malanga 86–95 90–95 7Potato
Early crop 59–68 90–95 4–5Late crop 50–59 90–95 10–15
Sweet potato 84–90 80–90 4–7Taro 93–97 95 5Water chestnut 86–90 95–100 3Yam 86–95 85–95 4–7Garlic and onion ambient (75–90 best) 5–10 (field drying)
93–113 60–75 0.5–3 (forced heated air)
Copyright 2003 from Postharvest Physiology and Pathology of Vegetables, 2nd ed., by J. R. Bartz andJ. K. Brecht (eds.). Reproduced by permission of Routledge / Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
TABLE 8.21. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE RATE OFDETERIORATION OF VEGETABLES NOT SENSITIVETO CHILLING INJURY
Temperature (T)
(�F)Assumed
Q101
Relative Rateof Deterioration
Relative ShelfLife
Loss per Day(%)
32 1.0 100 150 3.0 3.0 33 368 2.5 7.5 13 886 2.0 15.0 7 14
104 1.5 22.5 4 25
Adapted from A. A. Kader (ed.), Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, 3rd ed. (University ofCalifornia, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 3311, 2002).
1 Q10 �rate of deterioration at T � 10�C
rate of deterioration at T
442
TABLE 8.22. MOISTURE LOSS FROM VEGETABLES
High Medium Low
Broccoli Artichoke EggplantCantaloupe Asparagus GarlicChard Bean, snap GingerGreen onion Beet1 MelonsKohlrabi Brussels sprouts OnionLeafy greens Cabbage PotatoMushroom Carrot1 PumpkinOriental vegetables Cassava2 Winter squashParsley CauliflowerStrawberry Celeriac1
CelerySweet corn3
Cucumber2
EndiveEscaroleLeekLettuceOkraParsnip1
PeaPepperRadish1
Rutabaga1,2
Sweet potatoSummer squashTomato2
Yam
Adapted from B. M. McGregor, Tropical Products Transport Handbook, USDA Agricultural Handbook668 (1987).1 Root crops with tops have a high rate of moisture loss.2 Waxing reduces the rate of moisture loss.3 Husk removal reduces water loss.
443
TABLE 8.23. STORAGE SPROUT INHIBITORSSprout inhibitors are most effective when used in conjunction with goodstorage; their use cannot substitute for poor storage or poor storagemanagement. However, storage temperatures may be somewhat higherwhen sprout inhibitors are used than when they are not. Follow labeldirections.
Vegetable Material Application
Potato (do not useon seedpotatoes)
Maleic hydrazide When most tubers are 11⁄2–2 in.in diameter. Vines mustremain green for severalweeks after application.
Chlorprophan (CIPC) In storage, 2–3 weeks afterharvest as an aerosoltreatment. Do not store seedpotatoes in a treated storage.
During washing, as anemulsifiable concentrateadded to wash water toprevent sprouting duringmarketing.
Onion Maleic hydrazide Apply when 50% of the tops aredown, the bulbs are mature,the necks soft, and 5–8leaves are still green.
444
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446
TABLE 8.25. VEGETABLES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TOCHILLING INJURY SUSCEPTIBILITY
Not Susceptible toChilling Injury
Susceptible toChilling Injury
Artichoke Bean, snapAsparagus CantaloupeBean, lima CassavaBeet CucumberBroccoli EggplantBrussels sprouts GingerCabbage OkraCarrot PepperCauliflower PepinoCelery Prickly pearEndive PumpkinGarlic SquashLettuce Sweet potatoMushroom TamarilloOnion TaroParsley TomatoParsnip WatermelonPea YamRadishSpinachStrawberrySweet cornTurnip
Adapted from A. A. Kader (ed.), Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, 3rd ed. (University ofCalifornia, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 3311, 2002).
447
TABLE 8.26. RELATIVE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF VEGETABLES TOCHILLING INJURY
Most Susceptible Moderately Susceptible Least Susceptible
Asparagus Broccoli BeetBean, snap Carrot Brussels sproutsCucumber Cauliflower Cabbage, mature and savoyEggplant Celery KaleLettuce Onion, dry KohlrabiOkra Parsley ParsnipPepper, sweet Pea RutabagaPotato Radish SalsifySquash, summer Spinach TurnipSweet potato Squash, winterTomato
Adapted from Chien Yi Wang, ‘‘Chilling and Freezing Injury,’’ in The Commercial Storage of Fruits,Vegetables, and Florist and Nursery Stocks (USDA, Agriculture Handbook 66, 2004), http: / /www.ba.ars.usda.gov / hb66 / index.html.
448
TABLE 8.27. CHILLING THRESHOLD TEMPERATURES ANDVISUAL SYMPTOMS OF CHILLING INJURY FORSOME SUBTROPICAL AND TROPICAL STORAGEORGAN VEGETABLES
VegetableChilling
Threshold (�F) Symptoms
Cassava 41–46 Internal breakdown, increased water loss,failure to sprout, increased decay, loss ofeating quality
Ginger 54 Accelerated softening and shriveling, oozesmoisture from the surface, decay
Jicama 55–59 External decay, rubbery and translucentflesh with grown discoloration, increasedwater loss
Malanga 45 Tissue breakdown and internaldiscoloration, increased water loss,increased decay, undesirable flavorchanges
Potato 39 Mahogany browning, reddish-brown areas inthe flesh, adverse effects on cookingquality
Sweet potato 54 Internal brown-black discoloration, adverseeffects on cooled quality, hard core,accelerated decay
Taro 45–50 Tissue breakdown and internaldiscoloration, increased water loss,increased decay, undesirable flavorchanges
Yam 55 Tissue softening, internal discoloration(grayish flecked with reddish brown),shriveling, decay
Copyright 2003 from Postharvest Physiology and Pathology of Vegetables, 2nd ed. by J. R. Bartz andJ. K. Brecht (eds.). Reproduced by permission of Routledge / Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
449
TABLE 8.28. SYMPTOMS OF FREEZING INJURY ON SOMEVEGETABLES
Vegetable Symptoms
Artichoke Epidermis becomes detached and forms whitish to light tanblisters. When blisters are broken, underlying tissue turnsbrown.
Asparagus Tip becomes limp and dark; the rest of the spear is water-soaked. Thawed spears become mushy.
Beet External and internal water-soaking and, sometimes,blackening of conducting tissue.
Broccoli The youngest florets in the center of the curd are mostsensitive to freezing injury. They turn brown and give strongoff-odors on thawing.
Cabbage Leaves become water-soaked, translucent, and limp on thawing;separated epidermis.
Carrot A blistered appearance; jagged lengthwise cracks. Interiorbecomes water-soaked and darkened on thawing.
Cauliflower Curds turn brown and have a strong off-odor when cooked.Celery Leaves and petioles appear wilted and water-soaked on
thawing. Petioles freeze more readily than leaves.Garlic Thawed cloves appear water-soaked, grayish yellow.Lettuce Blistering, dead cells of the separated epidermis on outer
leaves become tan; increased susceptibility to physicaldamage and decay.
Onion Thawed bulbs are soft, grayish yellow, and water-soaked incross section; often limited to individual scales.
Pepper,bell
Dead, water-soaked tissue in part of or all pericarp surface;pitting, shriveling, decay follow thawing.
Potato Freezing injury may not be externally evident but shows asgray or bluish gray patches beneath the skin. Thawed tubersbecome soft and watery.
Radish Thawed tissues appear translucent; roots soften and shrivel.Sweet
potatoA yellowish brown discoloration of the vascular ring, and a
yellowish green water-soaked appearance of other tissues.Roots soften and become susceptible to decay.
Tomato Water-soaked and soft on thawing. In partially frozen fruits,the margin between healthy and dead tissue is distinct,especially in green fruits.
Turnip Small water-soaked spots or pitting on the surface. Injuredtissues appear tan or gray and give off an objectionable odor.
Adapted from A. A. Kader, J. M. Lyons, and L. L. Morris, ‘‘Postharvest Responses of Vegetables toPreharvest Field Temperature,’’ HortScience 9 (1974):523–527.
450
TABLE 8.29. SOME POSTHARVEST PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERSOF VEGETABLES, ATTRIBUTABLE DIRECTLY ORINDIRECTLY TO PREHARVEST FIELDTEMPERATURES
Vegetable Disorder Symptoms and Development
Asparagus Feathering Bracts of the spears are partly spread as aresult of high temperature.
Brusselssprouts
Black leaf speck Becomes visible after storage for 1–2weeks at low temperature. Has beenattributed in part to cauliflower mosaicvirus infection in the field, which isinfluenced by temperature and otherenvironmental factors.
Tip burn Leaf margins turn light tan to dark brown.Cantaloupe Vein tract
browningDiscoloration of unnetted longitudinal
stripes; related partly to hightemperature and virus diseases.
Garlic Waxybreakdown
Enhanced by high temperature duringgrowth; slightly sunken, light yellowareas in fleshy cloves, then the entireclove becomes amber, slightlytranslucent, and waxy but still firm.
Lettuce Tip burn Light tan to dark brown margins of leaves.Has been attributed to several causes,including field temperature; it can leadto soft rot development duringpostharvest handling.
Rib discoloration More common in lettuce grown when daytemperatures exceed 81�F or when nighttemperatures are between 55–64�F thanin lettuce grown during cooler periods.
Russet spotting Small tan, brown, or olive spots randomlydistributed over the affected leaf; apostharvest disorder of lettuce inducedby ethylene. Lettuce is more susceptibleto russet spotting when harvested afterhigh field temperatures (above 86�F) for2 days or more during the 10 daysbefore harvest.
451
TABLE 8.29. SOME POSTHARVEST PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERSOF VEGETABLES, ATTRIBUTABLE DIRECTLY ORINDIRECTLY TO PREHARVEST FIELDTEMPERATURES (Continued )
Vegetable Disorder Symptoms and Development
Rusty browndiscoloration
Rusty brown discoloration has beenrelated to internal rib necrosisassociated with lettuce mosaic virusinfection, which is influenced by fieldtemperature and other environmentalfactors.
Onion Translucentscale
Grayish water-soaked appearance of theouter two or three fleshy scales of thebulb; translucency makes venationdistinct. In severe cases, the entire bulbsoftens, and off-odors may develop.
Potato Blackheart May occur in the field during excessivelyhot weather in waterlogged soils.Internal symptom is dark gray topurplish or black discoloration, usuallyin the center of the tuber.
Radish Pithiness Textured white spots or streaks in crosssection, large air spaces near the center,tough and dry roots. Results from hightemperature.
Adapted from A. A. Kader, J. M. Lyons, and L. L. Morris, ‘‘Postharvest Responses of Vegetables toPreharvest Field Temperature,’’ HortScience 9 (1974):523–527.
452
TABLE 8.30. SYMPTOMS OF SOLAR INJURY ON SOMEVEGETABLES
Vegetable Symptoms
Bean, snap Very small brown or reddish spots on one side of thepod coalesce and become water-soaked and slightlyshrunken.
Cabbage Blistering of some outer leaves leads to a bleached,papery appearance. Desiccated leaves are susceptibleto decay.
Cauliflower Discoloration of curds from yellow to brown to black(solar browning).
Cantaloupe Sunburn: dry, sunken, and white to light tan areas. Inmilder sunburn, ground color is green or spottybrown.
Lettuce Papery areas on leaves, especially the cap leaf, developduring clear weather when air temperatures arehigher than 77�F; affected areas become focus fordecay.
Honeydew melon White to gray area at or near the top, may be slightlywrinkled, undesirable flavor, or brown blotch, whichis tan to brown discolored areas caused by death ofepidermal cells due to excessive ultraviolet radiation.
Onion and garlic Sunburn: dry scales are wrinkled, sometimes extendingto one or two fleshy scales. Injured area may bebleached depending on the color of the bulb.
Pepper, bell Dry and papery areas, yellowing, and, sometimes,wilting.
Potato Sunscald: water and blistered areas on the tubersurface. Injured areas become sunken and leathery,and subsurface tissue rapidly turns dark brown toblack when exposed to air.
Tomato Sunburn (solar yellowing): affected areas on the fruitbecome whitish, translucent, thin-walled, a nettedappearance may develop. Mild solar injury may notbe noticeable at harvest but becomes more apparentafter harvest as uneven ripening.
Adapted from A. A. Kader, J. M. Lyons, and L. L. Morris, ‘‘Postharvest Responses of Vegetables toPreharvest Field Temperature,’’ HortScience 9 (1974):523–527.
453
TABLE 8.31. CLASSIFICATION OF HORTICULTURALCOMMODITIES ACCORDING TO ETHYLENEPRODUCTION RATES
Very Low Low Moderate High Very High
Artichoke Blackberry Banana Apple CherimoyaAsparagus Blueberry Fig Apricot Mammee appleCauliflower Casaba melon Guava Avocado Passion fruitCherry Cranberry Honeydew
melonCantaloupe Sapote
Citrus Cucumber Mango FeijoaGrape Eggplant Plantain Kiwi fruit
(ripe)Jujube Okra Tomato NectarineLeafy vegetables Olive PapayaMost cut flowers Pepper PeachPomegranate Persimmon PearPotato Pineapple PlumRoot vegetables PumpkinStrawberry Raspberry
TamarilloWatermelon
Adapted from A. A. Kader (ed.), Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, 3rd ed. (University ofCalifornia, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 3311, 2002).
454
COMPATIBILITY OF FRESH PRODUCE IN MIXED LOADS UNDERVARIOUS RECOMMENDED TRANSIT CONDITIONS
Shippers and receivers of fresh fruits and vegetables frequently prefer tohandle shipments that consist of more than one commodity. In mixed loads,it is important to combine only those commodities that are compatible intheir requirements for temperature, modified atmosphere, relative humidity,protection from odors, and protection from physiologically active gases suchas ethylene.
455
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.
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33.
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458
TA
BL
E8.
33.
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tain
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ote
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rsop
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pted
from
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er(e
d.),
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thar
vest
Tec
hn
olog
yof
Hor
ticu
ltu
ral
Cro
ps,3
rded
.(U
niv
ersi
tyof
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ifor
nia
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rean
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ral
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ourc
esP
ubl
icat
ion
s33
11,2
002)
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ene
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ould
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ptbe
low
1pp
min
stor
age
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s.1P
rodu
cts
sen
siti
veto
eth
ylen
eda
mag
e.
459
07POSTHARVEST DISEASES
INTEGRATED CONTROL OF POSTHARVEST DISEASES
Effective and consistent control of storage diseases depends on integrationof the following practices:
● Select disease resistant cultivars where possible.● Maintain correct crop nutrition by use of leaf and soil analysis.● Irrigate based on crop requirements and avoid overhead irrigation.● Apply preharvest treatments to control insects and diseases.● Harvest the crop at the correct maturity for storage.● Apply postharvest treatments to disinfest and control diseases and
disorders on produce.● Maintain good sanitation in packing areas and keep dump water free
of contamination.● Store produce under conditions least conducive to growth of
pathogens.
460
TA
BL
E8.
34.
IMP
OR
TA
NT
PO
ST
HA
RV
ES
TD
ISE
AS
ES
OF
VE
GE
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ud
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em
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onas
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ycet
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alar
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omyc
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rot
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caro
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ray
mol
dro
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ner
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omyc
ete
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erot
ium
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rolf
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nom
ycet
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ater
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ftro
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cler
otin
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isco
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ete
461
Cel
ery
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teri
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ftro
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ud
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ria
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wn
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iiH
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ora
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ora
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otry
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ycet
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ocen
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ina
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ycet
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aro
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aap
iico
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ete
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kro
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otin
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p.D
isco
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ete
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tori
asp
otS
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ria
apii
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ycet
eC
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fers
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ern
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leaf
spot
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ern
aria
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ycet
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rial
soft
rot
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riu
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rot
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thom
onas
cam
pest
ris
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teri
um
Dow
ny
mil
dew
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onos
pora
para
siti
caO
omyc
ete
Rh
izoc
ton
iaro
tR
hiz
octo
nia
sola
ni
Ago
nom
ycet
eR
ing
spot
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osph
aere
lla
bras
sici
cola
Loc
ulo
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teV
iru
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rus
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rnip
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aic
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iru
s
Wat
ery
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rot
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erot
inia
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com
ycet
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iste
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ida
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ycet
e
462
TA
BL
E8.
34.
IMP
OR
TA
NT
PO
ST
HA
RV
ES
TD
ISE
AS
ES
OF
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Veg
etab
leD
isea
seC
ausa
lA
gen
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un
gal
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ss/T
ype
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curb
its
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ich
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spp.
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lom
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rial
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rot
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inia
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teri
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ckro
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idym
ella
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nia
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ycet
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otry
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otry
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roph
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aseo
lin
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ete
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um
rot
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sari
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spp.
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hom
ycet
eL
eak
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hiu
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omyc
ete
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izop
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izop
us
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omyc
ete
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erot
ium
rot
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erot
ium
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Ago
nom
ycet
eS
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rot
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sola
ni
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nom
ycet
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mes
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ern
aria
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ht
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alte
rnat
aH
yph
omyc
ete
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thra
cnos
eC
olle
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ich
um
spp.
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lom
ycet
eA
scoc
hyt
apo
dsp
otA
scoc
hyt
asp
p.C
oelo
myc
etes
Bac
teri
albl
igh
tP
seu
dom
onas
spp.
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thom
onas
spp.
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teri
a
Ch
ocol
ate
spot
B.
cin
erea
Hyp
hom
ycet
eC
otto
ny
leak
Pyt
hiu
msp
p.M
ycos
phae
rell
abl
igh
tM
.pi
nod
es
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ycet
eL
ocu
loas
com
ycet
e
Ru
stU
rom
yces
spp.
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ibas
idio
myc
ete
Scl
erot
ium
rot
S.
rolf
sii
Ago
nom
ycet
eS
oil
rot
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sola
ni
Ago
nom
ycet
eW
hit
em
old
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erot
inia
spp.
Dis
com
ycet
e
463
Let
tuce
Bac
teri
alro
tE
rwin
ia,
Pse
ud
omon
as,
Xan
thom
onas
spp.
Bac
teri
a
Gra
ym
old
rot
B.
cin
erea
Hyp
hom
ycet
eR
hiz
octo
nia
rot
R.
sola
ni
Ago
nom
ycet
eR
ings
pot
Mic
rod
och
ium
pan
atto
nia
nu
mH
yph
omyc
ete
Sep
tori
asp
otS
.la
ctu
cae
Coe
lom
ycet
eS
tem
phyl
ium
spot
Ste
mph
yliu
mh
erba
rum
Hyp
hom
ycet
eW
ater
yso
ftro
tS
cler
otin
iasp
p.D
isco
myc
ete
Pot
ato
Bac
teri
also
ftro
tE
rwin
iasp
p.B
acte
ria
Bli
ght
Ph
ytop
hth
ora
infe
stan
sO
omyc
ete
Ch
arco
alro
tS
.ba
tati
cola
Ago
nom
ycet
eC
omm
onsc
abS
trep
tom
yces
scab
ies
Act
inom
ycet
eF
usa
riu
mro
tF
usa
riu
msp
p.H
yph
omyc
ete
Gan
gren
eP
hom
aex
igu
aC
oelo
myc
ete
Rin
gro
tC
lavi
bact
erm
ich
igan
ensi
sB
acte
riu
mS
cler
otiu
mro
tS
.ro
lfsi
iA
gon
omyc
ete
Sil
ver
scu
rfH
elm
inth
ospo
riu
mso
lan
iH
yph
omyc
ete
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ery
wou
nd
rot
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hiu
msp
p.O
omyc
ete
464
TA
BL
E8.
34.
IMP
OR
TA
NT
PO
ST
HA
RV
ES
TD
ISE
AS
ES
OF
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(Con
tin
ued
)
Veg
etab
leD
isea
seC
ausa
lA
gen
tF
un
gal
Cla
ss/T
ype
Sol
anac
eou
sF
ruit
sA
lter
nar
iaro
tA
.al
tern
ata
Hyp
hom
ycet
eA
nth
racn
ose
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leto
tric
hu
msp
p.C
oelo
myc
ete
Bac
teri
alca
nke
rC
.m
ich
igan
ensi
sB
acte
riu
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rial
spec
kP
seu
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onas
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nga
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riu
mB
acte
rial
spot
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cam
pest
ris
Bac
teri
um
Fu
sari
um
rot
Fu
sari
um
spp.
Hyp
hom
ycet
esG
ray
mol
dro
tB
.ci
ner
eaH
yph
omyc
ete
Lig
ht
blig
ht
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fest
ans
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ycet
eP
hom
aro
tP
hom
aly
cope
rsic
iH
yph
omyc
ete
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omop
sis
rot
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omop
sis
spp.
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lom
ycet
esP
hyt
oph
thor
aro
tP
hyt
oph
thor
asp
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omyc
ete
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ospo
raro
tS
tem
phyl
ium
her
baru
mH
yph
omyc
ete
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izop
us
rot
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izop
us
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Zyg
omyc
etes
Scl
erot
ium
rot
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rolf
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Ago
nom
ycet
eS
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rot
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sola
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ycet
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our
rot
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tric
hu
mca
nd
idu
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yph
omyc
ete
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ery
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rot
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ycet
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ycet
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hiz
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ygom
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ycet
e
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hol
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liam
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way
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ath
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inT
he
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mer
cial
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ruit
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465
08VEGETABLE QUALITY
Quality is defined as ‘‘any of the features that make something what it is’’or ‘‘the degree of excellence or superiority.’’ The word quality is used invarious ways in reference to fresh fruits and vegetables, such as marketquality, edible quality, dessert quality, shipping quality, table quality,nutritional quality, internal quality, and appearance quality.
Quality of fresh vegetables is a combination of characteristics, attributes,and properties that give the vegetables value to humans for food andenjoyment. Producers are concerned that their commodities have goodappearance and few visual defects, but for them a useful variety also mustscore high on yield, disease resistance, ease of harvest, and shipping quality.To receivers and market distributors, appearance quality is most important;they are also keenly interested in firmness and long storage life. Consumersconsider good-quality vegetables those that look good, are firm, and offergood flavor and nutritive value. Although consumers buy on the basis ofappearance and feel, their satisfaction and repeat purchases depend on goodedible quality.
TABLE 8.35. QUALITY ASSURANCE RECORDS FOR VEGETABLES
Field packingMaturity / ripeness stage and uniformityHarvest method (hand or mechanical)Temperature of product (harvest during cool times of the day and keep
product shaded)Uniformity of packs (size, trimming, maturity)Well-constructed boxes; palletization and unitizationCondition of field boxes or bins (no rough or dirty surfaces)Cleaning and sanitization of bins and harvest equipment
PackinghouseTime from harvest to arrivalShaded receiving areaUniformity of harvest (size, trimming, maturity)Washing /hydrocooling operation (sanitization)Water changed daily and constant sanitizer levels maintained in dump
tanks
466
TABLE 8.35. QUALITY ASSURANCE RECORDS FOR VEGETABLES(Continued )
Decay control chemical usageSorting for size, color, quality, etc.Product that falls on the floor discardedCulls checks for causes of rejection and for sorting accuracyFacilities and equipment sanitized regularlyWell-constructed boxes; palletization and unitization
CoolerTime from harvest to coolerTime from arrival to start of coolingPackage design (ventilation)Speed of cooling and final temperatureTemperature of product after coolingTemperature of holding roomTime from cooling to loading
Loading TrailerFirst-in, first-out truck loadingTemperature of productBoxes palletized and unitizedTruck condition (clean, undamaged, precooled)Loading pattern; palletization and unitizationDuration of transportTemperature during transport (thermostat setting and use of recorders)
Arrival at Distribution CenterTransit timeTemperature of productProduct condition and uniformity
Uniformity of packs (size, trimming, maturity)Ripeness stage, firmnessDecay incidence / type
Refrigeration maintained during cooling
Copyright 2003 from Postharvest Physiology and Pathology of Vegetables, 2nd ed. by J. R. Bartz andJ. K. Brecht (eds.). Reproduced by permission of Routledge / Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
467
TABLE 8.36. QUALITY COMPONENTS OF FRESH VEGETABLES
Main Factors Components
Appearance (visual) Size: dimensions, weight, volumeShape and form: diameter /depth ratio,
compactness, uniformityColor: uniformity, intensityGloss: nature of surface waxDefects, external and internal: morphological,
physical and mechanical, physiological,pathological, entomological
Texture (feel) Firmness, hardness, softnessCrispnessSucculence, juicinessMealiness, grittinessToughness, fibrousness
Flavor (taste and smell) SweetnessSourness (acidity)AstringencyBitternessAroma (volatile compounds)Off-flavors and off-odors
Nutritional value Carbohydrates (including dietary fiber)ProteinsLipidsVitaminsEssential elements
Safety Naturally occurring toxicantsContaminants (chemical residues, heavy metals)MycotoxinsMicrobial contamination
Adapted from A. A. Kader (ed.), Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, 3rd ed. (University ofCalifornia, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 3311, 2002).
468
09U.S. STANDARDS FOR GRADES OF VEGETABLES
Grade standards issued by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) arecurrently in effect for most vegetables for fresh market and for processing.Some standards have been unchanged since they became effective, whereasothers have been revised quite recently.
For the U.S. Standards for Grades of Fresh and Processing Vegetables,go to:
http: / /www/ams.usda.gov /standards /stanfrfv.htm
469
TA
BL
E8.
37.
QU
AL
ITY
FA
CT
OR
SF
OR
FR
ES
HV
EG
ET
AB
LE
SIN
TH
EU
.S.S
TA
ND
AR
DS
FO
RG
RA
DE
S
Veg
etab
leD
ate
Issu
edQ
ual
ity
Fact
ors
An
ise,
swee
t19
73F
irm
nes
s,te
nde
rnes
s,tr
imm
ing,
blan
chin
g,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
cay
and
dam
age
cau
sed
bygr
owth
crac
ks,
pith
ybr
anch
es,w
ilti
ng,
free
zin
g,se
edst
ems,
inse
cts,
and
mec
han
ical
mea
ns
Art
ich
oke
1969
Ste
mle
ngt
h,
shap
e,ov
erm
atu
rity
,un
ifor
mit
yof
size
,co
mpa
ctn
ess,
and
free
dom
from
deca
yan
dde
fect
sA
spar
agu
s19
66F
resh
nes
s(t
urg
idit
y),t
rim
min
g,st
raig
htn
ess,
free
dom
from
dam
age
and
deca
y,di
amet
erof
stal
ks,
perc
ent
gree
nco
lor
Bea
n,
lim
a19
38U
nif
orm
ity,
mat
uri
ty,f
resh
nes
s,sh
ape,
and
free
dom
from
dam
age
(def
ect)
and
deca
yB
ean
,sn
ap19
36U
nif
orm
ity,
size
,m
atu
rity
,firm
nes
s,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
fect
and
deca
yB
eet,
bun
ched
orto
pped
1955
Roo
tsh
ape,
trim
min
gof
root
lets
,fi
rmn
ess
(tu
rgid
ity)
,sm
ooth
nes
s,cl
ean
nes
s,m
inim
um
size
(dia
met
er),
and
free
dom
from
defe
ctB
eet,
gree
ns
1959
Fre
shn
ess,
clea
nn
ess,
ten
dern
ess,
and
free
dom
from
deca
y,ot
her
kin
dsof
leav
es,
disc
olor
atio
n,i
nse
cts,
mec
han
ical
inju
ry,a
nd
free
zin
gin
jury
Bro
ccol
i19
43C
olor
,m
atu
rity
,sta
lkdi
amet
eran
dle
ngt
h,c
ompa
ctn
ess,
base
cut,
and
free
dom
from
defe
cts
and
deca
yB
russ
els
spro
uts
1954
Col
or,
mat
uri
ty(fi
rmn
ess)
,n
ose
edst
ems,
size
(dia
met
eran
dle
ngt
h),
and
free
dom
from
defe
ctan
dde
cay
Cab
bage
1945
Un
ifor
mit
y,so
lidi
ty(m
atu
rity
orfi
rmn
ess)
,n
ose
edst
ems,
trim
min
g,co
lor,
and
free
dom
from
defe
ctan
dde
cay
Can
talo
upe
1968
Sol
ubl
eso
lids
(�9
perc
ent)
,u
nif
orm
ity
ofsi
ze,
shap
e,gr
oun
dco
lor
and
net
tin
g;m
atu
rity
and
turg
idit
y;an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omw
etsl
ip,
sun
scal
d,an
dot
her
defe
cts
470
TA
BL
E8.
37.
QU
AL
ITY
FA
CT
OR
SF
OR
FR
ES
HV
EG
ET
AB
LE
SIN
TH
EU
.S.S
TA
ND
AR
DS
FO
RG
RA
DE
S(C
onti
nu
ed)
Veg
etab
leD
ate
Issu
edQ
ual
ity
Fact
ors
Car
rot,
bun
ched
1954
Sh
ape,
colo
r,cl
ean
nes
s,sm
ooth
nes
s,fr
eedo
mfr
omde
fect
s,fr
esh
nes
s,le
ngt
hof
tops
,an
dro
otdi
amet
erC
arro
t,to
pped
1965
Un
ifor
mit
y,tu
rgid
ity,
colo
r,sh
ape,
size
,cl
ean
nes
s,sm
ooth
nes
s,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
fect
(gro
wth
crac
ks,
pith
ines
s,w
oodi
nes
s,in
tern
aldi
scol
orat
ion
)C
arro
tsw
ith
shor
ttr
imm
edto
ps19
54R
oots
;fi
rmn
ess,
colo
r,sm
ooth
nes
s,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
fect
(su
nbu
rn,p
ith
ines
s,w
oodi
nes
s,in
tern
aldi
scol
orat
ion
,an
din
sect
and
mec
han
ical
inju
ries
)an
dde
cay;
leav
es:
(cu
tto
�4
inch
es)
free
dom
from
yell
owin
gor
oth
erdi
scol
orat
ion
,di
seas
e,in
sect
s,an
dse
edst
ems
Cau
lifl
ower
1968
Cu
rdcl
ean
nes
s,co
mpa
ctn
ess,
wh
ite
colo
r,si
ze(d
iam
eter
),fr
esh
nes
san
dtr
imm
ing
ofja
cket
leav
es,
and
free
dom
from
defe
ctan
dde
cay
Cel
ery
1959
Sta
lkfo
rm,
com
pact
nes
s,co
lor,
trim
min
g,le
ngt
hof
stal
kan
dm
idri
bs,
wid
than
dth
ickn
ess
ofm
idri
bs,
no
seed
stem
s,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
fect
and
deca
yC
olla
rdgr
een
sor
broc
coli
gree
ns
1953
Fre
shn
ess,
ten
dern
ess,
clea
nn
ess,
and
free
dom
from
seed
stem
s,di
scol
orat
ion
,fr
eezi
ng
inju
ry,i
nse
cts,
and
dise
ases
Cor
n,
swee
t19
92U
nif
orm
ity
ofco
lor
and
size
,fr
esh
nes
s,m
ilky
kern
els,
cob
len
gth
,fre
edom
from
inse
ctin
jury
,dis
colo
rati
on,a
nd
oth
erde
fect
s,co
vera
gew
ith
fres
hh
usk
sC
ucu
mbe
r19
58C
olor
,sh
ape,
turg
idit
y,m
atu
rity
,siz
e(d
iam
eter
and
len
gth
),an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
fect
and
deca
yC
ucu
mbe
r,gr
een
hou
se19
85F
resh
nes
s,sh
ape,
firm
nes
s,co
lor,
size
(11
in.
orlo
nge
r),
and
free
dom
from
deca
y,cu
ts,
bru
ises
,sc
ars,
inse
ctin
jury
,an
dot
her
defe
cts
Dan
deli
ongr
een
s19
55F
resh
nes
s,cl
ean
nes
s,te
nde
rnes
s,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omda
mag
eca
use
dby
seed
stem
s,di
scol
orat
ion
,fre
ezin
g,di
seas
es,
inse
cts,
and
mec
han
ical
inju
ry
471
Egg
plan
t19
53C
olor
,tu
rgid
ity,
shap
e,si
ze,
and
free
dom
from
defe
ctan
dde
cay
En
dive
,es
caro
le,
orch
icor
y19
64F
resh
nes
s,tr
imm
ing,
colo
r(b
lan
chin
g),n
ose
edst
ems,
and
free
dom
from
defe
ctan
dde
cay
Gar
lic
1944
Mat
uri
ty,c
uri
ng,
com
pact
nes
s,w
ell-
fill
edcl
oves
,bu
lbsi
ze,
and
free
dom
from
defe
ctH
oney
dew
and
hon
eyba
llm
elon
s19
67M
atu
rity
,firm
nes
s,sh
ape,
and
free
dom
from
deca
yan
dde
fect
(su
nbu
rn,
bru
isin
g,h
ail
spot
s,an
dm
ech
anic
alin
juri
es)
Hor
sera
dish
root
s19
36U
nif
orm
ity
ofsh
ape
and
size
,fi
rmn
ess,
smoo
thn
ess,
and
free
dom
from
hol
low
hea
rt,
oth
erde
fect
s,an
dde
cay
Kal
e19
34U
nif
orm
ity
ofgr
owth
and
colo
r,tr
imm
ing,
fres
hn
ess,
and
free
dom
from
defe
ctan
dde
cay
Let
tuce
,cr
isp
hea
d19
75T
urg
idit
y,co
lor,
mat
uri
ty(fi
rmn
ess)
,tr
imm
ing
(nu
mbe
rof
wra
pper
leav
es),
and
free
dom
from
tip
burn
,ot
her
phys
iolo
gica
ldi
sord
ers,
mec
han
ical
dam
age,
seed
stem
s,ot
her
defe
cts,
and
deca
yL
ettu
ce,
gree
nh
ouse
leaf
1964
Wel
l-de
velo
ped,
wel
l-tr
imm
ed,a
nd
free
dom
from
coar
sest
ems,
blea
ched
ordi
scol
ored
leav
es,
wil
tin
g,fr
eezi
ng,
inse
cts,
and
deca
yL
ettu
ce,
rom
ain
e19
60F
resh
nes
s,tr
imm
ing,
and
free
dom
from
deca
yan
dda
mag
eca
use
dby
seed
stem
s,br
oken
,br
uis
ed,
ordi
scol
ored
leav
es,
tipb
urn
,an
dw
ilti
ng
Mu
shro
om19
66M
atu
rity
,sh
ape,
trim
min
g,si
ze,
and
free
dom
from
open
veil
s,di
seas
e,sp
ots,
inse
ctin
jury
,an
dde
cay
472
TA
BL
E8.
37.
QU
AL
ITY
FA
CT
OR
SF
OR
FR
ES
HV
EG
ET
AB
LE
SIN
TH
EU
.S.S
TA
ND
AR
DS
FO
RG
RA
DE
S(C
onti
nu
ed)
Veg
etab
leD
ate
Issu
edQ
ual
ity
Fact
ors
Mu
star
dgr
een
san
dtu
rnip
gree
ns
1953
Fre
shn
ess,
ten
dern
ess,
clea
nn
ess,
and
free
dom
from
dam
age
cau
sed
byse
edst
ems,
disc
olor
atio
n,f
reez
ing,
dise
ase,
inse
cts,
orm
ech
anic
alm
ean
s;ro
ots
(if
atta
ched
):fi
rmn
ess
and
free
dom
from
dam
age
Okr
a19
28F
resh
nes
s,u
nif
orm
ity
ofsh
ape
and
colo
r,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
fect
and
deca
yO
nio
n,
dry
Cre
ole
1943
Mat
uri
ty,fi
rmn
ess,
shap
e,si
ze(d
iam
eter
),an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
cay,
wet
sun
scal
d,do
ubl
es,
bott
len
ecks
,spr
outi
ng,
and
oth
erde
fect
sB
erm
uda
-Gra
nex
-G
ran
o19
95M
atu
rity
,firm
nes
s,sh
ape,
size
(dia
met
er)
and
free
dom
from
deca
y,w
etsu
nsc
ald,
dou
bles
,bo
ttle
nec
ks,s
eeds
tem
s,sp
rou
tin
gan
dot
her
defe
cts
Oth
erva
riet
ies
1995
Mat
uri
ty,fi
rmn
ess,
shap
e,si
ze(d
iam
eter
),an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
cay,
wet
sun
scal
d,do
ubl
es,
bott
len
ecks
,spr
outs
and
oth
erde
fect
s.O
nio
n,
gree
n19
47T
urg
idit
y,co
lor,
form
,cl
ean
nes
s,bu
lbtr
imm
ing,
no
seed
stem
s,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
fect
and
deca
yO
nio
nse
ts19
40M
atu
rity
,firm
nes
s,si
ze,
and
free
dom
from
deca
yan
dda
mag
eca
use
dby
tops
,sp
rou
tin
g,fr
eezi
ng,
mol
d,m
oist
ure
,di
rt,
dise
ase,
inse
cts,
orm
ech
anic
alm
ean
sP
arsl
ey19
30F
resh
nes
s,gr
een
colo
r,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
fect
s,se
edst
ems,
and
deca
yP
arsn
ip19
45T
urg
idit
y,tr
imm
ing,
clea
nn
ess,
smoo
thn
ess,
shap
e,fr
eedo
mfr
omde
fect
san
dde
cay,
and
size
(dia
met
er)
473
Pea
,fr
esh
1942
Mat
uri
ty,s
ize,
shap
e,fr
esh
nes
s,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
fect
san
dde
cay
Pep
per,
swee
t19
89M
atu
rity
,col
or,
shap
e,si
ze,
firm
nes
s,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
fect
s(s
un
burn
,su
nsc
ald,
free
zin
gin
jury
,hai
l,sc
ars,
inse
cts,
mec
han
ical
dam
age)
and
deca
yP
otat
o19
91U
nif
orm
ity,
mat
uri
ty,fi
rmn
ess,
clea
nn
ess,
shap
e,si
ze,
and
free
dom
from
spro
uts
,sc
ab,
grow
thcr
acks
,h
ollo
wh
eart
,bla
ckh
eart
,gre
enin
g,an
dot
her
defe
cts
Rad
ish
1968
Ten
dern
ess,
clea
nn
ess,
smoo
thn
ess,
shap
e,si
ze,
and
free
dom
from
pith
ines
san
dot
her
defe
cts;
tops
ofbu
nch
edra
dish
esfr
esh
and
free
from
dam
age
Rh
uba
rb19
66C
olor
,fr
esh
nes
s,st
raig
htn
ess,
trim
min
g,cl
ean
nes
s,st
alk
diam
eter
and
len
gth
,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
fect
Sh
allo
t,bu
nch
ed19
46F
irm
nes
s,fo
rm,
ten
dern
ess,
trim
min
g,cl
ean
nes
s,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
cay
and
dam
age
cau
sed
byse
edst
ems,
dise
ase,
inse
cts,
mec
han
ical
and
oth
erm
ean
s;to
ps:
fres
hn
ess,
gree
nco
lor,
and
no
mec
han
ical
dam
age
Sou
ther
npe
a19
56M
atu
rity
,pod
shap
e,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omdi
scol
orat
ion
and
oth
erde
fect
sS
pin
ach
bun
ches
1987
Fre
shn
ess,
clea
nn
ess,
trim
min
g,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
cay
and
dam
age
cau
sed
byco
arse
stal
ksor
seed
stem
s,di
scol
orat
ion
,in
sect
s,or
mec
han
ical
mea
ns
Spi
nac
hle
aves
1946
Col
or,
turg
idit
y,cl
ean
nes
s,tr
imm
ing,
and
free
dom
from
seed
stem
s,co
arse
stal
ks,
and
oth
erde
fect
sS
quas
h,s
um
mer
1984
Imm
atu
rity
,ten
dern
ess,
shap
e,fi
rmn
ess,
and
free
dom
from
deca
y,cu
ts,
bru
ises
,sc
ars,
and
oth
erde
fect
s
474
TA
BL
E8.
37.
QU
AL
ITY
FA
CT
OR
SF
OR
FR
ES
HV
EG
ET
AB
LE
SIN
TH
EU
.S.S
TA
ND
AR
DS
FO
RG
RA
DE
S(C
onti
nu
ed)
Veg
etab
leD
ate
Issu
edQ
ual
ity
Fact
ors
Squ
ash
,win
ter,
and
pum
pkin
1983
Mat
uri
ty,fi
rmn
ess,
free
dom
from
disc
olor
atio
n,c
rack
ing,
dry
rot,
inse
ctda
mag
e,an
dot
her
defe
cts;
un
ifor
mit
yof
size
Str
awbe
rry
1965
Mat
uri
ty(�
1⁄2
or�
3⁄4
ofsu
rfac
esh
owin
gre
dor
pin
kco
lor,
depe
ndi
ng
ongr
ade)
,fi
rmn
ess,
atta
ched
caly
x,si
ze,
and
free
dom
from
defe
ctan
dde
cay
Sw
eet
pota
to19
63F
irm
nes
s,sm
ooth
nes
s,cl
ean
nes
s,sh
ape,
size
,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omm
ech
anic
alda
mag
e,gr
owth
crac
ks,
inte
rnal
brea
kdow
n,i
nse
ctda
mag
e,ot
her
defe
cts,
and
deca
yT
omat
o19
91M
atu
rity
and
ripe
nes
s(c
olor
char
t),
firm
nes
s,sh
ape,
size
,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
fect
(pu
ffin
ess,
free
zin
gin
jury
,su
nsc
ald,
scar
s,ca
tfac
es,
grow
thcr
acks
,in
sect
inju
ry,a
nd
oth
erde
fect
s)an
dde
cay
Tom
ato,
gree
nh
ouse
1966
Mat
uri
ty,fi
rmn
ess,
shap
e,si
ze,
and
free
dom
from
deca
y,su
nsc
ald,
free
zin
gin
jury
,br
uis
es,
cuts
,sh
rive
lin
g,pu
ffin
ess,
catf
aces
,gr
owth
crac
ks,
scar
s,di
seas
e,an
din
sect
sT
urn
ipan
dru
taba
ga19
55U
nif
orm
ity
ofro
otco
lor,
size
,an
dsh
ape,
trim
min
g,fr
esh
nes
s,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
fect
s(c
uts
,gr
owth
crac
ks,
pith
ines
s,w
oodi
nes
s,w
ater
core
,dr
yro
t)W
ater
mel
on20
06M
atu
rity
and
ripe
nes
s(o
ptio
nal
inte
rnal
qual
ity
crit
eria
:so
lubl
eso
lids
con
ten
t10
%or
mor
eve
rygo
od,
�8%
good
),sh
ape,
un
ifor
mit
yof
size
(wei
ght)
,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
oman
thra
cnos
e,de
cay,
sun
scal
d,an
dw
hit
ehea
rt
Ada
pted
from
A.
A.
Kad
er(e
d.),
Pos
thar
vest
Tec
hn
olog
yof
Hor
ticu
ltu
ral
Cro
ps,3
rded
.(U
niv
ersi
tyof
Cal
ifor
nia
,Div
isio
nof
Agr
icu
ltu
rean
dN
atu
ral
Res
ourc
esP
ubl
icat
ion
3311
,200
2).
475
TA
BL
E8.
38.
QU
AL
ITY
FA
CT
OR
SF
OR
PR
OC
ES
SIN
GV
EG
ET
AB
LE
SIN
TH
EU
.S.S
TA
ND
AR
DS
FO
RG
RA
DE
S
Veg
etab
leD
ate
Issu
edQ
ual
ity
Fact
ors
Asp
arag
us,
gree
n19
72F
resh
nes
s,sh
ape,
gree
nco
lor,
size
(spe
arle
ngt
h),
and
free
dom
from
defe
ct(f
reez
ing
dam
age,
dirt
,di
seas
e,in
sect
inju
ry,a
nd
mec
han
ical
inju
ries
)an
dde
cay
Bea
n,
shel
led
lim
a19
53T
ende
rnes
sgr
een
colo
r,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
cay
and
from
inju
ryca
use
dby
disc
olor
atio
n,s
hri
veli
ng,
sun
scal
d,fr
eezi
ng,
hea
tin
g,di
seas
e,in
sect
s,or
oth
erm
ean
sB
ean
,sn
ap19
85F
resh
nes
s,te
nde
rnes
s,sh
ape,
size
,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
cay
and
from
dam
age
cau
sed
bysc
ars,
rust
,di
seas
e,in
sect
s,br
uis
es,
pun
ctu
res,
brok
enen
ds,
orot
her
mea
ns
Bee
t19
45F
irm
nes
s,te
nde
rnes
s,sh
ape,
size
,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omso
ftro
t,cu
llm
ater
ial,
grow
thcr
acks
,in
tern
aldi
scol
orat
ion
,wh
ite
zon
ing,
rode
nt
dam
age,
dise
ase,
inse
cts,
and
mec
han
ical
inju
ryB
rocc
oli
1959
Fre
shn
ess,
ten
dern
ess,
gree
nco
lor,
com
pact
nes
s,tr
imm
ing,
and
free
dom
from
deca
yan
dda
mag
eca
use
dby
disc
olor
atio
n,f
reez
ing,
pith
ines
s,sc
ars,
dirt
,or
mec
han
ical
mea
ns
Cab
bage
1944
Fir
mn
ess,
trim
min
g,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omso
ftro
t,se
edst
ems,
and
from
dam
age
cau
sed
bybu
rsti
ng,
disc
olor
atio
n,f
reez
ing,
dise
ase,
bird
s,in
sect
s,or
mec
han
ical
orot
her
mea
ns
Car
rot
1984
Fir
mn
ess,
colo
r,sh
ape,
size
(roo
tle
ngt
h),
smoo
thn
ess,
not
woo
dy,
and
free
dom
from
soft
rot,
cull
mat
eria
l,an
dfr
omda
mag
eca
use
dby
grow
thcr
acks
,su
nbu
rn,g
reen
core
,pi
thy
core
,w
ater
core
,in
tern
aldi
scol
orat
ion
,dis
ease
,or
mec
han
ical
mea
ns
476
TA
BL
E8.
38.
QU
AL
ITY
FA
CT
OR
SF
OR
PR
OC
ES
SIN
GV
EG
ET
AB
LE
SIN
TH
EU
.S.S
TA
ND
AR
DS
FO
RG
RA
DE
S(C
onti
nu
ed)
Veg
etab
leD
ate
Issu
edQ
ual
ity
Fact
ors
Cau
lifl
ower
1959
Fre
shn
ess,
com
pact
nes
s,co
lor,
and
free
dom
from
jack
etle
aves
,st
alks
,an
dot
her
cull
mat
eria
l,de
cay,
and
dam
age
cau
sed
bydi
scol
orat
ion
,bru
isin
g,fu
zzin
ess,
enla
rged
brac
ts,
dirt
,fr
eezi
ng,
hai
l,or
mec
han
ical
mea
ns
Cor
n,
swee
t19
62M
atu
rity
,fre
shn
ess,
and
free
dom
from
dam
age
byfr
eezi
ng,
inse
cts,
bird
s,di
seas
e,cr
oss-
poll
inat
ion
,or
ferm
enta
tion
Cu
cum
ber,
pick
lin
g19
36C
olor
,sh
ape,
fres
hn
ess,
firm
nes
s,m
atu
rity
,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
cay
and
from
dam
age
cau
sed
bydi
rt,
free
zin
g,su
nbu
rn,d
isea
se,
inse
cts,
orm
ech
anic
alor
oth
erm
ean
sM
ush
room
1964
Fre
shn
ess,
firm
nes
s,sh
ape,
and
free
dom
from
deca
y,di
seas
esp
ots,
and
inse
cts,
and
from
dam
age
cau
sed
byin
sect
s,br
uis
ing,
disc
olor
atio
n,o
rfe
ath
erin
gO
kra
1965
Fre
shn
ess,
ten
dern
ess,
colo
r,sh
ape,
and
free
dom
from
deca
yan
din
sect
s,an
dfr
omda
mag
eca
use
dby
scar
s,br
uis
es,
cuts
,pu
nct
ure
s,di
scol
orat
ion
,dir
tor
oth
erm
ean
sO
nio
n19
44M
atu
rity
,firm
nes
s,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
cay,
spro
uts
,bo
ttle
nec
ks,s
call
ion
s,se
edst
ems,
sun
scal
d,ro
ots,
inse
cts,
and
mec
han
ical
inju
ryP
ea,
fres
hsh
elle
dfo
rca
nn
ing
/fr
eezi
ng
1946
Ten
dern
ess,
succ
ule
nce
,col
or,
and
free
dom
from
deca
y,sc
ald,
rust
,sh
rive
lin
g,h
eati
ng,
dise
ase,
and
inse
cts
Pep
per,
swee
t19
48F
irm
nes
s,co
lor,
shap
e,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
cay,
inse
cts,
and
dam
age
byan
ym
ean
sth
atre
sult
sin
5–20
%tr
imm
ing
(by
wei
ght)
depe
ndi
ng
ongr
ade
Pot
ato
1983
Sh
ape,
smoo
thn
ess,
free
dom
from
deca
yan
dde
fect
(fre
ezin
gin
jury
,bla
ckh
eart
,sp
rou
ts),
size
,sp
ecifi
cgr
avit
y,gl
uco
seco
nte
nt,
and
fry
colo
r
477
Pot
ato
for
chip
pin
g19
78F
irm
nes
s,cl
ean
nes
s,sh
ape,
free
dom
from
defe
ct(f
reez
ing,
blac
khea
rt,d
ecay
,in
sect
inju
ry,a
nd
mec
han
ical
inju
ry),
size
;op
tion
alte
sts
for
spec
ific
grav
ity
and
fry
colo
rin
clu
ded
Sou
ther
npe
a19
65P
ods:
mat
uri
ty,f
resh
nes
s,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
cay;
seed
s:fr
eedo
mfr
omsc
ars,
inse
cts,
deca
y,di
scol
orat
ion
,spl
its,
crac
ked
skin
,an
dot
her
defe
cts
Spi
nac
h19
56F
resh
nes
s,fr
eedo
mfr
omde
cay,
gras
sw
eeds
,an
dot
her
fore
ign
mat
eria
l,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omda
mag
eca
use
dby
seed
stem
s,di
scol
orat
ion
,coa
rse
stal
ks,
inse
cts,
dirt
,or
mec
han
ical
mea
ns
Sw
eet
pota
tofo
rca
nn
ing
/fre
ezin
g19
59F
irm
nes
s,sh
ape,
colo
r,si
ze,
and
free
dom
from
deca
yan
dde
fect
(fre
ezin
gin
jury
,sc
ald,
cork
,in
tern
aldi
scol
orat
ion
,bru
ises
,cu
ts,
grow
ths
crac
ks,
pith
ines
s,st
rin
gin
ess,
and
inse
ctin
jury
)S
wee
tpo
tato
for
dici
ng
/pu
lpin
g19
51F
irm
nes
s,sh
ape
size
,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
cay
and
defe
ct(s
cald
,fr
eezi
ng
inju
ry,
cork
,in
tern
aldi
scol
orat
ion
,pit
hin
ess,
grow
thcr
acks
,in
sect
dam
age,
and
stri
ngi
nes
s)T
omat
o19
83F
irm
nes
s,ri
pen
ess
(col
oras
dete
rmin
edby
aph
otoe
lect
ric
inst
rum
ent)
,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omin
sect
dam
age,
free
zin
g,m
ech
anic
alda
mag
e,de
cay,
grow
thcr
acks
,su
nsc
ald,
gray
wal
l,an
dbl
osso
m-e
nd
rot
Tom
ato,
gree
n19
50F
irm
nes
s,co
lor
(gre
en),
and
free
dom
from
deca
yan
dde
fect
(gro
wth
crac
ks,
scar
s,ca
tfac
es,
sun
scal
d,di
seas
e,in
sect
s,or
mec
han
ical
dam
age)
Tom
ato,
Ital
ian
type
for
can
nin
g19
57F
irm
nes
s,co
lor
un
ifor
mit
y,an
dfr
eedo
mfr
omde
cay
and
defe
ct(g
row
thcr
acks
,su
nsc
ald,
free
zin
g,di
seas
e,in
sect
s,or
mec
han
ical
inju
ry)
Ada
pted
from
A.
A.
Kad
er(e
d.),
Pos
thar
vest
Tec
hn
olog
yof
Hor
ticu
ltu
ral
Cro
ps,3
rded
.(U
niv
ersi
tyof
Cal
ifor
nia
,Div
isio
nof
Agr
icu
ltu
rean
dN
atu
ral
Res
ourc
esP
ubl
icat
ion
3311
,200
2).
478
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
International standards for vegetables published by the Organization forEconomic Cooperation and Development (OECD) are available from theOECD Bookshop at http: / /www.oecdbookshop.org in the series InternationalStandardization of Fruit and Vegetables.
Ontario, Canada, Grading and Packing Manuals are available at:
http: / /www.gov.on.ca /omafra /english / food / inspection / fruitveg / intro.htm
479
10MINIMALLY PROCESSED VEGETABLES
Helpful website: http: / /www.fresh-cuts.org
TABLE 8.39. BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR PREPARATION OFMINIMALLY PROCESSED VEGETABLES
High-quality raw materialVariety selectionProduction practicesHarvest and storage conditionsStrict hygiene and good manufacturing practicesUse of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points principlesSanitation of processing line, product, and workersLow temperatures during processingCareful cleaning and/or washing before and after peelingGood-quality water (sensory, microbiological, pH)Use of mild processing aids in wash water for disinfection or prevention of
browning and texture lossChlorine, ozone, and other disinfectantsAntioxidant chemicals such as ascorbic acid, citric acid, etc.Calcium salts to reduce textural changesMinimal damage during peeling, cutting, slicing, and shredding operationsSharp knives and blades on cuttersElimination of defective and damaged piecesGentle draining, spin- or air-drying to remove excess moistureCorrect packing materials and packaging methodsSelection of plastic films to ensure adequate O2 levels to avoid fermentationCorrect temperature during distribution and handlingAll minimally processed products kept at 32–41�F
Adapted from A. A. Kader (ed.), Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, 3rd ed. (University ofCalifornia, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication 3311. 2002).
480
TABLE 8.40. ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES, ANDREQUIREMENTS OF FRESH-CUT VEGETABLEPRODUCTS PREPARED AT DIFFERENT LOCATIONS
Location of Processing Characteristics and Requirements
Source of production Raw product processed fresh when it is of thehighest quality.
Processed product requires a minimum of 14 dayspostprocessing shelf life.
Good temperature management critical.Economy of scale.Avoid long-distance transport of unusable product.Vacuum- and gas-flushing common; differentially
permeable films.Regional Raw product processed when of good quality,
typically 3–7 days after harvest.Reduced need to maximize shelf life; about 7 days
postprocessing life required.Good temperature management vital.Several deliveries weekly to end-users.Can better respond to short-term demands.Vacuum- and gas-flushing common; differentially
permeable films.Local Raw product quality may vary greatly because
processed 7–14 days after harvest.Relatively short postprocessing life required or
expected.Good temperature management required but is
often deficient.Small quantities processed and delivered.More labor intensive; discard large amounts of
unusable product.Simpler and less costly packaging; less use of
vacuum- or gas-flushing techniques.
Adapted from A. A. Kader (ed.), Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, 3rd ed. (University ofCalifornia, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources publication 3311, 2002).
481
TA
BL
E8.
41.
PH
YS
IOL
OG
YA
ND
ST
OR
AG
EC
HA
RA
CT
ER
IST
ICS
OF
FR
ES
H-C
UT
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(AL
LP
RO
DU
CT
SS
HO
UL
DB
ES
TO
RE
DA
T32
–41�
F)
Veg
etab
leF
resh
-cu
tP
rodu
ct
Res
pira
tion
Rat
ein
Air
at41
�F(m
LC
O2
�kg
�1
�h
�1 )
Com
mon
Qu
alit
yD
efec
ts(o
ther
than
mic
robi
algr
owth
)
Ben
efici
alA
tmos
pher
e
%O
2%
CO
2
Asp
arag
us
tips
Tri
mm
edsp
ears
40B
row
nin
g,so
ften
ing
10–2
010
–15
Bea
ns,
snap
Cu
t15
–18
Bro
wn
ing
2–5
3–12
Bee
tC
ube
d5
Lea
kage
;col
orlo
ss5
5B
rocc
oli
Flo
rets
20–3
5Ye
llow
ing,
off–
odor
s3–
105–
10C
abba
geS
hre
dded
13–2
0B
row
nin
g3–
75–
15C
arro
tS
tick
s,sh
redd
ed7–
10;1
2–15
Su
rfac
edr
yin
g(w
hit
ebl
ush
),le
akag
e0.
5–5
10C
auli
flow
erF
lore
ts—
Dis
colo
rati
on;o
ffod
ors
5–10
�5
Cel
ery
Sti
cks
2–3
Bro
wn
ing,
surf
ace
dryi
ng
——
Cu
cum
ber
Sli
ced
5L
eaka
ge—
—G
arli
cP
eele
dcl
ove
20S
prou
tgr
owth
,di
scol
orat
ion
35–
10Ji
cam
aS
tick
s5–
10B
row
nin
g;te
xtu
relo
ss3
10L
eek
Sli
ced
25D
isco
lora
tion
55
Let
tuce
,ic
eber
gC
hop
ped,
shre
dded
6;10
Bro
wn
ing
ofcu
ted
ges
�0.
5–3
10–1
5L
ettu
ce,
oth
erC
hop
ped
10–1
3B
row
nin
gof
cut
edge
s1–
35–
10
482
TA
BL
E8.
41.
PH
YS
IOL
OG
YA
ND
ST
OR
AG
EC
HA
RA
CT
ER
IST
ICS
OF
FR
ES
H-C
UT
VE
GE
TA
BL
ES
(AL
LP
RO
DU
CT
SS
HO
UL
DB
ES
TO
RE
DA
T32
–41�
F)
(Con
tin
ued
)
Veg
etab
leF
resh
-cu
tP
rodu
ct
Res
pira
tion
Rat
ein
Air
at41
�F(m
LC
O2
�kg
�1
�h
�1 )
Com
mon
Qu
alit
yD
efec
ts(o
ther
than
mic
robi
algr
owth
)
Ben
efici
alA
tmos
pher
e
%O
2%
CO
2
Mel
ons
Can
talo
upe
Cu
bed
5–8
Lea
kage
;sof
ten
ing;
glas
sin
ess
(tra
nsl
uce
ncy
)3–
55–
15
Hon
eyde
wC
ube
d2–
4L
eaka
ge;s
ofte
nin
g;gl
assi
nes
s(t
ran
slu
cen
cy)
2–3
5–15
Wat
erm
elon
Cu
bed
2–4
Lea
kage
;sof
ten
ing
3–5
5–15
On
ion
,bu
lbS
lice
d,di
ced
8–12
Tex
ture
,ju
ice
loss
,di
scol
orat
ion
2–5
10–1
5O
nio
n,
gree
nC
hop
ped
25–3
0D
isco
lora
tion
,gro
wth
;le
akag
e—
—P
eppe
rS
lice
d,di
ced
3;6
Tex
ture
loss
,br
own
ing
35–
10P
otat
oS
tick
s,pe
eled
4–8
Bro
wn
ing,
dryi
ng
1–3
6–9
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taba
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483
11CONTAINERS FOR VEGETABLES
TABLE 8.42. SHIPPING CONTAINERS FOR FRESH VEGETABLES
Vegetable Container1
ApproximateNet Weight
(lb)2, 3
Artichoke Carton by count or loose pack 23Asparagus Pyramid cartons or crates 30
Cartons or crates, bunched 28Lugs or cartons, loose 25Cartons, 16 11⁄2-lb bunches 24–25Lugs or cartons, loose 21Pyramid carton or crate, 1⁄2 20Carton, bunched 20Pyramid carton or crate, 1⁄2 15–17Carton, bunched 14Carton, loose 15Carton, 1⁄2 12Carton or crate, 1⁄3 12–13Carton or crate 11
Bean Wirebound crate or hamper, bushel 26–31Carton or crate 25–30
Green Carton 20–22Presnipped bags, retail 12 oz3
Presnipped bags, foodservice 10Yellow Wirebound crate or hamper 30
Carton 25–30Carton 15
Beet, Bunched Wirebound crate or carton, 12bunches
45
Carton or crate, 24 bunches 38Topped Mesh sack 50
Sack 25Carton or crate, 12 bunches 20
Belgian endive Carton 10Bitter melon Crate 40
Carton or crate 30
484
TABLE 8.42. SHIPPING CONTAINERS FOR FRESH VEGETABLES(Continued )
Vegetable Container1
ApproximateNet Weight
(lb)2, 3
Carton 20Carton 10Carton 5
Boniato Carton or sack 50Carton 10
Brussels sprouts Cartons, loose 25Flats or cartons, 16 12-oz cello bags 10
8 1-lb clamshells 824 1-lb Vexar bags 25
Cabbage Bulk bin 2,000Bulk bin 1,000Flat crate 50–60Carton or mesh sack 50Crate, 13⁄4 bushel 50Carton 45Carton (savoy) 20
Calabaza Bin 800Carton or sack 50
Carrot Table carton 5048 1-lb film bags 48Table poly bags 2524 2-lb poly bags 4812 2-lb poly bags 245 10-lb poly bags 5016 3-lb poly bags 4810 5-lb poly bags 50
Bunched Carton 26Baby, peeled Carton 20 1-lb bags 20
24 1-lb bags 2440 1-lb bags 4010 2-lb bags 2012 2-lb bags 2420 2-lb bags 404 5-lb bags 20
485
TABLE 8.42. SHIPPING CONTAINERS FOR FRESH VEGETABLES(Continued )
Vegetable Container1
ApproximateNet Weight
(lb)2, 3
8 5-lb bags 4073 3-oz bags 14
Foodservice Poly jumbo 25Poly jumbo 50
Cauliflower Long Island wirebound crate 60Catskill carton 50Carton, 12- and 16-count film-
wrapped trimmed heads25–30
Celeriac Crate, 11⁄9 bushel 35Crate 20Carton, 12 count
Celery Carton or crate 50–60Hearts Carton 28
Carton 18Chayote Crate 50
Crate 40Carton 301-layer flat, 24 countCarton 20
Corn Carton or crate 50Carton, crate, or sack 42Wirebound crate 42Sack 37Carton, 48 count12 � 4 packaged tray pack12 � 3 packaged tray pack
Cucumber Carton or crate, 11⁄9 bushel 55Carton, 3.56 decaliter 55Carton, 48 count 30Carton or crate, 5⁄8 bushel 28Carton, 36–42 count 28Carton, 36–42 count (CA) 24Carton, 24 count 22
Greenhouse Carton, film wrapped 16Carton or flat, film wrapped 12
486
TABLE 8.42. SHIPPING CONTAINERS FOR FRESH VEGETABLES(Continued )
Vegetable Container1
ApproximateNet Weight
(lb)2, 3
Daikon Carton or crate 50Carton or crate 45Carton or crate, 11⁄2 bushel 40Box, crate, or lug 20Carton 10Carton 5
Eggplant Carton, crate, or basket; bushel or11⁄9 bushel
33
Carton, 3.56 decaliter 33Carton, crate, or lug 25L.A. lug or carton, 18–24 countLug, 1⁄2 and 5⁄8 bushel 17
Chinese Lug 26Carton 25Carton or crate, 1⁄2 and 5⁄8 bushel 15
Italian Lug 26Carton or crate, 1⁄2 and 5⁄8 bushel 15
Japanese Carton or crate, 1⁄2 and 5⁄8 bushel 15Endive /Escarole Carton, 24 count 34
Crate, 3-wire celery, 24 count 30–40Crate, 15⁄8 bushel VariousCrate, 5⁄8 bushel Various
Garlic Carton 5Carton 10Carton 15Carton 22Carton 30Bag 3Bag 3 16-oz3
Cello bag or tray; 2, 3, 4 countGinger Carton 30
Carton 20Carton or film bag 5
487
TABLE 8.42. SHIPPING CONTAINERS FOR FRESH VEGETABLES(Continued )
Vegetable Container1
ApproximateNet Weight
(lb)2, 3
Greens (collardsand dandelion)
Crate, 12⁄5, 13⁄5 bushelBasket, crate or carton; bushel
30–3520–25
Crate or carton, 12–24 bunch countHaricot vert Tray 11
Tray 10Tray 5
Jerusalem artichoke Carton 25Carton 20Carton 10Carton 5
Jicama Crate, 11⁄9 bushel 45Wirebound crate 40Carton or crate 20Carton 10
Leek Carton, 12 bunches 30Carton, 24 bunches 24–30Carton or crate, 4⁄5 bushel 20Carton, 10 1-lb film bag 10
Lettuce, iceberg Carton; 18, 24, 30 count 50Carton 30Carton; 15, 16 count 20
Boston Crate, 11⁄9 bushel 22Carton or crate, 24 count 20Flat, carton, or crate 10Basket or carton, 12 q 5
Bibb Flat, carton, or crate 10Basket or carton, 12 q 5Basket, greenhouse 5
Leaf Carton or crate, 24 count 25Crate, 4⁄5 bushel 20Crate, 12⁄3 bushel 14Basket or carton, 24 q 10Carton 3
488
TABLE 8.42. SHIPPING CONTAINERS FOR FRESH VEGETABLES(Continued )
Vegetable Container1
ApproximateNet Weight
(lb)2, 3
Carton 2Processed iceberg Carton, chopped 20
Carton, chopped or cleaned /cored 30Bins 1,000
Romaine Carton; 2⁄3, 24 count (West) 40Carton 40Carton, 1.3 bushel 28Carton or crate, 11⁄9 bushel 22Carton, 24 count (East) 22Carton, 12 count 18
Lo Bok Crate 45Crate 40Carton, crate, or lug 25
Long bean Carton 40Crate 30Carton 10Carton 5
MelonCantaloupe Bin 1,000
Jumbo crate 8013⁄4 bushel cartons or crates 60Carton or crate, 1⁄3 54Carton or crate, 1⁄2 40Carton or crate, 11⁄9 bushel 40Bushel basket 40Single-layer pack 18–21
Honeydew Flat crate 35Carton, 2⁄3, various count 30Carton 30
Mixed Flat crate 35Carton, various count 30
Mushroom Carton, 12 1-lb trays 12Carton 10Carton, 18 8-oz or 8 1-lb trays 8Carton, 12 8-oz trays 6
489
TABLE 8.42. SHIPPING CONTAINERS FOR FRESH VEGETABLES(Continued )
Vegetable Container1
ApproximateNet Weight
(lb)2, 3
Carton 5Basket, 4 q 3
Napa WGA crate 70Crate, celery 50Carton 50Crate, 1.3 bushel 45Carton 45Carton or crate, 11⁄9 bushel 40Carton 30
Okra Basket, crate, hamper; bushel 30Hamper, 3⁄4 bushel 23Crate or flat, 5⁄9 bushel 18Basket, crate or lug 15
OnionBulb Carton, crate, sack 50
Master container, 10 5-lb bags 50Master container, 16 3-lb bags 48Master container, 24 2-lb sacks 48Master container, 15 3-lb sacks 45Master container, 20 2-lb sacks 40Carton 40Master container, 12 3-lb sacks 36Master container, 16 2-lb sacks 32Sack, reds, boilers 25Carton or bag 25Master container, 12 2-lb sacks 24Carton, sack, or bag 10Bag or carton 5
Green Carton, bunched bulb-type 28Carton or crate, bunched 24 count 20Carton, bunched 48 count 13Carton, bunched 36 count 11
Pak choi WGA Crate 70Crate 60
490
TABLE 8.42. SHIPPING CONTAINERS FOR FRESH VEGETABLES(Continued )
Vegetable Container1
ApproximateNet Weight
(lb)2, 3
Carton or crate 50Carton or crate 40Carton or crate 35Carton or crate 30
Parsley Carton or wirebound crate, 60count
Carton or wirebound crate, 30count
Carton or crate, 11⁄9 bushel,bunched
21
Carton, crate, or basket, bunched 11Parsnip Carton or crate, 1⁄2 bushel 25
Film sack 20Carton, 12 1-lb bags 12
PeaGreen Basket, crate, or hamper; 1 bushel 30
Crate, 11⁄9 bushel 30Edible pod Carton 10Southern Hamper, 1 bushel 25
Pepino Carton, 1 layer 10Carton 8
PepperBell Carton, 11⁄9 bushel 35
Carton or crate (Mexico) 30Carton or crate, bushel, and 11⁄9
bushel28
Carton, 3.56 decaliter 28Carton 25Carton, 1⁄2 bushel 14–15Flat carton (Netherlands) 11
Chiles: jalapeno,yellow wax,others
Crate or carton, 1⁄2 bushelCrate or carton, 5⁄8 bushelBin 500
491
TABLE 8.42. SHIPPING CONTAINERS FOR FRESH VEGETABLES(Continued )
Vegetable Container1
ApproximateNet Weight
(lb)2, 3
Crate or carton 11⁄9 bushelCases, bulk 10
Potato Sack 100Carton or sack 50Baled, 5 10-lb bags 50Baled, 10 5-lb bags 50Carton, 60–100 count
Prickly pear Carton 18Carton, 35 count 10
Pumpkin Bin 1,000Carton, crate, or sack 50Carton or crate, 1⁄2 bushel 25
Radicchio Carton or lug 7Radish
Topped Sack or bag, loose 40Bag 25Bag, resealable or conventional 14Basket or carton 12Bag, 30 6-oz or 24 8-oz 12Bag, 4 5-lb 20
Bunched Carton or crate, 48 count 35Carton or lug, 4⁄5 bushel 30Carton, 24 count 25Carton or crate, 24 count 20Carton or crate, 24 count 15
Rhubarb Carton or lug 20Carton 15
Rutabaga Carton or bag, 1 bushel 50Carton or bag, 1⁄2 bushel 25
Salad mix Carton, 4 5-lb bags 20Carton, 2 10-lb bags 20Carton, 3 24 count (retail)Carton, mesclun 3
492
TABLE 8.42. SHIPPING CONTAINERS FOR FRESH VEGETABLES(Continued )
Vegetable Container1
ApproximateNet Weight
(lb)2, 3
Salsify Carton 22Carton 10Bag 4
Spinach Carton or crate, 11⁄2 bushel 32Container, bushel 25Carton, 24-bunch count 20Carton, 12-bunch count 20Bag, 12 10-lb 120Bag, 24-q 10Carton, 12 10-oz bags 8
SproutsAlfalfa Carton or flat 5
Bag 5Bag 1
Bean Carton or film bag 10Carton 6Film bag 5
Radish Various containers 50Carton or crate, 11⁄9 bushel 40Various containers 30Various containers 25Carton 20Various containers 20Carton 10Various containers 10Various containers 8Carton 5Various containers 4
SquashSummer Container, bushel and 11⁄9 bushel 42
Carton or crate 35Carton or crate, 3⁄4 bushel 30Carton or lug (California, Mexico) 26
493
TABLE 8.42. SHIPPING CONTAINERS FOR FRESH VEGETABLES(Continued )
Vegetable Container1
ApproximateNet Weight
(lb)2, 3
Container, 1⁄2 or 5⁄8 bushel 21Basket or carton, 8-q 10
Winter Carton or crate, 11⁄9 bushel 50Carton or crate 40Carton or crate 35
Strawberry Flat, 12 1-pt baskets 12Flat, 6 1-qt baskets 12Flat, 12 10-oz clamshells 7.5Flat, 12 8.8-oz clamshells 6.6Crate, 8 16-oz clamshells 9Tray, 1⁄2 5Flat, 4 2-lb clamshells 8
Sweet potato Carton 40Carton 20Carton 10Poly bag 5Poly bag 3
Taro Carton, crate, or sack 50Carton 10
Tomatillo Carton 40Carton 30Carton 10
TomatoRound Carton, loose 25
Carton, flats 20Lug, 3-layerLug, 2-layer
Cherry Flat, 12 1-pt basketsRoma Carton, loose 25Greenhouse Flat, 1 layer 15Grape Clamshells: 8, 12, 24-oz
Containers, 12 1-ptContainers, bulk 20
494
TABLE 8.42. SHIPPING CONTAINERS FOR FRESH VEGETABLES(Continued )
Vegetable Container1
ApproximateNet Weight
(lb)2, 3
Turnip Basket or sack, bushel 50Carton, bunched 40Basket, carton, crate, bag; 1⁄2 bushel 25Carton, 12-count bunch 20
Watermelon Bulk 45,000Bin 1,050Carton, various count 85Carton, seedless 65Carton, icebox 35Bins: 24, 30, and 36 in.
Winter melon Bin 800Crate 70Carton, crate, or sack 50Various containers 50Various containers 40Various containers 30Various containers 20Various containers 10
Yucca Carton, crate, or sack 50Various containers 50Various containers 40Various containers 30Various containers 20Various containers 10Cartons 10
Adapted from The Packer Sourcebook, Vance Publishing Corp., 10901 W. 84th Terr., Lenexa, KS66214-1632 (2004). Reprinted by permission from The Packer. The Packer does not review or endorseproducts, services, or opinions.1 Other containers are being developed and used in the marketplace. The requirements of each marketshould be determined.2 Actual weights larger and smaller than those shown may be found. The midpoint of the range shouldbe used if a single value is desired.3 Other weight as shown.
495
TABLE 8.43. STANDARDIZED SHIPPING CONTAINERDIMENSIONS DESIGNED FOR A 40 � 48-INCHPALLET
Outside Base Dimensions(in.) Containers per Layer
Layers may beCross-stacked
153⁄4 � 113⁄4 10 Yes193⁄4 � 113⁄4 8 No193⁄4 � 153⁄4 6 No233⁄4 � 153⁄4 5 Yes
Adapted from S. A. Sargent, M. A. Ritenour and J. K. Brecht, ‘‘ Handling, Cooling, and SanitationTechniques for Maintaining Postharvest Quality’’ in Vegetable Production Handbook (University ofFlorida, 2005–2006).
496
TABLE 8.45. TRANSPORT EQUIPMENT INSPECTION
Most carriers check their transport equipment before presenting it to theshipper for loading. The condition of the equipment is critical tomaintaining the quality of the products. Therefore, the shipper also shouldcheck the equipment to ensure it is in good working order and meets theneeds of the product. Carriers provide guidance on checking and operatingthe refrigeration systems.
All transportation equipment should be checked for:
● Cleanliness—the load compartment should be regularly steam-cleaned.
● Damage—walls, floors, doors, ceilings should be in good condition.● Temperature control—refrigerated units should be recently calibrated
and supply continuous air circulation for uniform producttemperatures.
Shippers should insist on clean equipment. A load of products can be ruinedby:
● Odors from previous shipments● Toxic chemical residues● Insects nesting in the equipment● Decaying remains of agricultural products● Debris blocking drain openings or air circulation along the floor
Shipper should insist on well-maintained equipment and check for thefollowing:
● Damage to walls, ceilings, or floors that can let in the outside heat,cold, moisture, dirt, and insects
● Operation and condition of doors, ventilation openings, and seals● Provisions for load locking and bracing
For refrigerated trailers and van containers, the following additional checksare important:
● With the doors closed, have someone inside the cargo area check forlight—the door gaskets must seal. A smoke generator also can beused to detect leaks.
497
● The refrigeration unit should cycle from high to low speed when thedesired temperature is reached and then back to high speed.
● Determine the location of the sensing element that controls thedischarge air temperature. If it measures return air temperature, thethermostat may have to be set higher to avoid chilling injury orfreezing injury of the products.
● A solid return air bulkhead should be installed at the front of thetrailer.
● A heating device should be available for transportation in areas withextreme cold weather.
● Equipment with a top air delivery system must have a fabric airchute or metal ceiling duct in good condition.
Adapted from B. M. McGregor, Tropical Products Handbook, USDA Agr. Handbook 668 (1987).
498
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qual
ity.
Goo
dpr
ice
for
qual
ity
prod
uce
.D
iffi
cult
toen
ter
mar
ket
and
deve
lop
cust
omer
s.
Goo
dw
hol
esal
er/
brok
erca
nse
llpr
odu
cequ
ickl
yat
good
pric
es.
Alo
ng-
term
buye
r/se
ller
rela
tion
ship
isde
sira
ble.
Bro
ker
does
not
nec
essa
rily
take
titl
eof
prod
uce
.
Ada
pted
from
Cu
curb
itP
rod
uct
ion
and
Pes
tM
anag
emen
t,O
klah
oma
Coo
pera
tive
Ext
ensi
onC
ircu
lar
E-8
53(1
986)
.
502
ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF POSTHARVEST INFORMATION
J. A. Bartz and J. K. Brecht, Postharvest Physiology and Pathology ofVegetables, 2nd ed. (New York: Marcel Dekker, 2003).
A. A. Kader (ed.), Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops (Universityof California Agriculture and Natural Resource Publication 3211, 2002).
S. J. Kays and R. E. Powell, Postharvest Biology (Athens, Ga.: Exon, 2004).A. L. Snowdon, A Color Atlas of Post-Harvest Disease and Disorders of
Fruits and Vegetables, vol. 1, General Introduction and Fruits (BocaRaton, Fla.: CRC Press, 1990).
A. L. Snowdon, A Color Atlas of Post-Harvest Disease and Disorders ofFruits and Vegetables, vol. 2, Vegetables (Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press,1992).
PART 9VEGETABLE SEEDS
01 SEED LABELS
02 SEED GERMINATION TESTS
03 SEED GERMINATION STANDARDS
04 SEED PRODUCTION
05 SEED YIELDS
06 SEED STORAGE
07 VEGETABLE VARIETIES
08 VEGETABLE SEED SOURCES
Knott’s Handbook for Vegetable Growers, Fifth Edition. D. N. Maynard and G. J. Hochmuth© 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-73828-2
504
01SEED LABELS
LABELING VEGETABLE SEEDS
Seeds entering into interstate commerce must meet the requirements of theFederal Seed Act. Most state seed laws conform to federal standards.However, the laws of the individual states vary considerably with respect tothe kinds and tolerances for noxious weeds. The noxious weed seedregulations and tolerances, if any, may be obtained from the State SeedLaboratory of any state.
Vegetable seed in packets or in larger containers must be labeled in anyform that is clearly legible with the following required information:
● Kind, variety, and hybrid. The name of the kind and variety andhybrid, if appropriate, must be on the label. Words or terms thatcreate a misleading impression as to the history or characteristics ofkind or variety may not be used.
● Name of shipper or consignee. The full name and address of either theshipper or consignee must appear on the label.
● Germination. Vegetable seeds in containers of 1 lb or less withgermination equal to or more than the standards need not be labeledto show the percentage germination or date of test. Vegetable seeds incontainers of more than 1 lb must be labeled to show the percentageof germination, the month and year of test, and the percentage ofhard seed, if any.
● Lot number. The lot number or other lot identification of vegetableseed in containers of more than 1 lb must be shown on the label andmust be the same as that used in the records pertaining to the samelot of seed.
● Seed treatment. Any vegetable seed that has been treated must belabeled in no smaller than 8-point type to indicate that the seed hasbeen treated and to show the name of any substance used in suchtreatment.
Adapted from Federal Seed Act Regulations, http: / / www.ams.usda.gov / lsg / seed.htm.
505
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512
03SEED GERMINATION STANDARDS
TABLE 9.2. GERMINATION STANDARDS FOR VEGETABLE SEEDSIN INTERSTATE COMMERCE
The following germination standards for vegetable seeds in interstatecommerce, which are construed to include hard seed, are determined andestablished under the Federal Seed Act.
Seed % Seed %
Artichoke 60 Cress, garden 75Asparagus 70 Cress, upland 60Bean, asparagus 75 Cress, water 40Bean, broad 75 Cucumber 80Bean, garden 70 Dandelion 60Bean, lima 70 Dill 60Bean, runner 75 Eggplant 60Beet 65 Endive 70Broccoli 75 Kale 75Brussels sprouts 70 Kale, Chinese 75Burdock, great 60 Kale, Siberian 75Cabbage 75 Kohlrabi 75Cabbage, tronchuda 70 Leek 60Cantaloupe 75 Lettuce 80Cardoon 60 Mustard, India 75Carrot 55 Mustard, spinach 75Cauliflower 75 Okra 50Celeriac 55 Onion 70Celery 55 Onion, Welsh 70Chard, Swiss 65 Pak choi 75Chicory 65 Parsley 60Chinese cabbage 75 Parsnip 60Chives 50 Pea 80Citron 65 Pepper 55Collards 80 Pumpkin 75Corn, sweet 75 Radish 75Corn salad 70 Rhubarb 60Cowpea (southern pea) 75 Rutabaga 75
513
TABLE 9.2. GERMINATION STANDARDS FOR VEGETABLE SEEDSIN INTERSTATE COMMERCE (Continued )
Seed % Seed %
Sage 60 Spinach, New Zealand 40Salsify 75 Squash 75Savory, summer 55 Tomato 75Sorrel 65 Tomato, husk 50Soybean 75 Turnip 80Spinach 60 Watermelon 70
Adapted from Federal Seed Act Regulations, http: / / www.ams.usda.gov / lsg / seed.htm (2005).
514
04SEED PRODUCTION
TABLE 9.3. ISOLATION DISTANCES BETWEEN PLANTINGS OFVEGETABLES FOR OPEN-POLLINATED SEEDPRODUCTION
Self-pollinated Vegetables
Self-pollinated crops have little outcrossing. Consequently, the only isolationnecessary is to have plantings spaced far enough apart to prevent mechanicalmixture at planting or harvest. A tall-growing crop is often planted betweendifferent varieties.
Bean Bean, lima Chicory EndiveLettuce Pea Tomato
Cross-pollinated Vegetables
Cross-pollination of vegetables may occur by wind or insect activity. Therefore,plantings of different varieties of the same crop or different crops in the samefamily that can cross with each other must be isolated. Some general isolationguidelines are provided; however, the seed grower should follow the recom-mendations of the seed company for whom the seed is being grown.
Wind-pollinated Vegetables Distance (miles)
Beet 1⁄2–25 from sugar beet or Swiss chard
Sweet corn 1Spinach 1⁄4–3Swiss chard 3⁄4–5
5 for sugar beet or beet
515
TABLE 9.3. ISOLATION DISTANCES BETWEEN PLANTINGS OFVEGETABLES FOR OPEN-POLLINATED SEEDPRODUCTION (Continued )
Insect-pollinated Vegetables Distance (miles)
Asparagus 1⁄4Broccoli 1⁄2–3Brussels sprouts 1⁄2–3Cabbage 1⁄2–3Cauliflower 1⁄2–3Collards 3⁄4–3
5 from other cole cropsKale 3⁄4–2
5 from other cole cropsKohlrabi 1⁄2–3Carrot 1⁄2–3Celeriac 1Celery 1Chinese cabbage 1Cucumber 11⁄2 for varieties
1⁄4 from other cucurbitsEggplant 1⁄4Gherkin 1⁄4Leek 1Melons 11⁄2–2 for varieties
1⁄4 from other cucurbitsMustard 1Onion 1–3Parsley 1⁄2–1Pepper 1⁄2Pumpkin 11⁄2–2 for varieties
1⁄4 from other cucurbitsRadish 1⁄4–2Rutabaga 1⁄4–2Spinach 1⁄4–2Squash 11⁄2–2 for varieties
1⁄4 from other cucurbitsTurnip 1⁄4–2
Adapted in part from Seed Production in the Pacific Northwest, Pacific Northwest ExtensionPublications (1985).
516
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517
VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTION WEBSITES
Vegetable Seed Production, http: / /www.ag.ohio-state.edu/�seedsci /vsp01.html
Vegetable Seed Production—Dry Seeds, http: / /www.ag.ohio-state.edu/�seedsci /vsp02.html
Vegetable Seed Production—Wet Seeds, http: / /www.ag.ohio-state.edu/�seedsci /vsp03.html
Onion Seed Production in California, http: / /www.anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf8008.pdf
Cucurbit Seed Production in California, http: / /www.anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf7229.pdf
Carrot Seed Production, http: / /www.ars.usda.gov /research /docs.htm?docid�5235
Crop Profile for Table Beet Seed in Washington, http: / /www.ipmcenters.org /cropprofiles /docs /wabeetseed.html
Crop Profile for Cabbage Seed in Washington, http: / /www.ipmcenters.org /cropprofiles /docs /wacabbageseed.html
Crop Profile for Spinach Seed in Washington, http: / /www.ipmcenters.org /cropprofiles /docs /waspinachseed.html
Seed Production and Seed Sources of Organic Vegetables, http: / /edis.ifas.ufl.edu/hs227
Investigation of Organic Seed Treatments for Spinach Disease Control,http: / /vric.ucdavis.edu/scrp /sum-koike.html
518
05SEED YIELDS
TABLE 9.5. VEGETABLE SEED YIELDS1
VegetableAverage Yield
(lb /acre)Range
(lb /acre)
Asparaguso.p.2 925 380–2,800F1 500F2 750
Bean, snap 1,800 1,400–2,800Bean, lima 2,220 1,500–3,000Beet
o.p. 1,950 1,800–2,500F1 1,150 900–1,400
Broccolio.p. 725 350–1,000F1 375 250–500
Brussels sproutso.p. 900 800–1,000F1 425 250–600
Cabbageo.p. 740 500–1,000F1 440 300–600
Cantaloupeo.p. 420 350–500F1 225 175–300
Carroto.p. 840 500–1,000F1 450 200–800
Cauliflowero.p. 540 350–1,000F1 175 100–250
Celeriac 1,200 800–2,000Celery 835 500–1,200Chard, Swiss 1,600 1,000–2,000Chicory 500 400–600Chinese cabbage
o.p. 900 800–1,000F1 400 300–500
519
TABLE 9.5. VEGETABLE SEED YIELDS1 (Continued )
VegetableAverage Yield
(lb /acre) Range
Cilantro 2,000 1,500–2,500Corn, sweet
su 1,940 1,500–2,500sh2 1,100 400–1,700
Cucumberbeit alpha 450 350–550pickle 650 450–850slicer
o.p. 500 275–600F1 290 200–550
Eggplanto.p. 640 500–775F1 500 400–625
Endive 735 650–800Florence fennel
o.p. 1,500 1,000–2,000F1 700 600–800
Kaleo.p. 1,100 1,000–1,200F1 650 600–700
Kohlrabio.p. 875 850–900F1 450 400–500
Leeko.p. 625 500–850F1 300 200–400
Lettuce 600 450–800Mustard 1,325 1,300–1,350New Zealand spinach 1,750 1,500–2,000Okra
o.p. 1,600 1,200–2,000F1 650 600–700
Oniono.p. 690 575–900F1 450 350–550
Parsley 900 600–1,200Parsnip 975 600–1,300Pea 2,085 1,000–3,000
520
TABLE 9.5. VEGETABLE SEED YIELDS1 (Continued )
VegetableAverage Yield
(lb /acre) Range
Peppero.p. 170 100–300F1 125 100–150
Pumpkino.p. 575 300–850F1 300 235–400
Radisho.p. 1,200 600–2,000F1 525 200–1,000
Rutabaga 2,200 1,800–2,500Salisfy 800 600–1,000Southern pea 1,350 1,200–1,500Spinach
o.p. 1,915 1,000–2,500F1 1,100 1,000–1,200
Squash, summero.p. 760 400–1,200F1 360 250–425
Squash, wintero.p. 620 300–1,200F1 310 200–400
Tomatillo 600 500–700Tomato
F1 125 75–170Turnip
o.p. 2,300 2,000–3,000F1 1,350 1,200–1,500
Watermelono.p. 405 350–600F1 220 190–245Triploid (seedless) 40 20–70
1 Yields are from information provided by representations of several major seed companies. Yields ofsome hybrids may be very much lower because of difficulties of seed production.2 o.p. � open pollinatedF1 � first-generation hybridF2 � second-generation hybrid
521
06SEED STORAGE
STORAGE OF VEGETABLE SEEDS
High moisture and temperature cause rapid deterioration in vegetableseeds. The control of moisture and temperature becomes more important thelonger seeds are held. Low moisture in the seeds means longer life,especially if they must be held at warm temperatures. Kinds of seeds varyin their response to humidity.
The moisture content of seeds can be lowered by drying them in movingair at 120�F. This may be injurious to seeds with an initial moisture contentof 25–40%. With such seeds, 110�F is preferred. It may require less than 1hr to reduce the moisture content of small seeds or up to 3 hr for largeseeds. The difference depends on the depth of the layer of seeds, the volumeof air, dryness of air, and original moisture content of seed. When seedscannot be dried in this way, seal them in airtight containers over, but nottouching, some calcium chloride. Use enough calcium chloride so that themoisture absorbed from the seeds produces no visible change in thechemical. Dried silica gel can be used in place of the calcium chloride.
Bean and okra may develop hard seeds if their moisture content islowered to 7% or below. White-seeded beans are likely to become hard if themoisture content is reduced to about 10%. Dark-colored beans can be driedto less than 10% moisture before they become hard. Hard seeds do notgerminate satisfactorily.
The moisture content of seed reaches an equilibrium with theatmosphere after a period of about 3 weeks for small seeds and 3–6 weeksfor large seeds.
Storage temperatures near 32�F are not necessary. Between 40 and 50�Fis quite satisfactory when the moisture content of the seed is low.
If the moisture content is reduced to 4–5% and the seeds put in sealedcontainers, a storage temperature of about 70�F will be satisfactory for morethan 1 year.
The 5-month limitation on the date of test does not apply when thefollowing conditions are met:
a. The seed was packaged within 9 months after harvest.b. The container does not allow water vapor penetration through any
wall or seal greater than 0.05 g water per 100 sq in. of surface at100�F with a relative humidity on one side of 90% and on the otherside of 0%.
522
c. The seed in the container does not exceed the percentage of moisture,on a wet weight basis, as listed in the table.
d. The container is conspicuously labeled in not less than 8-point typewith the information that the container is hermetically sealed, thatthe seed is preconditioned as to moisture content, and the calendarmonth and year in which the germination test was completed.
e. The percentage pf germination of vegetable seed at the time ofpackaging was equal or above Federal Standards for Germination (seepages 512–513).
TABLE 9.6. STORAGE OF VEGETABLE SEEDS INHERMETICALLY SEALED CONTAINERS
Vegetable Moisture (%) Vegetable Moisture (%)
Bean, garden 7.0 Lettuce 5.5Bean, lima 7.0 Melon 6.0Beet 7.5 Mustard, India 5.0Broccoli 5.0 Onion 6.5Brussels sprouts 5.0 Onion, Welsh 6.5Cabbage 5.0 Parsley 6.5Carrot 7.0 Parsnip 6.0Cauliflower 5.0 Pea 7.0Celeriac 7.0 Pepper 4.5Celery 7.0 Pumpkin 6.0Chard, Swiss 7.5 Radish 5.0Chinese cabbage 5.0 Rutabaga 5.0Chives 6.5 Spinach 8.0Collards 5.0 Squash 6.0Cucumber 6.0 Sweet corn 8.0Eggplant 6.0 Tomato 5.5Kale 5.0 Turnip 5.0Kohlrabi 5.0 Watermelon 6.5Leek 6.5 All others 6.0
Adapted from Federal Seed Act Regulations, http: / / www.ams.usda.gov / lsg / seed / seed pub.htm(2005).
523
07VEGETABLE VARIETIES
NAMING AND LABELING OF VEGETABLE VARIETIES
Every year, many new varieties of vegetable seed reach the U.S.marketplace. New varieties, when added to those already on the market,provide growers with a wide selection of seed. But, in order for them to buyintelligently, seed must be correctly named and labeled.
Marketing a product by its correct name might seem the most likely wayto do business. However, USDA seed officials have found that seed,unfortunately, is sometimes named, labeled, or advertised improperly as itpasses through marketing channels.
Marketing seed under the wrong name is misrepresentation. It can leadto financial loss for several participants in the seed marketing chain.
The grower, for example, buys seed to achieve specific objectives such asincreased yield, competitiveness in a specialized market, or adaptability togrowing conditions of a specific region. If seed is misrepresented and thegrower buys seed other than he or she intended, the harvest may be lessvaluable than anticipated—or, worse yet, there may not even be a marketfor the crop.
In one case, a grower bought seed to grow cabbage to be marketed forprocessing into sauerkraut. As the cabbage matured, he found his crop wasnot suitable for processing and, even worse, that there was no market forthe cabbage in his fields. In this case, improper variety labeling broughtabout financial hardship.
Seed companies and plant breeders also suffer in a market whereproblems with variety names exist. For instance, if the name of a newlyreleased variety is misleading or confusing to the potential buyer, thevariety may not attract the sales that it might otherwise.
This section outlines requirements for naming vegetable seed. It is basedon the Federal Seed Act, a truth-in-labeling law intended to protect growersand home gardeners who purchase seed. Exceptions to the basic rules andthe do’s and don’ts of seed variety labeling and advertising also areexplained.
WHO NAMES NEW VARIETIES
The originator or discoverer of a new variety may give that variety a name.If the originator or discoverer can’t or chooses not to name a variety,
524
someone else may give that variety a name for marketing purposes. In sucha case, the name first used when the seed is introduced into commerce isthe name of the variety.
It is illegal to change a variety name once the name is legally assigned.In other words, a buyer may not purchase seed labeled as variety X andresell it as variety Y. An exception to this rule occurs when the originalname is determined to be illegal. In such an instance, the variety must berenamed according to the rules mentioned above. Another exception appliesto a number of varieties that were already being marketed under severalnames before 1956. (See section on synonyms.)
WHAT’S IN A NAME
To fully understand what goes into naming a variety, you need to know thedifference between a kind of seed and a variety. Kind is the term used forthe seed of one or more related plants known by a common name, such ascarrot, radish, tomato, or watermelon.
Variety is a subdivision of kind. A variety has different characteristicsfrom another variety of the same kind of seed—for example, ‘‘Oxheart’’carrot and ‘‘Danvers 126’’ carrot or ‘‘Charleston Gray’’ and ‘‘Mickylee’’watermelon.
The rules for naming plants relate to both kinds and varieties of seed:
1. A variety must be given a name unique to the kind of seed to which itbelongs. For instance, there can only be one variety of squash called‘‘Dividend.’’
2. Varieties of two or more kinds of seed may have the same name if thekinds are not closely related. For example, there could be a ‘‘Dividend’’squash and a ‘‘Dividend’’ tomato because squash and tomato are kindsof seed not closely related. On the other hand, it would not bepermissible to have a ‘‘Dividend’’ squash and a ‘‘Dividend’’ pumpkinbecause the two kinds of seed are closely related.
3. Once assigned to a variety, the name remains exclusive. Even if‘‘Dividend’’ squash has not been marketed for many years, a newlydeveloped and different squash variety can’t be given the name‘‘Dividend’’ unless the original owner agrees to withdraw ‘‘Dividend’’squash.
4. A company name may be used in a variety name as long as it is partof the original, legally assigned name. Once part of a legal varietyname, the company name must be used by everyone, includinganother company that might market the seed.
525
When a company name is not a part of the variety name, it shouldnot be used in any way that gives the idea that it is part of thevariety name. For example, Don’s Seed Company can’t label oradvertise ‘‘Dividend’’ squash variety as ‘‘Don’s Dividend’’ because‘‘Don’s’’ may be mistaken to be part of the variety name.
The simplest way to avoid confusion is to separate the companyand variety names in advertising or labeling.
5. Although the USDA discourages it, you may use descriptive terms invariety names as long as such terms are not misleading. ‘‘X3R,’’ forinstance, is accepted among pepper growers as meaning ‘‘BacterialLeaf Spot, Race 1, 2, 3 resistant.’’ It would be illegal to include ‘‘X3R’’as part of a variety name if that variety were not ‘‘X3R’’ resistant.Similarly, if a cantaloupe variety is named ‘‘Burpee Hybrid PMT,’’ thename would be illegal if the variety were not tolerant of powderymildew.
6. A variety name should be clearly different in spelling and in sound.‘‘Alan’’ cucumber would not be permissible if an ‘‘Allen’’ cucumberwere already on the market.
HYBRIDS
Remember that a hybrid also is a variety. Hybrid designations, whetherthey are names or numbers, also are variety names. Every rule discussedhere applies to hybrid seed as well as to nonhybrid seed.
In the case of hybrids, however, the situation is potentially more complexbecause more than one seed producer or company might use identicalparent lines in producing a hybrid variety. One company could then producea hybrid that was the same as one already introduced by another firm.
When this happens, both firms must use the same name because theyare marketing the same variety.
If the people who developed the parent lines give the hybrid variety aname, that is the legal name. Otherwise, the proper name is the one givenby the company that first introduced the hybrid seed into commerce.
USDA seed regulatory officials believe the following situation occurs fartoo often:
1. State University releases hybrid corn parent lines A and B.2. John Doe Seed Company obtains seed lines of A and B, crosses the
two lines, and is the first company to introduce the resulting hybridinto commerce under a variety name. John Doe Seed Company namesthis hybrid ‘‘JD 5259.’’
526
3. La Marque Seeds, Inc., obtains lines A and B, makes the same cross,and names the resulting hybrid variety ‘‘SML 25.’’ There has been nochange in the A and B lines that would result in a different variety.La Marque ships the hybrid seed, labeled ‘‘SML 25,’’ in interstatecommerce, and violates the Federal Seed Act because the seed shouldhave been labeled ‘‘JD 5259.’’
SYNONYMS—VARIETIES WITH SEVERAL NAMES
As noted earlier, the name originally assigned to a variety is the name thatmust be used forever. It can’t be changed unless it is illegal.
This does not mean that all varieties must be marketed under a singlename. In fact, some old varieties may be marketed legally under more thanone name. If several names for a single variety of a vegetable seed were inbroad general use before July 28, 1956, those names still may be used.
Here are some examples:The names ‘‘Acorn,’’ ‘‘Table Queen,’’ and ‘‘Des Moines’’ have been known
for many years to represent a single squash variety. They were in broadgeneral use before July 28, 1956, so seed dealers may continue to use thesenames interchangeably.
With the exception of old varieties with allowable synonym names, allvegetable and agricultural varieties may have only one legally recognizedname, and that name must be used by anyone who represents the varietyname in labeling and advertising. This includes interstate seed shipmentsand seed advertisements sent in the mail or in interstate or foreigncommerce.
IMPORTED SEED
Seed imported into the United States can’t be renamed if the original nameof the seed is in the Roman alphabet.
For example, cabbage seed labeled ‘‘Fredrikshavn’’ and shipped to theUnited States from Denmark can’t be given a different variety name such as‘‘Bold Blue.’’
Seed increased from imported seed also can’t be renamed. If‘‘Fredrikshavn’’ were increased in the United States, the resulting crop stillcouldn’t be named ‘‘Bold Blue.’’
Seed with a name that is not in the Roman alphabet must be given anew name. In such a case, the rules for naming the variety are the same asstated previously.
527
BRAND NAMES
USDA officials have found evidence of confusion over the use of varietynames and brand or trademark names. This includes names registered withthe Trademark Division of the U.S. Patent Office.
Guidelines:
1. The brand or trademark name must be clearly identified as beingother than part of the variety name.
2. A brand name must never take the place of a variety name.3. If a brand or trademark name is part of a variety’s name, that
trademark loses status. Anyone marketing the variety under its nameis required to use the exact, legal variety name, including brand ortrademark.
SUMMARY
If the naming, labeling, and advertising of a seed variety is truthful, it isprobably in compliance with the Federal Seed Act.
Keep these simple rules in mind to help eliminate violations andconfusion in the marketing of seed:
● Research the proposed variety name before adopting it.● Make sure the name cannot be confused with company names,
brands, trademarks, or names of other varieties of the same kind ofseed.
● Never change the variety name, whether marketing seed obtainedfrom another source or from your own production—for example,hybrid seed that already has a legal name.
Adapted from Seed Regulatory and Testing Programs, http: / / www.ams.usda.gov / lsg / seed / facts.htm.
SELECTION OF VEGETABLE VARIETIES
Selection of the variety (technically, cultivar) to plant is one of the mostimportant decisions the commercial vegetable grower must make eachseason. Each year, seed companies and experiment stations release dozensof new varieties to compete with those already available. Growers shouldevaluate some new varieties each year on a trial basis to observe
528
performance on their own farms. A limited number of new varieties shouldbe evaluated so that observations on plant performance and characteristicsand yields can be noted and recorded. It is relatively easy to establish atrial but time-consuming to make all the observations necessary to make adecision on adoption of a new variety. Some factors to consider beforeadopting a variety follow:
Yield: The variety should have the potential to produce crops at leastequivalent to those already grown. Harvested yield is usually much lessthan potential yield because of market restraints.
Disease resistance: The most economical and effective means of pestmanagement is through the use of varieties with genetic resistance todisease. When all other factors are about equal, it is prudent to select avariety with the needed disease resistance.
Horticultural quality: Characteristics of the plant habit as related to climateand production practices and of the marketed plant product must beacceptable.
Adaptability: Successful varieties must perform well under the range ofenvironmental conditions usually encountered on the individual farm.
Market acceptability: The harvested plant product must have characteristicsdesired by the packer, shipper, wholesaler, retailer, and consumer.Included among these qualities are packout, size, shape, color, flavor, andnutritional quality.
During the past few years there has been a decided shift to hybridvarieties in an effort by growers to achieve earliness, higher yields, betterquality, and greater uniformity. Seed costs for hybrids are higher than foropen-pollinated varieties because seed must be produced by controlledpollination of the parents of the hybrid.
Variety selection is a dynamic process. Some varieties retain favor formany years, whereas others are used only a few seasons if some specialsituation, such as plant disease or marketing change, develops. If a varietywas released by the USDA or a university, many seed companies may carryit. Varieties developed by a seed company may be available only from thatsource, or may be distributed through many sources.
The Cooperative Extension Service in most states publishes annual orperiodic lists of recommended varieties. These lists are usually available incounty extension offices.
Adapted from D. N. Maynard, ‘‘Variety Selection,’’ in Stephen M. Olson and Eric Simonne (eds.),Vegetable Production Handbook for Florida. (Gainesville, Fla.: Florida Cooperative Extension Service,2004–2005), 17, http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu / CV102.
529
08VEGETABLE SEED SOURCES
SOME SOURCES OF VEGETABLE SEEDS1
-A-
Abbott & CobbP.O. Box 307Feasterville, PA 10953-0307Ph (215) 245-6666Fax (215) 245-9043http: / /www.acseed.com
Abundant Life SeedsP.O. Box 157Saginaw, OR 97472Ph (541) 767-9606Fax (866) 514-7333http: / /www.abundantlifeseeds.com
American Takii, Inc.301 Natividad RoadSalinas, CA 93906Ph (831) 443-4901Fax (831) 443-3976http: / /www.takii.com
Arkansas Valley Seed Solutions4625 Colorado BoulevardDenver, CO 80216Ph (877) 957-3337Fax (303) 320-7516http: / /www.seedsolutions.com
-B-
Bakker Brothers USAP.O. Box 519Caldwell, ID 83606Ph (208) 459-4420Fax (208) 459-4457http: / /www.bakkerbrothers.nl
Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds2278 Baker Creek RoadMansfield, MO 65704Ph (417) 924-8917Fax (417) 924-8887http: / /www.rareseeds.com
Bejo Seeds, Inc.1972 Silver Spur PlaceOceano, CA 93445Ph (805) 473-2199http: / /www.bejoseeds.com
BHN SeedP.O. Box 3267Immokalee, FL 34142Ph (239) 352-1100Fax (239) 352-1981http: / /www.bhnseed.com
Bonanza Seeds International,Inc.
3818 Railroad AvenueYuba City, CA 95991Ph (530) 673-7253Fax (530) 673-7195http: / /www.bonanzaseeds.com
530
Bountiful Gardens Seeds18001 Shafer Ranch RoadWillits, CA 95490-9626Ph (707) 459-6410Fax (707) 459-1925http: / /www.bountifulgardens.org
W. Brotherton Seed Co., Inc.P.O. Box 1136Moses Lake, WA 98837Ph (509) 765-1816Fax (509) 765-1817http: / /www.vanwaveren.de /uk /
mitte /brotherton.htm
Bunton Seed Co.939 E. Jefferson StreetLouisville, KY 40206Ph (800) 757-7179Fax (502) 583-9040http: / /www.buntonseed.com
Burgess Seed & Plant Co.905 Four Seasons RoadBloomington, IL 61701Ph (309) 622-7761http: / /www.eburgess.com
W. Atlee Burpee & Co.300 Park AvenueWarminster, PA 18974Ph (800) 333-5808Fax (800) 487-5530http: / /www.burpee.com
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California Asparagus Seed2815 Anza AvenueDavis, CA 95616Ph (530) 753-2437Fax (530) 753-1209http: / /www.calif-asparagus-seed.com
Carolina Gourds and Seeds259 Fletcher AvenueFuquay Varina, NC 27526Ph (919) 577-5946http: / /www.carolinagourdsandseeds.
com
Champion Seed Co.529 Mercury LaneBrea, CA 92621-4894Ph (714) 529-0702Fax (714) 990-1280http: / /www.championseed.com
Chesmore Seed Co.P.O. Box 8368St. Joseph, MO 64508-8368Ph (816) 279-0865Fax (816) 232-6134http: / /www.chesmore.com
Alf Chrisianson Seed Co.P.O. Box 98Mount Vernon, WA 98273Ph (360) 366-9727Fax (360) 419-3035http: / /www.chriseed.com
Clifton Seed CompanyP.O. Box 206Faison, NC 28341Ph (800) 231-9359Fax (910) 267-2692http: / /www.cliftonseed.com
Comstock, Ferre & Co.263 Main StreetWethersfield, CT 06109Ph (860) 571-6590Fax (860) 571-6595http: / /www.comstockferre.com
531
The Cook’s GardenPO Box 6530Warminster, PA 18974Ph (800) 457-9703http: / /www.cooksgarden.com
Corona Seeds Worldwide590-F Constitution AvenueCamarillo, CA 93012Ph (805) 388-2555Fax (805) 445-8344http: / /www.coronaseeds.com
Crookham Co.P.O. Box 520Caldwell, ID 83606-0520Ph (208) 459-7451Fax (208) 454-2108http: / /www.crookham.com
Crop King Inc.5050 Greenwich RoadSeville, OH 44273-9413Ph (330) 769-2002Fax (330) 769-2616http: / /www.cropking.com
Cutter Asparagus Seed516 Young AvenueArbuckle, CA 95912Ph (530) 475-3647Fax (953) 476-2422http: / /www.asparagusseed.com
-D-
DeRuiter Seeds, Inc.13949 W. Colfax AvenueBuilding No. 1, Suite 220Lakewood, CO 80401Ph (303) 274-5511Fax (303) 274-5514http: / /www.deruiterusa.com
Dominion Seed HouseP.O. Box 2500Georgetown, ONTCanada L7G 4A2Ph (905) 873-3037Fax (800) 282-5746http: / /www.dominion-seed-house.com
-E-
Elsoms Seeds Ltd.Pinchbeck RoadSpaldingLincolnshire PE11 1QGEngland, UKPh 0 1775 715000Fax 0 1775 715001http: / /www.elsoms.com
Enza Zaden7 Harris PlaceSalinas, CA 93901Ph (831) 751-0937Fax (831) 751-6103http: / /www.enzazaden.nl / site /uk /
-F-
Farmer Seed & Nursery Co.Division of Plantron, Inc.818 NW Fourth StreetFaribault, MN 52201Ph (507) 334-1623http: / /www.farmerseed.com
Henry Field Seed & Nursery Co.P.O. Box 397Aurora, IN 47001-0397Ph (513) 354-1494Fax (513) 354-1496http: / /www.henryfields.com
532
-G-
Germania Seed Co.P.O. Box 31787Chicago, IL 60631Ph (800) 380-4721Fax (800) 410-4721http: / /www.germaniaseed.com
Fred C. Gloeckner & Co., Inc.600 Mamaroneck AvenueHarrison, NY 10528-1631Ph (800) 345-3787Fax (914) 698-2857http: / /www.fredgloeckner.com
Golden Valley SeedP.O. Box 1600El Centro, CA 92243Ph (760) 337-3100Fax (760) 337-3135http: / /www.goldenvalleyseed.com
Gurney’s Seed & Nursery Co.P. O. Box 4178Greendale, IN 47025-4178Ph (513) 354-1492Fax (513) 354-1493http: / /www.gurneys.com
-H-
Harris Moran Seed Co.P.O. Box 4938Modesto, CA 95352Ph (209) 579-7333Fax (209) 527-8684http: / /www.harrismoran.com
Harris SeedsP.O. Box 24966Rochester, NY 14624-0966Ph (800) 544-7938Fax (877) 892-9197http: / /www.harrisseeds.com
The Chas. C. Hart Seed Co.P.O. Box 9169Wethersfield, CT 06109Ph (860) 529-2537Fax (860) 563-7221http: / /www.hartseed.com
Hazera Genetics Ltd.2255 Glades Road, Suite 123ABoca Raton, FL 33431Ph (561) 988-1315Fax (561) 988-1319http: / /www.hazera.co.il /
Heirloom SeedsP.O. Box 245West Elizabeth, PA 15088-0245Ph (412) 384-0852http: / /www.heirloomseeds.com
Hollar and Company, Inc.P.O. Box 106Rocky Ford, CO 81067Ph (719) 254-7411Fax (719) 254-3539http: / /www.hollarseeds.com
Hydro-Gardens, Inc.P.O. Box 25845Colorado Springs, CO 80932Ph (800) 936-5845Fax (888) 693-0578http: / /www.hydro-gardens.com
533
-I-
Illinois Foundation Seeds, Inc.P.O. Box 722Champaign, IL 61824-0722Ph (217) 485-6260Fax (217) 485-3687http: / /www.ifsi.com
-J-
Jersey Asparagus Farms, Inc.105 Porchtown RoadPittsgrove, NJ 08318Ph (856) 358-2548Fax (856) 358-6127http: / /www.jerseyasparagus.com
Johnny’s Selected Seeds955 Benton AvenueWinslow, ME 04901Ph (866) 838-1073http: / /www.johnnyseeds.com
Jordan Seeds, Inc.6400 Upper Aston RoadWoodbury, MN 55125Ph (651) 738-3422Fax (651) 731-7690http: / /www.jordanseeds.com
J. W. Jung Seed Co.335 S. High StreetRandolph, WI 53957-0001Ph (800) 247-5864Fax (800) 692-5864http: / /www.jungseed.com
-K-
Keithly-Williams SeedsP.O. Box 177Holtville, CA 92250Ph (800) 533-3465Fax (760) 356-2409http: / /www.keithlywilliams.com
Known-You Seed Co., Ltd.26, Chung Cheng 2nd RoadKaohsiung, TaiwanRepublic of Chinahttp: / /www.knownyou.com
-L-
Livingston Seed Co.880 Kinnear RoadColumbus, OH 43212Ph (614) 488-1163Fax (614) 488-4857http: / /www.livingstonseed.com
-M-
Earl May Seed & Nursery Co.208 N. Elm StreetShenandoah, IA 51603Ph (712) 246-1020Fax (712) 246-1760http: / /www.earlmay.com
Mesa Maize Co.60936 Falcon RoadOlathe, CO 81425http: / /www.mesamaize.com
534
McFayden Seed Co., Ltd.30 Ninth StreetBrandon, ManitobaCanada, R7A 6A6Ph (800) 205-7111http: / /www.mcfayden.com
Henry F. Michell Co.P.O. Box 60160King of Prussia, PA 19406-0160Ph (800) 422-4678http: / /www.michells.com
Monsanto Company800 N. Lindbergh BoulevardSt. Louis, MO 63167Ph (314) 694-1000http: / /www.monsanto.com
MushroompeopleP.O. Box 220Summertown, TN 38483-0220Ph (800) 692-6329Fax (800) 386-4496http: / /www.mushroompeople.com
-N-
Native Seeds/SEARCH526 N. Fourth AvenueTucson, AZ 85705-8450Ph (520) 622-5561Fax (520) 622-5591http: / /www.nativeseeds.org
New England Seed Co.3580 Main StreetHartford, CT 06120Ph (800) 825-5477Fax (877) 229-8487http: / /www.neseed.com
Nichol’s Garden Nursery1190 Old Salem Road NEAlbany, OR 97321-4580Ph (800) 422-3985Fax (800) 231-5306http: / /www.
nicholsgardennursery.com
Nirit Seeds Ltd.Moshav Hadar-Am42935 IsraelPh (972) 9 832 24 35Fax (972) 9 832 24 38http: / /www.niritseeds.com
NK Lawn & Garden Co.P.O. Box 24028Chattanooga, TN 37422-4028Ph (800) 328-2402Fax (423) 697-8001http: / /www.nklawnandgarden.com
Nourse Farms, Inc.41 River RoadSouth Deerfield, MA 01373Ph (413) 665-2658Fax (413) 665-7888http: / /www.noursefarms.com
Nunhems SeedP.O. Box 18Lewisville, ID 83431Ph (208) 754-8666Fax (208) 754-8669http: / /www.nunhems.com
535
-O-
OSCBox 7Waterloo, OntarioCanada N2J 3Z9Ph (519) 886-0557Fax (519) 886-0605http: / /www.oscseeds.com
Oriental Vegetable SeedsEvergreen Y. H. EnterprisesP.O. Box 17538Anaheim, CA 92817Ph (714) 637-5769http: / /www.evergreenseeds.com
Ornamental Edibles5723 Trowbidge WaySan Jose, CA 95138Ph (408) 528-7333Fax (408) 532-1499http: / /www.ornamentaledibles.com
Orsetti Seed Co., Inc.2301 Technology ParkwayP.O. Box 2350Hollister, CA 95023Ph (831) 636-4822Fax (831) 636-4814http: / /www.orsettiseed.com
Outstanding Seed Company354 Center Grange RoadMonaca, PA 15061Ph (800) 385-9254http: / /www.outstandingseed.com
-P-
D. Palmer Seed Co., Inc.8269 S. Highway 95Yuma, AZ 85365Ph (928) 341-8494Fax (928) 341-8496http: / /www.dpalmerseed.com
Paramount Seeds, Inc.P.O. Box 1866Palm City, FL 34991Ph (772) 221-0653Fax (772) 221-0102http: / /www.paramount-seeds.com
Park Seed Co.1 Parkton AvenueGreenwood, SC 29647Ph (800) 213-0076http: / /www.parkseed.com
Penn State Seed Co.Box 390, Route 309Dallas, PA 18612-9781Ph (800) 847-7333Fax (570) 675-6562http: / /www.pennstateseed.com
Pepper GalP.O. Box 23006Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33307-3007Ph (954) 537-5540Fax (954) 566-2208http: / /www.peppergal.com
Pinetree Garden SeedsP.O. Box 300New Gloucester, ME 04260Ph (207) 926-3400Fax (888) 527-3337http: / /www.superseeds.com
536
-R-
Redwood City Seed Co.P.O. Box 361Redwood City, CA 94064Ph (650) 325-7333Fax (650) 325-4056http: / /www.ecoseeds.com
Renee’s Garden Seeds7389 W. Zayante RoadFelton, CA 95018Ph (888) 880-7228Fax (831) 335-7227http: / /www.reneesgarden.com
Rijk Zwaan2274 Portola DriveSalinas, CA 93908Ph (831) 484-9486Fax (831) 484-9486http: / /www.rijkzwaan.com
Rupp Seeds, Inc.17919 County Road BWauseon, OH 43567Ph (419) 337-1841Fax (419) 337-5491http: / /www.ruppseeds.com
Rispens Seeds, Inc.P.O. Box 310Beecher, IL 60401Ph (888) 874-0241Fax (708) 746-6115http: / /www.rispenseeds.com
-S-
Sakata Seed America, Inc.P.O. Box 880Morgan Hill, CA 95038-0880Ph (408) 778-7758Fax (408) 778-7751http: / /www.sakata.com
Seeds of Change621 Old Santa Fe Trail #10Santa Fe, NM 87501Ph (5888 762-7333Fax (505) 438-7052http: / /www.seedsofchange.com
Seedway, Inc.1225 Zeager RoadElizabethtown, PA 17022Ph (800) 952-7333Fax (800) 645-2574http: / /www.seedway.com
Seminis Inc.2700 Camino del SolOxnard, CA 93030-7967Ph (805) 647-1572http: / /www.seminis.com
Shamrock Seed Co.3 Harris PlaceSalinas, CA 93901-4856Ph (831) 771-1500Fax (831) 771-1517http: / /www.shamrockseed.com
R.H. Shumway334 W. Stroud StreetRandolph, WI 53956-1274Ph (800) 342-9461Fax (888) 437-2773http: / /www.rhshumway.com
537
Siegers Seed Co.13031 Reflections DriveHolland, MI 49424Ph (616) 786-4999Fax (616) 994-0333http: / /www.siegers.com
Snow Seed Co.12855 Rosehart WaySalinas, CA 93908Ph (831) 758-9869Fax (831) 757-4550http: / /www.snowseedco.com
Southern Exposure SeedExchange
P.O. Box 460Mineral, VA 23117Ph (540) 894-9480Fax (540) 894-9481http: / /www.southernexposure.com
Southwestern Seed Co.P.O. Box 11449Casa Grande, AZ 85230Ph (520) 836-7595Fax (520) 836-0117http: / /www.southwesternseed.com
Stokes Seeds, Inc.P.O. Box 548Buffalo, NY 14240-0548Ph (716) 695-6980http: / /www.stokesseeds.com
Sugar Creek Seed, Inc.P.O. Box 508Hinton, OK 73047Ph (405) 542-3920Fax (405) 542-3921http: / /www.sugarcreekseed.com
Sutter SeedsP.O. Box 1357Colusa, CA 95932Ph (530) 458-2566Fax (530) 458-2721http: / /www.sutterseed.com
Syngenta Seeds, Inc.Rogers Brand Vegetable SeedsP.O. Box 4188Boise, ID 83711-4188Ph (208) 322-7272Fax (208) 378-6625http: / /www.rogersadvantage.com
-T-
The Territorial Seed Co.P.O. Box 158Cottage Grove, OR 97424-0061Ph (541) 942-9547Fax (888) 657-3131http: / /www.territorial-seed.com
Thompson & Morgan, Inc.P.O. Box 1308Jackson, NJ 08527-0308Ph (800) 274-7333Fax (888) 466-4769http: / /www.wholesale.thompson-
morgan.com/us /
Tokita Seed Co., Ltd.1069 NakagawaOmiya-shiSaitama-ken 300-8532Japanhttp: / /www.tokitaseed.co.jp
538
Tomato Grower’s Supply Co.P.O. Box 2237Ft. Myers, FL 33902Ph (888) 478-7333http: / /www.tomatogrowers.com
Otis S. Twilley Seed Co., Inc.121 Gary RoadHodges, SC 29653Fax (864) 227-5108http: / /www.twilleyseed.com
-U-
United Genetics800 Fairview RoadHollister, CA 95023Ph (831) 636-4882Fax (831) 636-4883http: / /www.unitedgenetics.com
U S Seedless, LLCP.O. Box 3006Falls Church, VA 22043Ph (703) 903-9190Fax (703) 903-9456http: / /www.usseedless.com
-V-
Vermont Bean Seed Co., Inc.334 W. Stroud StreetRandolph, WI 53956-1274Ph (800) 349-1071Fax (888) 500-7333http: / /www.vermontbean.com
Vesey’s Seeds Ltd.P.O. Box 9000Charlottetown, PEICanada C1A 8K6Ph (902) 368-7333Fax (800) 686-0329http: / /www.veseys.com
Victory Seed Co.P.O. Box 192Molalla, OR 97038Ph & Fax (503) 829-3126http: / /www.victoryseeds.com
Vilmorin Inc.2551 N. DragoonTucson, AZ 85175Ph (520) 884-0011Fax (520) 884-5102http: / /www.vilmorin.com
Virtual Seeds92934 Coyote DriveAstoria, OR 97103Ph (503) 458-0919http: / /www.virtualseeds.com
-W-
West Coast Seeds3925 Sixty-fourth StreetDelta, BCCanada V4K 3N2Ph (604) 952-8820Fax (8770 482-8822http: / /www.westcoastseeds.com
539
Willhite Seed Co.Box 23Poolville, TX 76487-0023Ph (800) 828-1840Fax (817) 599-5843http: / /www.willhiteseed.com
Wyatt-Quarles Seed Co.P.O. Box 739Garner, NC 27529Ph (919) 772-4243http: / /www.wqseeds.com
-Y-
Arthur Yates & Co. Ltd.P.O. Box. 6672Silverwater BCNSW 1811Australiahttp: / /www.yates.com.au
-Z-
Zeraim GederaP.O. Box 103Gedera 70750Israelhttp: / /www.zeraimgedera.com
Information in this section was correct at the time of preparation. However, there are frequentchanges in phone area codes, postal codes, addresses, and even company names. Suggest using yourcomputer search engine if there is difficulty locating a specific concern.
PART 10APPENDIX
01 SOURCES OF VEGETABLE INFORMATION
02 PERIODICALS FOR VEGETABLE GROWERS
03 U.S. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
04 CONVERSION FACTORS FOR U.S. UNITS
05 METRIC UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
06 CONVERSION FACTORS FOR SI AND NON SI UNITS
07 CONVERSIONS FOR RATES OF APPLICATION
08 WATER AND SOIL SOLUTION CONVERSION FACTORS
09 HEAT AND ENERGY EQUIVALENTS AND DEFINITIONS
Knott’s Handbook for Vegetable Growers, Fifth Edition. D. N. Maynard and G. J. Hochmuth© 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-73828-2
542
01SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON VEGETABLES
The Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service ineach state has been the principal source of information on vegetables inprinted form. Most of this information is now on the Internet because of thehigh cost of producing, storing, and distributing printed information.
Websites providing information on vegetables from the state agriculturaluniversity in most states are listed below. If you are unable to access a site,try using the search engine on your computer.
State Website Address /URL
Alabama CommercialVegetableProduction
http: / /www.aces.edu/dept / com veg
Arizona Vegetables http: / / cals.arizona.edu/crops /vegetables /vegetables.html
Arkansas Vegetables http: / /aragriculture.org /horticulture/vegetables /default.asp
California Vegetable &ResearchInformationCenter
http: / /vric.ucdavis.edu
Vegetable Crops http: / /www.anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/InOrder /Shop /Shop.asp
PostharvestTechnology
http: / /postharvest.ucdavis.edu.
Colorado Specialty CropsProgram
http: / /www.specialtycrops.colostate.edu/SCP about.htm
Connecticut Vegetables http: / /137.99.85.230 /FMProAgricultural
ExperimentStation
http: / /www.caes.state.ct.us /Publications /publications.htm
Delaware Vegetable Program http: / /www.rec.udel.edu /veggie /veggie2001.htm
543
State Website Address /URL
Florida Vegetable Crops http: / / edis.ifas.ufl.edu/TOPICVegetables
Watermelons http: / /watermelons.ifas.ufl.eduGeorgia Vegetables http: / /www.uga.edu/�hort /
comveg.htmHawaii Vegetables http: / /www.ctahr.hawaii.edu / fb /
vege.htmIllinois Commercial
VegetableProduction
http: / /www.nres.uiuc.edu/outreach /pubs.html
Indiana Purdue Fruit andVegetableConnection
http: / /www.hort.purdue.edu/fruitveg /vegmain.shtml
Iowa CommercialVegetables
http: / /www.public.iastate.edu/�taber /Extension /extension.html
Kansas HorticultureLibrary
http: / /www.oznet.ksu.edu/ library /hort2
Kentucky VegetableInformation
http: / /www.uky.edu/Ag /Horticulture / comveggie.html
Louisiana CommercialVegetableProductionRecommendations
http: / /www.louisianalawnandgarden.org /en /crops livestock /crops /vegetables /
Maryland Crops, Livestock &Nursery
http: / /www.agnr.umd.edu/MCE/Publications /Category.cfm?ID�C
Massachusetts Vegetable Program http: / /www.umassvegetable.orgMichigan Michigan Vegetable
InformationNetwork
http: / /web4.msue.msu.edu/veginfo /index.cfm?doIntro�1
Minnesota Fruits andVegetables
http: / /horticulture.coafes.umn.edu/http: / /horticulture coafes umnedu fruitveg.html
Mississippi CommercialHorticulture
http: / /msucares.com/crops / comhort /index.html
Missouri HorticulturePublications
http: / /muextension.missouri.edu /explore /agguides /hort
Nebraska Horticulture http: / / ianrpubs.unl.edu/horticulture
544
State Website Address /URL
NewHampshire
CooperativeExtension’sVegetableProgram
http: / /www.ceinfo.unh.edu/Agric /AGFVC/FVCVEG.htm
New Jersey Vegetable and HerbCrops
http: / /www.rcre.rutgers.edu/pubs /subcategory.asp?cat�3&sub�24
New York Commercial Fruitsand Vegetables
http: / /www.hort.cornell.edu /extension /commercial /comfrveg.html
Vegetable Researchand Extension
http: / /www.hort.cornell.edu /department / faculty / rangarajan /Veggie / index.html
North Carolina Vegetable Crops http: / /www.cals.ncsu.edu/hort sci /veg /vegmain.html
Ohio Vegetable Crops http: / / extension.osu.edu/crops andlivestock /vegetable crops.php
The ExtensionVegetable Lab
http: / /www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/Kleinhenz /Stuff / tm-wrkgrp1.htm
Oklahoma Vegetable TrialReport
http: / /www.okstate.edu/ag /asnr /hortla /vegtrial / index.htm
Oregon VegetableProductionGuides
http: / / oregonstate.edu/Dept /NWREC/vegindex.html
Pennsylvania Vegetable CropResources
http: / /hortweb.cas.psu.edu/extension /vegcrp.html
South Carolina Vegetable & FruitProgram
http: / /virtual.clemson.edu/groups /hort /vegprog.htm
Tennessee Field andCommercialCrops
http: / /www.utextension.utk.edu/publications /fieldCrops /default.asp
Texas Vegetable WebSites
http: / /aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/extension / infolinks.html
Vegetable IPM http: / /vegipm.tamu.eduVermont Vermont Vegetable
and Berry Pagehttp: / /www.uvm.edu/vtvegandberry
Virginia Vegetable-CommercialProduction
http: / /www.ext.vt.edu /cgi-bin /WebObjects /Docs.woa /wa/getcat?cat�ir-fv-vegc
545
State Website Address /URL
Washington Vegetable Researchand Extension
http: / /agsyst.wsu.edu/vegtble.htm
Vegetables http: / / cecommerce.uwex.edu/showcat.asp?id�18
OntarioCanada
VegetableProductionInformation
http: / /www.gov.on.ca /omafra /english /crops /hort /vegetable.html
546
02SOME PERIODICALS FOR VEGETABLE GROWERS
American Fruit GrowerAmerican Vegetable GrowerFlorida GrowerGreenhouse GrowerProductores de HortalizasMeister Media Worldwide3377 Euclid AvenueWilloughby, OH 44094-5992Ph (440) 942-2000http: / /www.meistermedia.com
Carrot Countryhttp: / /www.columbiapublications.com/carrotcountry
Onion Worldhttp: / /www.columbiapublications.com/onionworld
Potato Countryhttp: / /www.columbiapublications.com/potatocountry
The Tomato Magazinehttp: / /www.columbiapublications.com/tomatomagazineColumbia Publishing413-B N. Twentieth AvenueYakima, WA 98902
Citrus & Vegetable MagazineSubscription Service CenterP.O. Box 83Tifton, GA 31793http: / /www.citrusandvegetable.com
The GrowerSubscription Service Center400 Knightsbridge ParkwayLincolnshire, IL 60069-3613Fax (847) 634-4373http: / /www.growermagazine.com
547
The PackerCirculation DepartmentP.O. Box 2939Shawnee Mission, KS 66201-1339Ph (800) 621-2845Fax (913) 438-0657http: / /www.thepacker.com
The Produce News482 Hudson TerraceEnglewood Cliffs, NJ 07632Ph (800) 753-9110http: / /www.producenews.com
Western Grower and Shipper MagazineP.O. Box 2130Newport Beach, CA 92614http: / /www.wga.com
Vegetable Growers Newshttp: / /www.vegetablegrowersnews.com
Spudmanhttp: / /www.spudman.com
Fresh Cuthttp: / /www.freshcut.com
Fruit Grower Newshttp: / /www.fruitgrowersnews.com
Great American PublishingP.O. Box 128Sparta, MI 49345Ph (616) 887-9008Fax (616) 887-2666
548
Growing for MarketP.O. Box 3747Lawrence, KS 66046Ph (785) 748-0605Fax (785) 748-0609http: / /www.growingformarket.com
Potato Grower Magazinehttp: / /www.potatogrowers.com
549
03U.S. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Length1 foot � 12 inches1 yard � 3 feet1 yard � 36 inches1 rod � 16.5 feet1 mile � 5280 feet
Area1 acre � 43,560 square feet1 section � 640 acres1 section � 1 square mile
Volume1 liquid pint � 16 liquid ounces1 liquid quart � 2 liquid pints1 liquid quart � 32 liquid ounces1 gallon � 8 liquid pints1 gallon � 4 liquid quarts1 gallon � 128 liquid ounces1 peck � 16 pints (dry)1 peck � 8 quarts (dry)1 bushel � 4 pecks1 bushel � 64 pints (dry)1 bushel � 32 quarts (dry)
Mass or Weight1 pound � 16 ounces1 hundredweight � 100 pounds1 ton � 20 hundredweight1 ton � 2000 pounds1 unit (fertilizer) � 1% ton � 20 pounds
550
04CONVERSION FACTORS FOR U.S. UNITS
Multiply By To Obtain
Length
feet 12. inchesfeet 0.33333 yardsinches 0.08333 feetinches 0.02778 yardsmiles 5,280. feetmiles 63,360. inchesmiles 1,760. yardsrods 16.5 feetyards 3. feetyards 36. inchesyards 0.000568 miles
Area
acres 43,560. square feetacres 160. square rodsacres 4,840. square yardssquare feet 144. square inchessquare feet 0.11111 square yardssquare inches 0.00694 square feetsquare miles 640. acressquare miles 27,878,400. square feetsquare miles 3,097,600. square yardssquare yards 0.0002066 acressquare yards 9. square feetsquare yards 1,296. square inches
Volume
bushels 2,150.42 cubic inchesbushels 4. pecks
551
Multiply By To Obtain
bushels 64. pintsbushels 32. quartscubic feet 1,728. cubic inchescubic feet 0.03704 cubic yardscubic feet 7.4805 gallonscubic feet 59.84 pints (liquid)cubic feet 29.92 quarts (liquid)cubic yards 27. cubic feetcubic yards 46,656. cubic inchescubic yards 202. gallonscubic yards 1,616. pints (liquid)cubic yards 807.9 quarts (liquid)gallons 0.1337 cubic feetgallons 231. cubic inchesgallons 128. ounces (liquid)gallons 8. pints (liquid)gallons 4. quarts (liquid)gallons water 8.3453 pounds waterpecks 0.25 bushelspecks 537.605 cubic inchespecks 16. pints (dry)pecks 8. quarts (dry)pints (dry) 0.015625 bushelspints (dry) 33.6003 cubic inchespints (dry) 0.0625 peckspints (dry) 0.5 quarts (dry)pints (liquid) 28.875 cubic inchespints (liquid) 0.125 gallonspints (liquid) 16. ounces (liquid)pints (liquid) 0.5 quarts (liquid)quarts (dry) 0.03125 bushelsquarts (dry) 67.20 cubic inchesquarts (dry) 2. pints (dry)quarts (liquid) 57.75 cubic inchesquarts (liquid) 0.25 gallonsquarts (liquid) 32. ounces (liquid)quarts (liquid) 2. pints (liquid)
552
Multiply By To Obtain
Mass or Weight
ounces (dry) 0.0625 poundsounces (liquid) 1.805 cubic inchesounces (liquid) 0.0078125 gallonsounces (liquid) 0.0625 pints (liquid)ounces (liquid) 0.03125 quarts (liquid)pounds 16. ouncespounds 0.0005 tonspounds of water 0.01602 cubic feetpounds of water 27.68 cubic inchespounds of water 0.1198 gallonstons 32,000. ouncestons 20. hundredweighttons 2,000. pounds
Rate
feet per minute 0.01667 feet per secondfeet per minute 0.01136 miles per hourmiles per hour 88. feet per minutemiles per hour 1.467 feet per minute
553
05METRIC UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Length
1 millimeter � 1,000 microns1 centimeter � 10 millimeters1 meter � 100 centimeters1 meter � 1,000 millimeters1 kilometer � 1,000 meters
Area
1 hectare � 10,000 square meters
Volume
1 liter � 1,000 milliliters
Mass or Weight
1 gram � 1,000 milligrams1 kilogram � 1,000 grams1 quintal � 100 kilograms1 metric ton � 1,000 kilograms1 metric ton � 10 quintals
554
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557
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559
07CONVERSIONS FOR RATES OF APPLICATION
1 ton per acre � 20.8 grams per square foot1 ton per acre � 1 pound per 21.78 square feet1 ton per acre furrow slice (6-inch depth) � 1 gram per 1,000 grams soil1 gram per square foot � 96 pounds per acre1 pound per acre � 0.0104 grams per square foot1 pound per acre � 1.12 kilograms per hectare100 pounds per acre � 0.2296 pounds per 100 square feetgrams per square foot � 96 � pounds per acrekilograms per 48 square feet � tons per acrepounds per square feet � 21.78 � tons per acre
560
08WATER AND SOIL SOLUTION—CONVERSION FACTORS
Concentration1 decisiemens per meter (dS/m) � 1 millimho per centimeter (mmho/cm)1 decisiemens per meter (dS/m) � approximately 640 milligrams per liter
salt1 part per million (ppm) � 1/1,000,0001 percent � 0.01 or 1 /1001 ppm � 10,000 � 1 percentppm � 0.00136 � tons per acre-foot of waterppm � milligrams per literppm � 17.12 � grains per gallongrains per gallon � 0.0584 � ppmppm � 0.64 � micromhos per centimeter (in range of 100–5,000 micromhos
per centimeter)ppm � 640 � millimhos per centimeter (in range of 0.1–5.0 millimhos per
centimeter)ppm � grams per cubic metermho � reciprocal ohmmillimho � 1000 micromhosmillimho � approximately 10 milliequivalents per liter (meq/ liter)milliequivalents per liter � equivalents per millionmillimhos per centimeter � EC � 103 (EC � 1,000) at 25�C (EC � electrical
conductivity)micromhos per centimeter � EC � 106 (EC � 1,000,000) at 25�Cmillimhos per centimeter � 0.1 siemens per metermillimhos per centimeter � (EC � 103) � decisiemens per meter (dS/m)1,000 micromhos per centimeter � approximately 700 ppm1,000 micromhos per centimeter � approximately 10 milliequivalents per
liter1,000 micromhos per centimeter � 1 ton of salt per acre-foot of watermilliequivalents per liter � 0.01 � (EC � 106) (in range of 100–5,000
micromhos per centimeter)milliequivalents per liter � 10 � (EC � 103) (in range of 0.1–5.0 millimhos
per centimeter)
Pressure and Head1 atmosphere at sea level � 14.7 pounds per square inch1 atmosphere at sea level � 29.9 inches of mercury1 atmosphere at sea level � 33.9 feet of water
561
1 atmosphere � 0.101 megapascal (MPa)1 bar � 0.10 megapascal (MPa)1 foot of water � 0.8826 inch mercury1 foot of water � 0.4335 pound per square inch1 inch of mercury � 1.133 feet water1 inch of mercury � 0.4912 pound per square inch1 inch of water � 0.07355 inch mercury1 inch of water � 0.03613 pound per square inch1 pound per square inch � 2.307 feet water1 pound per square inch � 2.036 inches mercury1 pound per square foot � 47.9 pascals
Weight and Volume (U.S. Measurements)1 acre-foot of soil � about 4,000,000 pounds1 acre-foot of water � 43,560 cubic feet1 acre-foot of water � 12 acre-inches1 acre-foot of water � about 2,722,500 pounds1 acre-foot of water � 325,851 gallons1 cubic-foot of water � 7.4805 gallons1 cubic foot of water at 59�F � 62.37 pounds1 acre-inch of water � 27,154 gallons1 gallon of water at 59�F � 8.337 pounds1 gallon of water � 0.1337 cubic foot or 231 cubic inches
Flow (U.S. Measurements)1 cubic foot per second � 448.8 gallons per minute1 cubic foot per second � about 1 acre-inch per hour1 cubic foot per second � 23.80 acre-inches per hour1 cubic foot per second � 3600 cubic feet per hour1 cubic foot per second � about 71⁄2 gallons per second1 gallon per minute � 0.00223 cubic feet per second1 gallon per minute � 0.053 acre-inch per 24 hours1 gallon per minute � 1 acre-inch in 41⁄2 hours1000 gallons per minute � 1 acre-inch in 27 minutes1 acre-inch per 24 hours � 18.86 gallons per minute1 acre-foot per 24 hours � 226.3 gallons per minute1 acre-foot per 24 hours � 0.3259 million gallons per 24 hours
U.S.-Metric Equivalents1 cubic meter � 35.314 cubic feet1 cubic meter � 1.308 cubic yards
562
1 cubic meter � 1000 liters1 liter � 0.0353 cubic feet1 liter � 0.2642 U.S. gallon1 liter � 0.2201 British or Imperial gallon1 cubic centimeter � 0.061 cubic inch1 cubic foot � 0.0283 cubic meter1 cubic foot � 28.32 liters1 cubic foot � 7.48 U.S. gallons1 cubic foot � 6.23 British gallons1 cubic inch � 16.39 cubic centimeters1 cubic yard � 0.7645 cubic meter1 U.S. gallon � 3.7854 liters1 U.S. gallon � 0.833 British gallon1 British gallon � 1.201 U.S. gallons1 British gallon � 4.5436 liters1 acre-foot � 43,560 cubic feet1 acre-foot � 1,233.5 cubic meters1 acre-inch � 3,630 cubic feet1 acre-inch � 102.8 cubic meters1 cubic meter per second � 35.314 cubic feet per second1 cubic meter per hour � 0.278 liter per second1 cubic meter per hour � 4.403 U.S. gallons per minute1 cubic meter per hour � 3.668 British gallons per minute1 liter per second � 0.0353 cubic feet per second1 liter per second � 15.852 U.S. gallons per minute1 liter per second � 13.206 British gallons per minute1 liter per second � 3.6 cubic meters per hour1 cubic foot per second � 0.0283 cubic meter per second1 cubic foot per second � 28.32 liters per second1 cubic foot per second � 448.8 U.S. gallons per minute1 cubic foot per second � 373.8 British gallons per minute1 cubic foot per second � 1 acre-inch per hour (approximately)1 cubic foot per second � 2 acre-feet per day (approximately)1 U.S. gallon per minute � 0.06309 liter per second1 British gallon per minute � 0.07573 liter per second
Power and Energy1 horsepower � 550 foot-pounds per second1 horsepower � 33,000 foot-pounds per minute1 horsepower � 0.7457 kilowatts1 horsepower � 745.7 watts
563
1 horsepower-hour � 0.7457 kilowatt-hour1 kilowatt � 1.341 horsepower1 kilowatt-hour � 1.341 horsepower-hours1 acre-foot of water lifted 1 foot � 1.372 horsepower-hours of work1 acre-foot of water lifted 1 foot � 1.025 kilowatt-hours of work
564
09HEAT AND ENERGY EQUIVALENTS AND DEFINITIONS
1 joule � 0.239 calorie1 joule � Nm (m2 kg s–2)temperature of maximum density of water � 3.98�C (about 39�F)1 British thermal unit (Btu) � heat needed to change 1 pound water at
maximum density of 1�F1 Btu � 1.05506 kilojoules (kJ)1 Btu / lb � 2.326 kJ/kg1 Btu per minute � 0.02356 horsepower1 Btu per minute � 0.01757 kilowatts1 Btu per minute � 17.57 watts1 horsepower � 42.44 Btu per minute1 horsepower-hour � 2547 Btu1 kilowatt-hour � 3415 Btu1 kilowatt � 56.92 Btu per minute1 pound water at 32�F changed to solid ice requires removal of 144 Btu1 pound ice in melting takes up to 144 Btu1 ton ice in melting takes up to 288,000 Btu
USEFUL WEBSITES FOR UNITS AND CONVERSIONS
Weights, Measures, and Conversion Factors for Agricultural Commoditiesand Their Products (USDA Agricultural Handbook 697, 1992), http: / /www.ers.usda.gov /publications /ah697
Metric Conversions (2002), http: / /www.extension.iastate.edu/agdm/wholefarm/html / c6-80.html
A Dictionary of Units—Part 1 (2004), http: / /www.projects.ex.ac.uk / trol /dictunit /dictunit1.htm
A Dictionary of Units—Part 2 (2004), http: / /www.projects.ex.ac.uk / trol /dictunit /dictunit2.htm
U.S. Metric Association (2005), http: / / lamar.colostate.edu/�hillger
565
INDEX
Acanthus family, 6Acre:
length of row, 121number of plants, 122–123
Air pollutants:ammonia, 311, 313chlorine, 310, 313fluoride, 312hydrochloric acid, 311hydrogen sulfide, 313nitrogen dioxide, 312ozone, 310, 312PAN, 310, 312–313sulfur dioxide, 310, 312
Alfalfa, (Lucerne):botanical classification, 18edible plant part, 18
Alligator weed (Joseph’s coat):botanical classification, 6edible plant part, 6
Amaranth family, 6–7Amaranthus (tampala):
botanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7storage, 430
Angelica:botanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7
Angelica, Japanese:botanical classification, 7
edible plant part, 7Anise:
storage, 430U.S. grades, 469
Aralia family, 7–8botanical classification, 8edible plant part, 8
Arracacha (Peruvian carrot):botanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7
Arrowhead:botanical classification, 2edible plant part, 2
Arrowhead, Chinese:botanical classification, 2edible plant part, 2
Arrowroot, East Indian:botanical classification, 5edible plant part, 5
Arrowroot family, 5Arrowroot, West Indian:
botanical classification, 5edible plant part, 5
Artichoke, globe:boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 8chilling injury, 446compatibility in mixed loads, 456
Knott’s Handbook for Vegetable Growers, Fifth Edition. D. N. Maynard and G. J. Hochmuth© 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-471-73828-2
566
INDEX
Artichoke, globe (Continued )composition, 46cooling methods, 426edible plant part, 8ethylene production, 453freezing injury, 449harvest method, 422in nine languages, 25insects, 373per capita consumption, 42postharvest diseases, 460production statistics, 34–35respiration rate, 436rooting depth, 252shipping containers, 483seed germination:
standards, 512tests, 506
spacing, 119temperature:
classification, 105for growth, 107
storage:compatibility, 457conditions, 430controlled atmosphere, 439life, 429moisture loss, 442
U.S. grades, 496vitamin content, 50world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 420
Artichoke, Japanese (Chineseartichoke):
botanical classification, 20edible plant part, 20
Artichoke, Jerusalem:boron response, 241botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9harvest method, 422
shipping containers, 487spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 430
respiration rate, 436Arugula (Rocket salad):
botanical classification, 13edible plant part, 13
Asparagus:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 4chilling injury, 444, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 456cooling methods, 426crowns needed per acre, 131diseases, 356edible plant part, 4ethylene production, 453fertilizer:
Mid-Atlantic states, 223New England, 227New York, 229
freezing injury, 449fresh cut, 481harvest method, 422in nine languages, 25insects, 373nutrient composition, 190per capita consumption, 42physiological disorders, 450plant analysis guide, 182postharvest diseases, 460production statistics, 34–36respiration rate, 436response to micronutrients, 239rooting depth, 252shipping containers, 483
567
INDEX
seed:germination:
days, 111standards, 542tests, 505
production isolation, 515yield, 518
spacing, 119storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 430controlled atmosphere, 435crowns, 130life, 429moisture loss, 442
temperature:base, 106classification, 105seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplant production, 44vitamin content, 50U.S. grades, 469, 475world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 420
Asparagus, wild:botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
Aster:botanical classification, 8edible plant part, 8
Arum family, 3Asiatic pennywort
botanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7
Bamboo shoots:botanical classification, 5edible plant part, 5
Bamboo, water (cobo):botanical classification, 5
edible plant part, 5Banana family, 5Basella family, 9–10Basil, common (sweet basil):
boron response, 241botanical classification, 20edible plant part, 20storage:
conditions, 434respiration rate, 435
Basil, hoary:botanical classification, 20edible plant part, 20
Basswood family, 24Bean, adzuki
botanical classification, 19edible plant part, 19
Bean, African yam:botanical classification, 19edible plant part, 19
Bean, asparagus (yard-long bean):botanical classification, 19edible plant part, 19respiration rate, 436seed germination:
standards, 512tests, 505
shipping containers, 488storage:
conditions, 430compatibility, 458
Bean, buffalo (velvet bean):botanical classification, 18edible plant part, 18
Bean, cluster, (guar):botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Bean, dry:trends in consumption, 43
Bean, fava (broad bean, horse bean):botanical classification, 19
568
INDEX
Bean, fava (broad bean, horse bean)(Continued )
days to maturity, 415edible plant part, 19in nine languages, 25seed:
certified, 516germination:
standards, 512tests, 506
needed per acre, 113per pound, 113
salt tolerance, 168spacing, 119temperature:
classification, 105for growth, 107
storage, 430Bean, garden (snap bean):
air pollutant sensitivity, 312, 313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240, 241
botanical classification, 18chilling injury, 444, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 455cooling methods, 427days to maturity, 415, 418diseases, 356–357edible plant part, 18fertilizer:
Florida, 225Mid-Atlantic states, 223New England, 227New York, 229magnesium response, 245
fresh cut, 481harvest method, 422in nine languages, 25insects, 373–375nematodes, 352
nutrient:accumulation, 18composition, 190concentration, 195
per capita consumption, 42plant analysis guide, 182postharvest diseases, 462production statistics, 34–35, 37–
38respiration rate, 436response to micronutrients, 239rooting depth, 252salinity yield loss, 306salt tolerance, 168seed:
certified, 516germination:
days, 11standards, 512tests, 505
needed per acre, 113per pound, 113production isolation, 514storage, 522yields, 518
shipping containers, 483, 487solar injury, 452spacing, 118, 119storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 430controlled atmosphere, 439life, 429moisture loss, 442
temperature:base, 106classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 469, 475
569
INDEX
vitamin content, 50world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 38, 420
Bean, goa (winged bean):botanical classification, 18edible plant part, 18storage compatibility, 485
Bean, hyacinth:botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Bean, jack, (horse bean):botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Bean, Lima:boron:
in irrigation water, 307response 240–241
botanical classification, 18chilling injury, 444, 446composition, 46days to maturity, 415diseases, 360edible plant part, 18harvest method, 422nutrient composition, 190postharvest diseases, 462production statistics, 37rooting depth, 252seed:
germination:days, 111standards, 512tests, 505
needed per acre, 113per pound, 113production isolation, 514storage, 522
storage, 430spacing, 119temperature:
classification, 105
for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 469, 475vitamin content, 50yield per acre, 38, 420
Bean, marama:botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Bean, moth:botanical classification, 19edible plant part, 19
Bean, mung:botanical classification, 19certified, seed, 516edible plant part, 19
Bean, potato:botanical classification, 18edible plant part, 18
Bean, rice:botanical classification, 19edible plant part, 19
Bean, scarlet runner:botanical classification, 18edible plant part, 18seed germination:
standards, 512tests, 505
yields, 518Bean sprouts:
storage life, 429Bean, sword (horse bean):
botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Bean, tepary:botanical classification, 18edible plant part, 18
Bean, yam:botanical classification, 18edible plant part, 18
570
INDEX
Beet, garden:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 14chilling injury, 446–447compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 46days to maturity, 415diseases, 357edible plant part, 14fertilizer:
Florida, 225Mid-Atlantic states, 223New England, 227New York, 229magnesium response, 245
freezing injury, 449fresh cut, 481harvest method, 422in nine languages, 25insects, 375nutrient concentration, 195–196rooting depth, 252response to micronutrients, 239salinity yield loss, 306seed:
germination:days, 111standards, 512tests, 505
needed per acre, 113per pound, 113production isolation, 514storage, 522yields, 518
salt tolerance, 168shipping containers, 483spacing, 118, 119temperature:
base, 106
classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
storage:compatibility, 457conditions, 430life, 429moisture loss, 442
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplanting, 56U.S. grades, 469, 475vitamin content, 50yield per acre, 420
Beet, greens:composition, 46vitamin content, 50
Begonia family, 29Belgian endive, see ChicoryBellflower family, 13Best Management Practices, 144–
145Bitter leaf:
botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9
Bindweed family, 14Bitter melon:
botanical classification, 16edible plant part, 16shipping containers, 483–484storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 430
Boniato:harvest method, 422shipping containers, 484storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 430
Borage:botanical classification, 10edible plant part, 10
Borage family, 10, 29
571
INDEX
Boron:application, 242conversion factors, 176critical values, 195, 210deficiency symptoms, 231diagnosis, 190–194recommendations, 244requirements, 240response, 239soil test interpretation, 234tolerance, 241
Boxthorn:botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 23
Broccoli:aid pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 12chilling injury, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 46cooling methods, 426days to maturity, 415diseases, 357–358edible plant part, 12fertilizer:
Florida, 225Mid-Atlantic states, 223New York, 229rates for linear bed feet, 21
freezing injury, 449fresh cut, 481harvest method, 422in nine languages, 25insects, 375–376nutrient:
accumulation, 180concentration, 196
per capita consumption, 42plant analysis guide, 182
postharvest diseases, 461production statistics, 34–36respiration rate, 436response to micronutrients, 239rooting depth, 252salinity yield loss, 306salt tolerance, 168seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 506
hot water treatment, 347needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 518
storage:compatibility, 457conditions, 430controlled atmosphere, 439life, 429moisture loss, 442
spacing, 119temperature:
base, 106classification, 105for growth, 107
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplant production, 62, 63transplanting, 56U.S. grades, 469, 475vitamin content, 50yield per acre, 420
Broccoli raab (turnip broccoli):botanical classification, 13composition, 46days to maturity, 415edible plant part, 13vitamin content, 50
Broomrape:botanical classification, 21
572
INDEX
Broomrape (Continued )edible plant part, 21
Broomrape family, 21Brussels sprouts:
air pollutant sensitivity, 316–313boron response, 240botanical classification, 12chilling injury, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 46cooling methods, 426days to maturity, 415diseases, 357–358edible plant part, 12fertilizer for New York, 229harvest method, 422in nine languages, 25insects, 375–376nutrient:
accumulation, 180concentration, 196
physiological disorders, 450postharvest diseases, 461respiration rate, 436rooting depth, 252seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 506
hot water treatment, 347needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 518
shipping containers, 484spacing, 119storage:
compatibility, 457controlled atmosphere, 439conditions, 430life, 429
moisture loss, 442transplant production, 62–63temperature:
classification, 105for growth, 107
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplanting, 56U.S. grades, 469vitamin content, 50yield per acre, 420
Bucko:botanical classification, 19edible plant part, 19
Bugleweed, shiny:botanical classification, 20edible plant part, 20
Burdock, edible:botanical classification, 8edible plant part, 8seed:
germination standards, 512germination tests, 506
Butterburs:botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9
Buckwheat family, 22Bumblebee pollination, 8
Cabbage:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 12chilling injury, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 46cooling methods, 426days to maturity, 415diseases, 357–358edible plant part, 12fertilizer:
573
INDEX
Florida, 225Mid-Atlantic states, 223New England, 227New York, 229magnesium response, 245rates per linear bed feet, 221
freezing injury, 449fresh cut, 481harvest method, 422in nine languages, 25insects, 375–376nematodes, 352nutrient concentration, 196–197per capita consumption, 42plant analysis guide, 183postharvest diseases, 461production statistics, 24–35respiration rate, 436response to micronutrients, 239transplant production, 62–63rooting depth, 252salt tolerance, 168seed:
germination:days, 111standards, 512tests, 506
hot water treatment, 347needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113storage, 522yields, 518
shipping containers, 484solar injury, 452spacing, 118, 119storage:
compatibility, 45conditions, 430controlled atmosphere, 439life, 429moisture loss, 442
temperature:classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplanting, 56U.S. grades, 469, 475vitamin content, 50world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 420
Cabbage, Chinese (pe-tsai):botanical classification, 12composition, 47cooling methods, 426days to maturity, 415edible plant part, 12fertilizer for Florida, 225in nine languages, 25nutrient concentration, 199plant analysis guide, 184respiration rate, 436rooting depth, 252seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 506
needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 518
shipping containers, 489spacing, 119storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 430controlled atmosphere, 439
temperature:classification, 105for growth, 107
tolerance to soil acidity, 159vitamin content, 50yield per acre, 420
574
INDEX
Cabbage, Portuguese (tronchuda):botanical classification, 12edible plant part, 12seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 506
Cabbage, red:composition, 46vitamin content, 50
Cabbage, savoy:botanical classification, 12composition, 46edible plant part, 12vitamin content, 50
Cactus family, 13Calabaza:
shipping containers, 484storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 430
Calcium:application, 242conversion factors, 176critical values, 195–210deficiency symptoms, 232soil tests:
Mehlich-1 extraction, 216Mehlich-3 extraction, 216
Calibration:aerial applicators, 337–338dusters, 338field sprayers, 333–335granular applicators, 335–337
Canna family, 3Canna, Italian (arrowroot):
botanical classification, 3edible plant part, 3
Cantaloupe (muskmelon, Persianmelon):
boron:in irrigation water, 307
response, 240–241botanical classification, 15chilling injury, 444, 446compatibility in mixed loads, 455composition, 47cooling methods, 427days to maturity, 416, 418diseases, 368–370edible plant part, 15ethylene production, 453fertilizer:
Florida, 225Mid-Atlantic states, 223New England, 227New York, 229magnesium response, 245rates per linear bed feet, 221
fresh cut, 482in nine languages, 26insects, 382–383nutrient:
accumulation, 180composition, 191concentration, 197
per capita consumption, 42physiological disorders, 450plant analysis guide, 183postharvest diseases, 462production statistics, 34–35rooting depth, 252respiration rate, 437salinity yield loss, 306seed:
germination:days, 111standards, 512tests, 506
needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 518
575
INDEX
shipping containers, 488solar injury, 452spacing, 119storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 431controlled atmosphere, 439life, 429moisture loss, 442
temperature:base, 106classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplant production, 62, 63transplanting, 56U.S. grades, 469vitamin content, 51world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 420
Cape gooseberry:botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 23
Caper:botanical classification, 13edible plant part, 13
Caper family, 13–14:Carbon dioxide greenhouse
enrichment, 83–84Cardoon:
days to maturity, 415edible plant part, 8seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 507
needed per acre, 113per pound, 113
spacing, 119Carrot:
air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313
boron:in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 7chilling injury, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 46cooling methods, 426days to maturity, 415diseases, 358edible plant part, 7fertilizer:
Florida, 225Mid-Atlantic states, 223New England, 227New York, 229
freezing injury, 449fresh cut, 481harvest method, 422in nine languages, 25insects, 376nematodes, 352nutrient:
accumulation, 180concentration, 197–198
per capita consumption, 42plant analysis guide, 184postharvest diseases, 460production statistics, 34–35, 37–
38respiration rate, 43response to micronutrients, 239rooting depth, 252salinity yield loss, 306salt tolerance, 168seed:
germination:days, 111standards, 512tests, 507
needed per acre, 113per pound, 113
576
INDEX
Carrot (Continued )production isolation, 515storage, 52yields, 518
shipping containers, 484–485spacing, 118, 119storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 430life, 429moisture loss, 442temperature:base, 106for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159vitamin content, 50U.S. grades, 470, 475world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 38, 420
Carrot family, 7, 28Carpet weed family, 6Casabanana:
botanical classification, 16edible plant part, 16
Catjang:botanical classification, 19edible plant part, 19
Cat’s whiskers:botanical classification, 13edible plant part, 13
Cauliflower:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 12chilling injury, 446, 447composition, 46cooling methods, 426days to maturity, 415diseases, 357–358
edible plant part, 12ethylene production, 453fertilizer:
Florida, 225Mid-Atlantic states, 223New York, 229rates per linear bed feet, 221
freezing injury, 449fresh cut, 481harvest method, 422in nine languages, 25insects, 375–376nutrient concentration, 198per capita consumption, 42postharvest diseases, 461production statistics, 34–35respiration rate, 436response to micronutrients, 239rooting depth, 252seed:
germination:days, 111standards, 512tests, 507
hot water treatment, 347needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113storage, 522yields, 518
shipping containers, 485solar injury, 452spacing, 118, 119storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 421controlled atmosphere, 439life, 429moisture loss, 442
temperature:classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
577
INDEX
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplant production, 62, 63transplanting, 56vitamin content, 50world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 420
Celeriac (turnip-rooted celery):botanical classification, 7compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 46days to maturity, 415edible plant part, 7harvest method, 422in nine languages, 25respiration rate, 436seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 507
needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 518
shipping containers, 485spacing, 119storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 431controlled atmosphere, 439moisture loss, 442U.S. grades, 470, 476vitamin content, 50yield per acre, 420
Celery:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 7chilling injury, 446–447compatibility in mixed loads, 456
composition, 46cooling methods, 427days to maturity, 415diseases, 359edible plant part, 7fertilizer:
Florida, 225Mid-Atlantic states, 223New England, 227New York, 229
freezing injury, 449fresh cut, 481harvest method, 422in nine languages, 25insects, 376–377nematodes, 352nutrient:
accumulation, 180composition, 190concentration, 198
per capita consumption, 42plant analysis guide, 184postharvest diseases, 461production statistics, 34–35respiration rate, 436response to micronutrients, 239rooting depth, 252seed:
germination:days, 111standards, 512tests, 507
hot water treatment, 347needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 518
shipping containers, 485storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 431
578
INDEX
Celery (Continued )controlled atmosphere, 439life, 429moisture loss, 442
salt tolerance, 168spacing, 119temperature:
classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplant production, 62, 63transplanting, 56U.S. grades, 470vitamin content, 50yield per acre, 36, 420
Celery, oriental (water dropwort):botanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7
Century plant family, 28Chard, (Swiss chard):
air pollution sensitivity, 312–313botanical classification, 14composition, 49days to maturity, 415edible plant part, 14fertilizer for New England, 227magnesium response, 245harvest method, 422in nine languages, 27respiration rate, 438rooting depth, 252seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 507
needed per acre, 114per pound, 114production isolation, 514storage, 522yields, 518
storage:
conditions, 431moisture loss, 442
spacing, 119temperature:
classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplanting, 56vitamin content, 52yield per acre, 420
Chaya:botanical classification, 17eible plant part, 17
Chayote (mirliton, vegetable pear):botanical classification, 16chilling injury, 444composition, 47edible plant part, 16shipping containers, 485storage:
compatibility, 457, 558conditions, 431
vitamin content, 50Chervil:
botanical classification, 7days to maturity, 415edible plant part, 7respiration rate, 435spacing, 119
Chervil, tuberousbotanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7
Chestnut, water:botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
Chestnut, wild water:botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
Chicory, witloof (Belgian endive):botanical classification, 8composition, 47
579
INDEX
days to maturity, 415edible plant part, 8in nine languages, 25respiration rate, 436seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 507
needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113production isolation, 514yields, 518
shipping containers, 483spacing, 119storage:
conditions, 431controlled atmosphere, 440planting stock, 131
tolerance to soil acidity, 159vitamin content, 50
Chinese bellflower:botanical classification, 14edible plant part, 14
Chinese lantern plant:botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 23
Chive:botanical classification, 3days to maturity, 415edible plant part, 3seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 507
storage, 522storage:
conditions, 434respiration rate, 435
Chive, Chinese:botanical classification, 3edible plant part, 3respiration rates, 435
Chrysanthemum, edible:botanical classification, 8edible plant part, 8
Citron (preserving melon):botanical classification, 15edible plant part, 15seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 507
Coastal glehnia:botanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7
Cockscomb:botanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7
Cold protection:high tunnels, 141row covers, 138–139sprinkler irrigation, 282windbreaks, 140–141
Collards, see KaleComfrey, common:
botanical classification, 10edible plant part, 10
Comfrey, Russianbotanical classification, 10edible plant part, 10
Compatibility in mixed loads, 455–456
Controlling transplant height, 74–75
Cooling vegetables:comparisons of methods, 423forced air, 423, 424, 426–428for specific vegetables, 426–428general, 424–425hydro, 423, 424, 426–428ice, 423, 424, 425, 426–428room, 423, 424, 426–428vacuum, 423, 425, 426–428water spray, 423, 426–428
580
INDEX
Copper:application, 242critical values, 195–210deficiency symptoms, 232recommendations, 238response, 239soil:
test, 217test interpretation, 324
Cornell peat-lite mix, 65Coriander (cilantro):
botanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7respiration rates, 435seed yields, 519storage, 434
Corn-salad, European:botanical classification, 24days to maturity, 415edible plant part, 24seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 507
needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113
Corn-salad, Italian:botanical classification, 24edible plant part, 24
Comos:botanical classification, 8edible plant part, 8
Cress, Brazil:botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9
Cress, garden:botanical classification, 13days to maturity, 415edible plant part, 13harvest method, 422spacing, 119seed germination:
standards, 512tests, 507
tolerance to soil acidity, 159Cress, upland:
botanical classification, 10edible plant part, 10seed germination:
standards, 512tests, 507
Croton:botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Cuckoo flower:botanical classification, 13edible plant part, 13
Cucumber:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 15chilling injury, 444, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 453composition, 47cooling methods, 427days to maturity, 415, 418diseases, 368–370edible plant part, 15ethylene production, 453fertilizer:
Florida, 225Mid-Atlantic states, 223New England, 227New York, 229magnesium response, 245rates per linear bed feet, 221
fresh cut, 481greenhouse production:
nutrient solutions, 92–96nutrient sufficiency ranges, 101pollination, 81–82pruning and tying, 81
581
INDEX
spacing, 80tissue composition, 100
harvest method, 422in nine languages, 26insects, 382–383nematodes, 352per capita consumption, 42plant analysis guide, 184–185postharvest diseases, 462production statistics, 34–35, 37–
38respiration rate, 436response to micronutrients, 239rooting depth, 252salinity yield loss, 306salt tolerance, 168seed:
germination:days, 111standards, 512tests, 508
production isolation, 515needed per acre, 113per pound, 113storage, 522yields, 519
shipping containers, 485spacing, 118, 119storage:
compatibility, 458condition, 431controlled atmosphere, 439moisture loss, 442
temperature:base, 106for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplant production, 63transplanting, 56U.S. grades, 470, 476vitamin content, 51
world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 38, 420
Cucumber, African horned (kiwano):botanical classification, 15edible plant part, 15storage compatibility, 458
Cypress, mock:botanical classification, 14edible plant part, 14
Daikon:botanical classification, 13edible plant part, 13storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 431
Dandelion:botanical classification, 9days to maturity, 415edible plant part, 9harvest method, 422seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 508
needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113
shipping containers, 486spacing, 119tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 470
Danish names of vegetables, 25–27Daylily:
botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
DIF, response of transplants, 75–76Dill:
seed:germination:
standards, 512tests, 508
storage:
582
INDEX
Dill (Continued )conditions, 434respiration rates, 435
Diseases:control, 356–370descriptions, 356–370general control program, 354–355postharvest, 459–464transplant production, 73–74
Dock:botanical classification, 22edible plant part: 22
Dutch names of vegetables, 25–27
Egg, garden:botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 23
Eggplant, (aubergine):air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313botanical classification, 23chilling injury, 444, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 455composition, 47cooling methods, 427days to maturity, 416, 418diseases, 359edible plant part, 23ethylene production, 453fertilizer:
Florida, 225Mid-Atlantic states, 223New England, 227New York, 229magnesium response, 245rates for linear bed feet, 221
harvest method, 422in nine languages, 26insects, 377nematodes, 352nutrient:
concentration, 199–200fresh petiole concentration, 211
plant analysis guide, 185postharvest diseases, 464respiration rate, 436rooting depth, 252seed:
germination:days, 111standards, 512tests, 508
hot water treatment, 347needed per acre, 113production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 519
shipping containers, 486spacing, 119storage:
compatibility, 457, 458conditions, 431life, 429moisture loss, 442
temperature:base, 106classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplant production, 62, 63transplanting, 56U.S. grades, 471vitamin content, 51world production, 44yield per acre, 420
Eggplant, African:botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 23
Eggplant, pea:botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 23
Eggplant, scarlet (tomato eggplant):botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 23
583
INDEX
Elephant grass (napier grass):botanical classification, 5edible plant part, 5
Emilia (false sow-thistle):botanical classification, 8edible plant part, 8
Endive, Escarole:air pollutant sensitivity, 312, 313botanical classification, 8chilling injury, 446compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 47cooling methods, 426days to maturity, 416diseases, 359–360edible plant part, 8fertilizer:
New England, 228New York, 229
harvest method, 422in nine languages, 26insects, 377nutrient concentration, 200postharvest diseases, 463respiration rate, 437rooting depth, 252seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 508
needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113yields, 519
shipping containers, 486spacing, 119storage:
conditions, 431life, 429moisture loss, 442
temperature:classification, 105for growth, 107
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 471vitamin content, 51yield per acre, 420
Ethylene production, 453Epazote:
storage, 434Evening primrose:
botanical classification, 21edible plant part, 21
Evening primrose family, 21
Farfugium, Japanese:botanical classification, 8edible plant part, 8
Fennel:botanical classification, 7days to maturity, 416edible plant part, 7harvest method, 422respiration rates, 435seed:
germination tests, 508needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113yields, 519
spacing, 119storage compatibility, 457tolerance to soil acidity, 159
Fern, bracken:botanical classification, 2edible plant part, 2
Fern, cinnamon:botanical classification, 2edible plant part, 2
Fern group, 2Fern, vegetable:
botanical classification, 2edible plant part, 2
Fern, water:botanical classification, 2edible plant part, 2
584
INDEX
Fertilizer:boron recommendations, 244carrier needed, 173composition, 171conversion factors, 176–178definitions, 170distributors:
adjustment:row crop, 246grain drill type, 247
calibration, 248effect on soil reaction, 165for Florida, 225–226for Mid-Atlantic states, 223–224for New England, 227–228for New York, 229magnesium response, 245micronutrient application, 242–
243nitrogen materials, 174overhead irrigation applied, 280–
281quantity to use, 212–213rates for linear bed feet
application, 221–222salt effects, 166–167solubility, 172tests:
California extraction, 218Mehlich extraction, 216, 217Olsen bicarbonate extraction
method, 215predicted crop response, 214pre-sidedress N sweet corn, 219
transplant starter solutions, 78Flameflower:
botanical classification, 22edible plant part, 22
Flemingia:botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Florence fennel:
botanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7
Flowering fern, Japanese:botanical classification, 2edible plant part, 2
Flowering rush family, 5Four O’clock family, 21Flowers, edible and garnish:
cautions, 28common names:
apple (crabapple), 32arugula, 29balm, bee, 30balm, lemon, 30basil, 30bean, scarlet runner, 30begonia, eukerous, 29borage, 29burnet, 31calendula, 29chamomile, English, 29chicory, 29chive, Chinese, 28chrysanthemum, 29chrysanthemum, garland, 29clover, red, 30coriander, 28daisy, English, 29daisy, oxeye, 29dandelion, 29daylily, 31dill, 28fennel, 28garlic, society, 28geranium, scented, 30gladiolus, 30guava, pineapple, 31hibiscus, 31hollyhock, 31hyacinth, grape, 31hyssop, 30Johnny-jump-up, 32
585
INDEX
lavender, 30lemon, 32lilac, 31marjoram, 30marigold, African, 29marigold, signet, 29mint, 30mustard, 29nasturtium, 32okra, 31orange, 32oregano, 30pansy, 32pea, garden, 30pinks, 29radish, 29redbud, 30rosemary, 31rose of sharon, 31safflower, 29sage, 31sage, pineapple, 31savory, summer, 31savory, winter, 31squash, summer (pumpkin), 29thyme, 31tulip, 31violet, 32woodruff, sweet, 32yucca, 28
Foxnut:botanical classification, 21edible plant part, 21
Food safety:farm contamination sources, 402good agricultural practices, 404–
405human pathogens, 404in harvest and postharvest
operations, 403–404in vegetable production, 403sanitizing chemicals, 406–407
French names of vegetables, 25–27Fresh-cut vegetables:
storage:compatibility, 457life, 429
Frost protection:row covers, 138–39sprinkler irrigation, 282
Galinsaga:botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9
Gallan:botanical classification, 3edible plant part, 3
Garbanzo, (chickpea):botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Garlic:boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 3chilling injury, 446cloves needed per acre, 131compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 47cooling methods, 427edible plant part, 3freezing injury, 449fresh cut, 481harvest method, 422nutrient concentration, 191per capita consumption, 42physiological disorders, 450plant analysis guide, 185postharvest diseases, 460production statistics, 34–35respiration rate, 437rooting depth, 252shipping containers, 486solar injury, 452
586
INDEX
Garlic (Continued )spacing, 119storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 431curing conditions, 441life, 429moisture loss, 442of planting stock, 130
temperature:classification, 105for growth, 107
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 471vitamin content, 51world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 420
Garlic, great headed:botanical classification, 3edible plant part, 3
Garlic, Japanese:botanical classification, 3edible plant part, 3
General postharvest handlingprocedures:
immature fruit vegetables, 413leafy, floral and succulent
vegetables, 411mature fruit vegetables, 414underground storage organ
vegetables, 412Geranium family, 30German names of vegetables, 25–27Getang:
botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9
Gherkin, West Indian:botanical classification, 15edible plant part, 15
Gila (jilo):botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 23
Ginger:botanical classification, 6chilling injury, 444, 446, 448compatibility in mixed loads, 455,
456edible plant part, 6harvest method, 422respiration rate, 435shipping containers, 486storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 431moisture loss, 442
Ginger family, 5–6Ginger, Japanese wild:
botanical classification, 6edible plant part, 6
Ginseng:respiration rate, 435
Gnetum family, 19Goatsbeard (meadow salsify)
botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9
Gobouazami:botanical classification, 8edible plant part, 8
Gogoro:botanical classification, 21edible plant part, 21
Good King Henry:botanical classification, 14edible plant part, 14
Goosefoot family, 14Gourd, bottle (calabash gourd):
botanical classification, 16edible plant part, 16
Gourd family, 14–16, 29Gourd, fly-leaf (Malabar gourd):
botanical classification, 15edible plant part, 15
Gourd, fluted (fluted pumpkin):botanical classification, 16
587
INDEX
edible plant part, 16Gourd, Japanese snake:
botanical classification, 16edible plant part, 16
Gourd, pointed:botanical classification, 16edible plant part, 16
Gourd, snake:botanical classification, 16edible plant part, 16
Gram, black (urd):botanical classification, 19edible plant part, 19
Gram, horse:botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Grape family, 24Grass family, 5Greater galangal:
botanical classification, 6edible plant part, 6
Greenhouse crop production:carbon dioxide enrichment, 83–84cultural management, 79–82
greenhouse design, 79pest monitoring, 80pollination, 81–82pruning and tying, 81sanitation, 80spacing, 80temperature, 81
information sources, 102nutrient solutions:
for tomato in Florida, 97–99Hoagland’s, 92–94Jensen’s, 96Johnson’s, 95
nutrient sufficiency ranges, 101soilless culture, 85–92
liquid, 85–86, 89media, 86–92
tissue composition, 100
Groundnut:botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Groundnut, hausa:botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Groundnut, Madagascar:botanical classification, 19edible plant part, 19
Guasca:botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9
Gynura:botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9
Harvest:hand vs. mechanical, 422time to, 415–417
Hastate-leaved pondweed:botanical classification, 5edible plant part, 5
Hawksbeard velvetplant:botanical classification, 8edible plant part, 8
Herbs:cooling methods, 428storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 434controlled atmosphere, 439
Herbicides:application rates, 397cleaning sprayers, 396–397dilution table, 398weed control, 396
Hibiscus root:botanical classification, 20edible plant part, 20
High tunnels, 141Honeybees:
pesticide hazards, 325
588
INDEX
Honeybees (Continued )pollination, 514–515
Hops:botanical classification, 21edible plant part, 21
Horn of plenty (African valerian):botanical classification, 8edible plant part, 8
Hornwart, Japanese:botanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7
Horseradish:botanical classification, 10compatibility in mixed loads, 456edible plant part, 10harvest method, 422in nine languages, 26root cuttings needed per acre, 131spacing, 119storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 431of planting stock, 130
temperature:classification, 105for growth, 107
tolerance to soil acidity, 159yield per acre, 240
Horsetail:botanical classification, 2edible plant part, 2
Horsetail family, 2Hyacinth, tuffed:
botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
Hydrocotyl:botanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7
Icacina family, 20Ice plant:
botanical classification, 6
edible plant part, 6Information sources:
best management practices, 144–45
cold protection, 282–283disease identification, 371edible flowers, 32fertilizer recommendations, 230food safety, 402fresh cut vegetables, 479general, 542–545greenhouse vegetables, 102insects, 383–384integrated pest management
(IPM), 315–316high tunnels, 141organic pest management, 386pesticide safety, 323–324plasticulture, 141postharvest handling, 410, 502seed:
organic, 349production, 517treatment, 348
soil solarization, 318–319soil testing, 220spray adjuvant, 346sprayer calibration, 338–339toxicity of pesticides, 326transplant production, 79units and conversions, 564weeds:
control, 399cover crops, 395identification, 393noxious, 393organic farming, 394–395
wildlife control, 388Inkweed:
botanical classification, 22edible plant part, 22
Insects:
589
INDEX
descriptions, 373–383identification, 383–384
Integrated pest management (IPM):basics, 314–315diseases, 354–355guidelines, 342–345insects, 372nematodes, 351, 353organic systems, 385weeds, 390–392
Iron:application, 242critical values, 195–210deficiency symptoms, 232response, 239soil test interpretation, 234
Iris family, 4, 30Irrigation:
drip:chlorine treatment, 290–291discharge per acre, 286fertilizer injection, 291–302maximum application, 289system components, 284volume available, 288volume to apply, 285water per bed spacing, 287
furrow:available water depletion, 260basin, 261bed arrangement, 258fertilizer:
flow, 269application, 267–268
infiltration rate, 260siphons, 266–267time required, 263–264water:
applied, 262flow, 259to wet, 265
management, 250–251
sprinkler (overhead):acreage covered per move, 272application, 261calculation of rates, 273cold protection, 282–283fertilizer application, 280–281flow required, 279layout of system, 270pipe size, 276–277power required, 278precipitation rates, 274–275
supplying water to crops, 250transplant production, 70–71, 77water quality:
guidelines, 303–304tolerance to boron, 307trace elements, 305yield loss, 306
Italian names of vegetables, 25–27Ivy gourd (tindora):
botanical classification, 15edible plant part, 15
Jew’s marrow:botanical classification, 24edible plant part, 24
Jicama (Mexican yam bean):botanical classification, 18chilling injury, 444, 448edible plant part, 18fresh cut, 481respiration rate, 437shipping containers, 487storage:
compatibility, 448conditions, 431
Kale (collards):botanical classification, 11chilling injury, 447composition, 47cooling methods, 426
590
INDEX
Kale (collards) (Continued )days to maturity, 245diseases, 357–358edible plant part, 11fertilizer for Florida, 225harvest method, 422in nine languages, 26insects, 375–376nematodes, 352nutrient concentration, 199postharvest diseases, 461seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 507
hot water treatment, 347needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 519
shipping containers, 487spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 447conditions, 431
temperature:classification, 105for growth, 107
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 470vitamin content, 51yield per acre, 240
Kale, Chinese:botanical classification, 12edible plant part, 12seed germination:
standards, 512tests, 508
Kale, marrow stem:botanical classification, 12edible plant part, 12
Kale, sea:botanical classification, 13edible plant part, 13
Kale, Siberian (Hanover salad):botanical classification, 11edible plant part, 11seed germination:
standards, 512tests, 508
Kale, thousand-headed:botanical classification, 12edible plant part, 12
Kangaroo vine:botanical classification, 24edible plant part, 24
Kohlrabi:botanical classification, 12chilling injury, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 47days to maturity, 416diseases, 357–358edible plant part, 12harvest method, 422in nine languages, 26insects, 375–376respiration rate, 437seed:
germination:standards, 512test, 508
hot water treatment, 347needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 519
spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 431moisture loss, 442
591
INDEX
temperature:classification, 105for growth, 107
tolerance to soil acidity, 159vitamin content, 51
Kudzu:botanical classification, 19edible plant part, 19
Kurrat:botanical classification, 3edible plant part, 3
Large seeds planting rate, 115–117Leafy greens:
moisture loss in storage, 442Leek, sand (giant garlic):
botanical classification, 3edible plant part, 3
Leek:botanical classification, 3compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 47cooling methods, 428days to maturity, 416edible plant part, 3fertilizer for Mid-Atlantic states,
223fresh cut, 481in nine languages, 26postharvest diseases, 460respiration rate, 437rooting depth, 252seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 508
needed per acre, 113per pound, 113production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 519
spacing, 120
storage:compatibility, 457conditions, 431controlled atmosphere, 439moisture loss, 442
temperature:classification, 105for growth, 107
tolerance to soil acidity, 159vitamin content, 51
Leek, turfed stone:botanical classification, 3edible plant part, 3
Lentil:botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Lettuce, asparagus (celtuce):botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9
Lettuce, cut:controlled atmosphere in storage,
439Lettuce, greenhouse production:
nutrient solutions, 92–96nutrient sufficiency ranges, 101spacing, 80
Lettuce, head (crisphead,butterhead):
air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 9chilling injury, 446–447compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 47cooling methods, 426days to maturity, 416diseases, 359–360edible plant part, 9fertilizer:
Florida, 225
592
INDEX
Lettuce, head (crisphead,butterhead) (Continued )Mid-Atlantic states, 223New England, 228New York, 229magnesium response, 245rates per liner bed feet, 221
freezing injury, 449fresh cut, 481harvest method, 422in nine languages, 26insects, 377nutrient:
accumulation, 180composition, 191concentration, 200–202
per capita consumption, 42physiological disorders, 450plant analysis guide, 185postharvest diseases, 463production statistics, 34–35respiration rate, 437response to micronutrients, 239rooting depth, 252salinity yield loss, 306salt tolerance, 168seed:
germination:days, 111standards, 512tests, 509
needed per acre, 113per ounce, 113storage, 522yields, 519
shipping containers, 487solar injury, 452spacing, 118, 120storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 431controlled atmosphere, 439
life, 429moisture loss, 442
temperature:base, 106classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplant production, 62, 64transplanting, 56U.S. grades, 471vitamin content, 51world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 420
Lettuce, Indian:botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9
Lettuce, leaf:botanical classification, 9composition, 47controlled atmosphere storage,
439cooling methods, 426days to maturity, 416edible plant part, 9postharvest diseases, 463production statistics, 34–35respiration rate, 437shipping containers, 487spacing, 120U.S. grades, 471yield per acre, 36, 420
Lettuce, romaine:botanical classification, 9composition, 47cooling methods, 426days to maturity, 416edible plant part, 9fresh cut, 481harvest method, 422nutrient concentration, 202postharvest diseases, 463
593
INDEX
production statistics, 34–35shipping containers, 488spacing, 120U.S. grades, 471vitamin content, 51yield per acre, 36, 420
Lettuce, wild:botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9
Lily:botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
Lily family, 2, 31Liming materials, 163Lizard’s tail family, 22Long zedoary:
botanical classification, 6edible plant part, 6
Loofah, angled:botanical classification, 16edible plant part, 16respiration rate, 437
Loofah, smooth (sponge gourd):botanical classification, 16edible plant part, 16respiration rate, 437
Lotus family, 21Lotus root:
botanical classification, 21edible plant part, 21
Lupin:botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Maca:botanical classification, 13edible plant part, 13
Magnesium:application, 242–243conversion factors, 177critical values, 195–210deficiency symptoms, 232
soil tests:ammonium acetate extraction,
215Mehlich-1 extraction, 216–217Mehlich-3 extraction, 216
tolerance, 245Malanga (tannia, yautia):
botanical classification, 3chilling injury, 448edible plant part, 3harvest method, 422storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 431curing conditions, 441
Manganese:application, 243critical values, 195–210deficiency symptoms, 232recommendations, 235–236response, 239soil test, 217, 234
Madder family, 32Mallow:
botanical classification, 21edible plant part, 21
Mallow family, 20–21, 31Mango:
botanical classification, 15edible plant part, 15
Manure:composition, 151nitrogen losses, 152
Marigold, bur:botanical classification, 8edible plant part, 8
Marjoram:botanical classification, 20edible plant part, 20respiration rates, 435
Marketing:direct:
594
INDEX
Marketing (Continued )farmer’s market, 498–499pick-your-own, 498–499roadside market, 498–499
wholesale:broker, 500–501cooperative, 500–501local wholesale, 500–501terminal market, 500–501
Mauka:botanical classification, 21edible plant part, 21
Measurements:application rates, conversions, 559heat and energy equivalents, 564metric, 553SI and non-SI conversion factors,
554–558area, 554energy, 557length, 554mass, 555pressure, 556specific surface, 556temperature, 556transpiration and
photosynthesis, 557volume, 554–555water, 558yield and rate, 555
U.S. units, 549conversion factors, 550–552
water and soil solutionconversions, 560
Melon, honeydew (casaba melon):botanical classification, 15chilling injury, 444composition, 47cooling methods, 427days to maturity, 416edible plant part, 15ethylene production, 453
fresh cut, 482nutrient accumulation, 180per capita consumption, 42postharvest diseases, 462production statistics, 34–35respiration rate, 437seed:
production isolation, 515storage, 522
solar injury, 452shipping containers, 488storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 431moisture loss, 442
U.S. grades, 471vitamin content, 51yield per acre, 36
Melon, snake (Japanese cucumber):botanical classification, 15edible plant part, 15
Melon, white seeded:botanical classification, 18edible plant part, 18
Micronutrients:boron response, 240–241, 244copper recommendations, 238crop response, 239interpretations of soil tests, 234manganese recommendations,
235–236soil and foliar applications, 242–
243Mignonette:
botanical classification, 22edible plant part, 22
Mignonette family, 22Mimosa, water:
botanical classification, 15edible plant part, 15
Minimally processed vegetables(fresh-cut):
595
INDEX
basic requirements, 479processing location, 480
local, 480production source, 480regional, 480
storage, 481–482Mint storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 434respiration rate, 435
Mint family, 20, 30–31Mint, pennyroyal:
botanical classification, 20edible plant part, 20
Molybdenum:application, 243critical values, 195–210deficiency symptoms, 233response, 239soil test interpretation, 234
Mugwort:botanical classification, 8edible plant part, 8
Mulberry family, 21, 29Mushroom:
chilling injury, 446compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 47cooling methods, 427harvest method, 422per capita consumption, 42production statistics, 34respiration rate, 437shipping containers, 488–489storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 432controlled atmosphere, 439life, 429moisture loss, 442
U.S. grades, 471, 476vitamin content, 51
world production, 44Mulch:
polyethylene, 134–37Mustard, Abyssinian:
botanical classification, 10edible plant part, 10
Mustard, bamboo shoot:botanical classification, 10edible plant part, 10
Mustard, black:botanical classification, 11edible plant part, 11
Mustard, broad-beaked:botanical classification, 12edible plant part, 12
Mustard, capitata:botanical classification, 10edible plant part, 10
Mustard, curled:botanical classification, 10edible plant part, 10
Mustard, flowerlike leaf:botanical classification, 11edible plant part, 11
Mustard, gemmiferous:botanical classification, 10edible plant part, 10
Mustard, hill:botanical classification, 13edible plant part, 13
Mustard, involute:botanical classification, 11edible plant part, 11
Mustard, line:botanical classification, 11edible plant part, 11
Mustard, long-petiole:botanical classification, 11edible plant part, 11
Mustard, peduncled:botanical classification, 11edible plant part, 11
596
INDEX
Mustard, small-leaf:botanical classification, 10edible plant part, 10
Mustard, spinach (tendergreen):air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313botanical classification, 12composition, 47edible plant part, 12fertilizer for Florida, 225harvest method, 422insects, 377rooting depth, 252seed:
production isolation, 515yields, 519
spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 432
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 472vitamin content, 51
Mustard, strumous:botanical classification, 11edible plant part, 11
Mustard, swollen-stem:botanical classification, 11edible plant part, 11
Mustard, tillered:botanical classification, 11edible plant part, 11
Mustard, tuberous-rooted:botanical classification, 11edible plant part, 11
Mustard, white:botanical classification, 13edible plant part, 13
Mustard, white-flowered:botanical classification, 11edible plant part, 11
Mustard, wide-petiole:botanical classification, 11
edible plant part, 11Mustard family, 10–13, 29Mustard greens, (brown mustard):
botanical classification, 11edible plant part, 11
Myrtle family, 31Myrr, garden:
botanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7
Naranjillo:botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 23
Nasturtium family, 32Nematodes:
common, 350economically important, 352management, 353
Nettle family, 24Nettle, stinging:
botanical classification, 24edible plant part, 24
New Zealand spinach:botanical classification, 6edible plant part, 6in nine languages, 27seed:
germination:standards, 513tests, 510
needed per acre, 114per pound, 114yields, 519
spacing, 120temperature:
classification, 105for growth, 107
tolerance to soil acidity, 159Nightshade, American black:
botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 23
Nightshade, black:
597
INDEX
botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 23
Nightshade family, 23–24Nitrogen:
absorption, 179–181composition of organic materials,
153–155conversion factors, 177–78critical values, 195–210crop accumulation, 180–181deficiency symptoms, 231diagnosis, 190–94fertilizers, 174, 175loss from manure, 152manure composition, 151plant analysis guide, 182–189recommendations:
Florida, 225–226Mid-Atlantic states, 223–224New England, 227–228New York, 229
sap testing, 211soil tests, 219, 231
Nutrient deficiency symptoms:boron, 231calcium, 232copper, 232iron, 232magnesium, 232manganese, 232molybdenum, 233nitrogen, 231phosphorus, 231potassium, 231zinc, 233
Nutrient solutions:for tomatoes in Florida, 97–99Hoagland’s, 92–94Jensen’s, 96
Oca (oca):botanical classification, 21
edible plant part, 21Okra, (gumbo):
air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313botanical classification, 20chilling injury, 444, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 455composition, 47cooling methods, 427days to maturity, 416, 418diseases, 360edible plant part, 20ethylene production, 453fertilizer for Florida, 225harvest method, 422insects, 377nematodes, 352nutrient concentration, 202respiration rate, 437seed:
certified, 516germination:
standards, 512tests, 509
needed per acre, 114per pound, 114yields, 519
shipping containers, 489spacing, 120storage:
conditions, 432controlled atmosphere, 439life, 429moisture loss, 442
temperature:base, 106classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 472, 476vitamin content, 51world production, 44
598
INDEX
Okra, (gumbo) (Continued )yield per acre, 421
Olive family, 31Onion:
air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 3chilling injury, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 47cooling methods, 427days to maturity, 416diseases, 361edible plant part, 3fertilizer:
Florida, 225Mid-Atlantic states, 223New England, 228New York, 229
freezing injury, 489fresh cut, 482harvest method, 422in nine languages, 26insects, 377nematodes, 352nutrient:
accumulation, 180composition, 191–192concentration, 202
per capita consumption, 42physiological disorders, 451plant analysis guide, 185postharvest diseases, 460production statistics, 34–35respiration rates, 437response to nutrients, 239rooting depth, 252salinity yield loss, 306salt tolerance, 168seed:
certified, 516germination:
standards, 512tests, 509
needed per acre, 114per pound, 114production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 519
sets needed per acre, 131shipping containers, 489solar injury, 452spacing, 118, 120sprout inhibitors, 443storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 432controlled atmosphere, 439curing conditions, 441life, 429moisture loss, 442sets for propagation, 130
temperature:base, 106classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplant production, 62, 64transplanting, 56U.S. grades, 472, 476vitamin content, 51world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 421
Onion family, 3, 28Onion, longroot:
botanical classification, 3edible plant part, 3
Onion, tree ( Egyptian onion):botanical classification, 3edible plant part, 3
Onion, Welch (Japanese bunchingonion):
599
INDEX
botanical classification, 3compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 47cooling methods, 427days to maturity, 416edible plant part, 3fresh cut, 482harvest method, 422seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 509
storage, 522shipping containers, 489storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 432controlled atmosphere, 439life, 429moisture loss, 422
vitamin content, 51Orach:
botanical classification, 14edible plant part, 14tolerance to soil acidity, 159
Organic matter:composition of materials, 152–155environmental aspects, 147function, 146soil amendments, 146
Organic production systems:pest management, 385–386seed treatments, 349weed management, 394–395
Oregano:storage:
conditions, 434respiration rates, 435
Orpine family, 14Oval-leaved pondweed:
botanical classification, 5edible plant part, 5
Oxalis family, 21Oyster nut:
botanical classification, 16edible plant part, 16
Packinghouse sanitizing chemicals,406–407
Pak choi (Chinese mustard):botanical classification, 12edible plant part, 12
Pak choi, mock (Choy sum):botanical classification, 12edible plant part, 12
Palm grass:botanical classification, 5edible plant part, 5
Parrot’s feather:botanical classification, 20edible plant part, 20
Parsley:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 7chilling injury, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 47days to maturity, 416edible plant part, 7fertilizer for Florida, 226harvest method, 422in nine languages, 26respiration rate, 437rooting depth, 252seed:
germination:days, 112standards, 512tests, 509
needed per acre, 114per pound, 114
600
INDEX
Parsley (Continued )production isolation, 515
shipping containers, 490spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 432, 434controlled atmosphere, 439moisture loss, 442
temperature:classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 472vitamin content, 51
Parsley, Italian:botanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7
Parsley, turnip-rooted:botanical classification, 7days to maturity, 416edible plant part, 7harvest method, 422spacing, 120
Parsnip:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313botanical classification, 7chilling injury, 446–447compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 48days to maturity, 416diseases, 361edible plant part, 7fertilizer for New England, 227harvest method, 422in nine languages, 26insects, 378respiration rate, 437rooting depth, 255seed:
germination:
days, 112standards, 512
needed per acre, 114per pound, 114storage, 522yields, 519
shipping containers, 490spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 432moisture loss, 442
temperature:classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 472vitamin content, 51
Passion flower:botanical classification, 21edible plant part, 21
Passion flower family, 21Pea, Cajan (pigeon pea):
botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Pea, chickling:botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Pea family, 17–19, 30Pea, asparagus (winged pea):
botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Pea, garden:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 18chilling injury, 446–447compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 48
601
INDEX
cooling methods, 427days to maturity, 416diseases, 361–362edible plant part, 18fertilizer:
Mid-Atlantic states, 224New England, 228New York, 229magnesium response, 245
harvest method, 422in nine languages, 26insects, 378nematodes, 352nutrient accumulation, 181per capita consumption, 42postharvest diseases, 462production statistics, 37–38respiration rate, 437response to micronutrients, 239rooting depth, 252seed:
germination:days, 112standards, 512tests, 509
needed per acre, 114per pound, 114storage, 522yields, 519
shipping containers, 490spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 432life, 429moisture loss, 442
temperature:base, 106classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159
U.S. grades, 473, 476vitamin content, 51world production, 44yield per acre, 38, 421
Pea, snow (edible-podded pea):botanical classification, 18composition, 48days to maturity, 416edible plant part, 18postharvest diseases, 462respiration rate, 437shipping containers, 490storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 432controlled atmosphere, 439
vitamin content, 51yield per acre, 421
Pea, southern (cowpea):air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313botanical classification, 19composition, 48days to maturity, 417diseases, 364edible plant part, 19fertilizer for Florida, 226insects, 379nutrient:
composition, 193concentration, 205
seed:certified, 516germination:
standards, 512tests, 507
needed per acre, 114per pound, 114yields, 520
shipping containers, 490spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 458
602
INDEX
Pea, southern (cowpea) (Continued )conditions, 432
temperature:classification, 105for growth, 107
U.S. grades, 473, 77vitamin content, 52yield per acre, 421
Peanut (groundnut):botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Pedalium family, 21Pepino (cyclanthera):
botanical classification, 5edible plant pat, 15
Pepino (sweet pepino):botanical classification, 23chilling injury, 446edible plant part, 23shipping containers, 490storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 432
Pepper, bell:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 23chilling injury, 445, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 455composition, 48cooling methods, 427days to maturity, 416, 418diseases, 362edible plant part, 23ethylene production, 453fertilizer:
Florida, 226Mid-Atlantic states, 224New England, 228New York, 229
magnesium response, 245rates per linear bed feet, 221
freezing injury, 449fresh cut, 482harvest method, 422in nine languages, 26insects, 378nematodes, 352nutrient:
accumulation, 181composition, 203concentration, 192fresh petiole concentration, 211
per capita consumption, 42plant analysis guide, 186–87postharvest diseases, 464production statistics, 34–35respiration rate, 437rooting depth, 252salinity yield loss, 306salt tolerance, 168seed:
certified, 516germination:
days, 112standards, 512tests, 509
hot water treatment, 347needed per acre, 114per pound, 114production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 520
shipping containers, 490–491solar injury, 452spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 432controlled atmosphere, 439life, 429moisture loss, 442
603
INDEX
temperature:base, 106classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplant production, 62, 64transplanting, 56U.S. grades, 473, 476vitamin content, 51world production, 44yield per acre, 38, 421
Pepper, cayenne (chile pepper):botanical classification, 23composition, 48days to maturity, 416edible plant part, 23per capita consumption, 42plant analysis guide, 185–186postharvest diseases, 464production statistics, 34–35storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 432controlled atmosphere, 439
vitamin content, 51yield per acre, 36, 421
Pepper, Scotch bonnet (habaneropepper):
botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 23
Pepper, small:botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 23
Pepper, tobasco:botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 23
Perilla (shiso):botanical classification, 20edible plant part, 20storage, 434
Periodicals, 546–548
Pesticide:dilution, 340–341effective control, 342–345equivalents, 340formulations, 326–327hazards to honeybees, 325preventing spray drift, 327safety:
worker protection standards,320–323
general suggestions, 320rates for small plantings, 342toxicity, 325–326
Pesticide application and equipment:cleaning herbicide sprayers, 396–
397distance traveled at various
speeds, 329equipment:
aerial application, 332calibration, 333–338ground application:
air-blast sprayers, 331–332air boom sprayers, 332boom-type sprayers, 331estimation of crop area, 328
time required to work an acre,331
Phosphorous:composition of organic materials,
153–155conversion factors, 178crop accumulation, 180–181critical values, 195–210deficiency symptoms, 231diagnosis, 190–194manure composition, 151plant analysis guide, 182–189recommendations:
Florida, 225–226Mid-Atlantic states, 223–224New England, 227–228
604
INDEX
Phosphorous (Continued )New York, 229
soil tests:bicarbonate extraction, 215Mehlich-1 extraction, 216–217Mehlich-3 extraction, 216
yield response, 218Pickerelweed famiy, 5Pickling melon, Oriental:
botanical classification, 15edible plant part, 15
Pilea:botanical classification, 24edible plant part, 24
Plantain:botanical classification, 5edible plant part, 5ethylene production, 453
Plant analysis, 182–211Plantain, buckshorn:
botanical classification, 22edible plant part, 22
Plantain family, 22Plant growing problems, 72–73Plastic high tunnels, 141Poke:
botanical classification, 22edible plant part, 22
Poke, Indian:botanical classification, 22edible plant part, 22
Pokeweed:botanical classification, 22edible plant part, 22
Pokeweed family, 21–22Poppy family, 31Portuguese names of vegetables, 25–
27Postharvest:
diseases:integrated control, 459casual agent, 460–464
handling procedures:immature fruit vegetables, 413leafy, floral and succulent
vegetables, 411mature fruit vegetables, 414underground storage organ
vegetables, 412Potato, hausa:
botanical classification, 20edible plant part, 20
Potato, raffin:botanical classification, 20edible plant part, 20
Potato:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 24chilling injury, 445, 447, 448compatibility in mixed loads, 455composition, 48cooling methods, 426crop utilization, 40days to maturity, 416diseases, 362–363edible plant part, 24ethylene production, 453fertilizer:
Florida, 226Mid-Atlantic states, 224New England, 228New York, 229magnesium response, 245
freezing injury, 449fresh cut, 482harvest method, 422in nine languages, 26insects, 378–379nematodes, 352physiological disorders, 451postharvest diseases, 463
605
INDEX
production statistics, 34–35respiration rate, 437rooting depth, 252salinity yield loss, 306seed needed per acre, 132–133shipping containers, 491solar injury, 452spacing, 120sprout inhibitors, 443storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 432curing conditions, 441life, 429moisture loss, 442
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 473, 476vitamin content, 52world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 421
Potassium:composition of organic materials,
153–155conversion factors, 178crop accumulation, 180–181critical values, 195–210deficiency symptoms, 231manure composition, 151plant analysis guide, 182–189recommendations:
Florida, 225–226Mid-Atlantic states, 223–224New England, 227–228New York, 229
sap testing, 211soil tests:
ammonium acetate extraction,215
Mehlich-1 extraction, 216–217Mehlich-3 extraction, 216
yield response, 218Prickly pear (nopalitos):
botanical classification, 13chilling injury, 446composition, 48cooling methods, 428edible plant part, 13respiration rate, 437shipping containers, 491storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 432
Product traceability, 407–409Production statistics:
U.S. fresh market, 33–36U.S. potato, 39–40U.S. processing, 37–38U.S. sweet potato, 39world, 44–45
Pumpkin, common field:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron response, 240–241botanical classification, 15chilling injury, 445, 446compatibility in mixed loads, 455composition, 48days to maturity, 416, 418diseases, 368–370edible plant part, 15ethylene production, 453fertilizer:
Florida, 226Mid-Atlantic states, 224New England, 228New York, 229
harvest method, 422in nine languages, 27insects, 382–283nutrient concentration, 204response to micronutrients, 239rooting depth, 252salt tolerance, 168seed:
germination:
606
INDEX
Pumpkin, common field (Continued )days, 112standards, 512tests, 509
needed per acre, 114per pound, 114yields, 520
shipping containers, 491spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 432life, 429moisture loss, 442
temperature:classification, 107for growth, 107soil germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159vitamin content, 52
Purslane:botanical classification, 22edible plant part, 22
Purslane family, 22Purslane, winter (miner’s lettuce):
botanical classification, 22edible plant part, 22
Q10, 441Quality assurance records:
arrival at distribution center, 466cooler, 446field packing, 465loading trailer, 466packinghouse, 465
Quality components, 467Quinoa:
botanical classification, 14edible plant part, 14
Radicchio (chicory):botanical classification, 18
composition, 48days to maturity, 416edible plant part, 18respiration rate, 437shipping containers, 491storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 432
vitamin content, 52Radish:
air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 15chilling injury, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 456days to maturity, 416diseases, 363edible plant part, 15freezing injury, 449harvest method, 422insects, 379nutrient concentration, 204physiological disorders, 451respiration rate, 437rooting depth, 252salinity yield loss, 306seed:
germination:standards, 51tests, 509
needed per acre, 114per pound, 114production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 520
shipping containers, 491spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 432
607
INDEX
controlled atmosphere, 439life, 429moisture loss, 442
temperature:classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 473yield per acre, 421
Radish rat-tail:botanical classification, 13edible plant part, 13
Rakkyo:botanical classification, 3edible plant part, 3
Rampion:botanical classification, 13edible plant part, 13
Rape, vegetable:botanical classification, 11edible plant part, 11
Rhubarb (pieplant):air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313botanical classification, 22compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 48crowns needed per acre, 131diseases, 363edible plant part, 22harvest method, 422in nine languages, 27insects, 379respiration rate, 437seed germination:
standards, 512tests, 509
shipping containers, 491spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 432
crowns, 130tolerance to soil acidity, 159vitamin content, 52U.S. grades, 473yield per acre, 421
Rocoto:botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 22
Rose family, 22, 31Rose glorybind:
botanical classification, 14edible plant part, 14
Roselle, false:botanical classification, 21edible plant part, 21
Row covers:floating, 138–39supported, 138
Rue family, 32Rungia:
botanical classification, 6edible plant part, 6
Rushnut (chufa):botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
Rutabaga:botanical classification, 11chilling injury, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 456days to maturity, 416diseases, 363–364fresh cut, 482harvest method, 422insects, 379respiration rate, 437rooting depth, 252seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 509
production isolation, 515storage, 522
608
INDEX
Rutabaga (Continued )yields, 520
shipping containers, 491spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 432life, 429moisture loss, 442
U.S. grades, 474yield per acre, 421
Sage:seed germination:
standards, 513tests, 509
storage:conditions, 434respiration rates, 435
Salad mix:shipping containers, 49
Salinity:crop response, 169
Salisfy (vegetable oyster):botanical classification, 9chilling injury, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 455composition, 48days to maturity, 417edible plant part, 9harvest method, 422respiration rate, 438seed:
germination:standards, 513tests, 509
needed per acre, 114per ounce, 114yields, 520
shipping containers, 492spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 432
temperature:classification, 105for growth, 107
tolerance to soil acidity, 159vitamin content, 52
Salsify, black (Scorzonera):botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 432
Salsola:botanical classification, 14edible plant part, 14
Sauropus, common:botanical classification, 17edible plant part, 17
Saururis (tsi):botanical classification, 22edible plant part, 22
Savory (summer savory):botanical classification, 20edible plant part, 20seed germination:
standards, 513tests, 509
Scheduling plantings, 109–110Sedge family, 4Sedum:
botanical classification, 14edible plant part, 14
Seeding:equipment, 124–125precision, 124–125
Seed:germination:
days, 111standards, 512–513tests, 506–511
labels:
609
INDEX
germination, 504kind, variety, hybrid, 504lot numbers, 504name of shipper, 504seed treatment, 504
large, planting rates, 115–117planted per minute, 126priming, 127–129production:
conditions for certified seed, 516isolation distances, 514–515yields, 518–520
requirements for plant growing,62, 63–64
sources, 529–539storage:
hermetically sealed containers,522
treatment:chemical, 348hot water, 347organic, 349
Seepweed, common:botanical classification, 14edible plant part, 14
Sessile alternanthera:botanical classification, 6edible plant part, 6
Shallot:botanical classification, 3composition, 48edible plant part, 3spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 432
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 473vitamin content, 52
Shepherd’s purse:botanical classification, 13edible plant part, 13
Sierra Leone bologni:botanical classification, 8edible plant part, 8
Shipping:containers, 483–494pallets, 495
Skirret:botanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7
Soil:moisture:
determining by appearance,253–255
devices for measuring, 256reaction (pH), 158–68
availability of plant nutrients,161–62
effect of fertilizers, 165liming materials, 163plant growth and soil reaction,
160soil acidifying materials, 163sulfur need to acidify, 164vegetable response o soil acidity,
158–59salinity, 169solarization, 317–318texture, 156–57water characteristics for soil
classes, 257Soil improving crops, 148–149
C�N ratios, 150decomposition, 150
Soil solarization, 317–318Sorrel:
botanical classification, 22days to maturity, 417edible plant part, 22harvest method, 422seed:
germination:standards, 512
610
INDEX
Sorrel (Continued )tests, 509
needed per acre, 114per ounce, 114
spacing, 120tolerance to soil acidity, 159
Sorrel, French:botanical classification, 22edible plant part, 22
Sorrel, Jamaican (roselle):botanical classification, 21edible plant part, 21days to maturity, 416seed:
needed per acre, 114per ounce, 114
Soybean:botanical classification, 17days to maturity, 415edible plant part, 17seed:
germination:standards, 513tests, 509
needed per acre, 114per pound, 114
tolerance to soil acidity, 159Spanish names of vegetables, 25–27Spacing:
high density, 118seed potato, 132–133traditional, 119–121
Spearmint:botanical classification, 20edible plant part, 20
Spikenard:botanical classification, 7edible plant part, 7
Spinach:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313botanical classification, 14chilling injury, 446, 447
compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 48cooling methods, 426days to maturity, 417diseases, 364edible plant part, 14fertilizer:
Florida, 226Mid-Atlantic states, 224New England, 228New York, 229
fresh cut, 482harvest method, 422in nine languages, 27insects, 379nutrient:
accumulation, 181composition, 205concentration, 193
per capita consumption, 42plant analysis guide, 187production statistics, 34–35, 37–
38response to micronutrients, 239rooting depth, 252salinity yield loss, 306salt tolerance, 168seed:
germination:days, 112standards, 513tests, 510
needed per acre, 114per pound, 114production isolation, 514, 515storage, 522yields, 520
shipping containers, 492spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 432
611
INDEX
controlled atmosphere, 440life, 429
temperature:classification, 107for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 473, 477vitamin content, 52world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 38, 421
Spinach, buffalo:botanical classification, 8edible plant part, 8
Spinach, Indian or Malabar:botanical classification, 10edible plant part, 10
Spray additives, 345–346Sprouts, shipping containers, 42Spurge, family, 16–7Squash, acorn:
composition, 48storage, conditions, 432vitamin content, 52
Squash, butternut (tropicalpumpkin) see Calabaza
botanical classification, 15edible plant part, 15
Squash, hubbard (winter):botanical classification, 15chilling injury, 445compatibility in mixed loads, 455composition, 49cooling methods, 427days to maturity, 417, 418diseases, 368–370edible plant part, 15fertilizer:
New England, 228New York, 229
harvest method, 422insects, 382–383
postharvest diseases, 462rooting depth, 252seed:
germination:standards, 513tests, 510
needed per acre, 114per pound, 114production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 520
shipping containers, 493spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 433life, 429moisture loss, 442
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 474vitamin content, 52yield per acre, 421
Squash, scallop:botanical classification, 15composition, 49edible plant part, 15salt tolerance, 168vitamin content, 52
Squash, summer (zucchini):air pollutant sensitivity, 312–323botanical classification, 15chilling injury, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 455composition, 49days to maturity, 417, 418diseases, 368–370edible plant part, 15fertilizer:
Florida, 226Mid-Atlantic states, 224New England, 228New York, 229
612
INDEX
Squash, summer (zucchini)(Continued )rate per linear bed feet, 221
fresh cut, 482harvest method, 422in nine languages, 27insects, 382–383nematodes, 352nutrient concentration, 205plant analysis guide, 187postharvest diseases, 462production statistics, 34–35respiration rate, 438rooting depth, 252seed:
germination:standards, 513tests, 510
needed per acre, 114per pound, 114production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 520
salt tolerance, 168shipping containers, 492–493spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 433life, 429moisture loss, 442
temperature:base, 106classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplant production, 62, 64transplanting, 56U.S. grades, 473vitamin content, 52yield per acre, 36, 421
Squash, melon:botanical classification, 16edible plant part, 16
State extension service websites,543–545
Storage:compatibility, 457–458conditions, 430–433controlled atmosphere, 439–440curing, 441herbs, 434–435life, 429, 430–433moisture loss, 442recommended conditions, 430–433respiration rates, 436–438sprout inhibitors, 443vegetable perishability, 429
Strawberry:botanical classification, 22chilling injury, 446composition, 49days to maturity, 418diseases, 365edible plant part, 22fertilizer:
Florida, 226Mid-Atlantic states, 224rate per linear bed feet, 221
fresh cut, 482in nine languages, 27insects, 380per capita consumption, 42plants needed per acre, 131nutrient:
concentration, 205–206fresh petiole concentration, 211
production statistics, 34–35rooting depth, 252salinity yield loss, 306salt tolerance, 168shipping containers, 493spacing, 120
613
INDEX
storage:compatibility, 457conditions, 433moisture loss, 442of plants, 130
temperature:base, 106plant storage, 130
tolerance to soil acidity, 159vitamin content, 52world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 421
Sugarcane:botanical classification, 5edible plant part, 5
Sulfur:application, 243conversion factors, 178critical values, 195–210to increase soil acidity, 164
Sunflower family, 8–9, 29Swedish names of vegetables, 25–27Sweet corn:
air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 5chilling injury, 446compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 49cooling methods, 427days to maturity, 415, 418diseases, 365–366edible plant part, 5fertilizer:
Florida, 226Mid-Atlantic states, 224New England, 227New York, 229magnesium response, 245
harvest method, 422
in nine languages, 27insects, 380–381nematodes, 352nutrient:
accumulation, 181composition, 193concentration, 207
per capita consumption, 42plant analysis guide, 187production statistics, 34–35, 37–
38respiration rate, 438response to micronutrients, 239rooting depth, 252salinity yield loss, 306salt tolerance, 168scheduling plantings, 109–110seed:
certified, 516germination:
days, 111standards, 512tests, 507
needed per acre, 113per pound, 113production isolation, 514storage, 522yields, 519
shipping containers, 485spacing, 119storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 433controlled atmosphere, 440life, 429moisture loss, 442
temperature:base, 106classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159
614
INDEX
Sweet corn (Continued )transplant production, 62, 64transplanting, 56U.S. grades, 470, 476vitamin content, 52world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 38, 421
Sweet corn root:botanical classification, 5edible plant part, 5
Sweet potato:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron response, 240–241botanical classification, 14chilling injury, 445, 446, 447, 448compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 49cooling methods, 426days to maturity, 417diseases, 366edible plant part, 14ethylene production, 453fertilizer:
Florida, 226Mid-Atlantic states, 224magnesium response, 245
freezing injury, 449harvest method, 422insects, 381nematodes, 352nutrient:
accumulation, 181concentration, 207–208
per capita consumption, 42, 43plant analysis guide, 188postharvest diseases, 464production statistics, 39rooting depth, 252roots needed per acre, 131salinity yield loss, 306salt tolerance, 168shipping containers, 493
spacing, 120storage:
compatibility, 450conditions, 433curing conditions, 441life, 429moisture loss, 442of planting stock, 131
temperature:base, 106classification, 105for growth, 107
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 474, 477vitamin content, 52world production, 44yield per acre, 421
Tacca family, 5Tamarillo, (tree tomato):
botanical classification, 23chilling injury, 445, 446edible plant part, 23ethylene production, 453storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 433
Tannier spinach, (catalou):botanical classification, 3edible plant part, 3
Tarragon, French:botanical classification, 8edible plant part, 8respiration rates, 435
Taro, (cocoyam, dasheen):botanical classification, 3chilling injury, 445, 446, 448composition, 49edible plant part, 3harvest method, 422shipping containers, 493spacing, 119
615
INDEX
storage:compatibility, 458conditions, 433curing conditions, 441life, 429
vitamin content, 53Taro, giant (alocasia):
botanical classification, 3edible plant part, 3
Taro, giant swamp:botanical classification, 3edible plant part, 3
Tartar breadplant:botanical classification, 13edible plant part, 13
Temperature:base, 106classification of vegetables, 105cool-season vegetables, 104–105chilling injury, 444–448conditioning transplants, 77DIF response of transplants, 75–
76for growth, 107for transplant production, 63–64for vegetables, 104–108freezing injury, 449greenhouse, 81physiological disorders, 450–451seed germination, 108soil sterilization, 66, 67solar injury, 452vegetable deterioration, 441warm-season vegetables, 104–105
Tettu:botanical classification, 6edible plant part, 6
Thistle, golden:botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9
Thistle, Komarov Russian:botanical classification, 14
edible plant part, 14Thistle, milk:
botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9
Thistle, spotted garden:botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9
Thyme:storage:
conditions, 434respiration rates, 435
Tiger flower, common:botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
Time:from planting to harvest, 415–417from pollination to harvest, 418from seeding to transplant, 63–64
Tomatillo:botanical classification, 23cooling method, 427days to maturity, 417edible plant part, 23respiration rate, 438seed yields, 520shipping containers, 493storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 433
Tomato:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 23chilling injury, 445, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 455composition, 49cooling methods, 427days to maturity, 417, 418diseases, 366–368edible plant part, 23
616
INDEX
Tomato (Continued )ethylene production, 453fertilizer:
Florida, 226Mid-Atlantic states, 224New England, 228New York, 229magnesium response, 245rates per linear bed feet, 221
freezing injury, 449fresh cut, 482greenhouse production:
nutrient solutions, 92–99nutrient sufficiency ranges, 101pollination, 81pruning and tying, 81spacing, 80tissue composition, 100
harvest method, 422in nine languages, 27insects, 381–382nematodes, 352nutrient:
accumulation, 181composition, 194concentration, 208–209fresh petiole concentration, 211
per capita consumption, 42plant analysis guide, 188–189postharvest diseases, 464production statistics, 34, 35, 36,
37, 38respiration rate, 438response to micronutrients, 239salinity yield loss, 306salt tolerance, 168seed:
germination:days, 112standards, 513tests, 510
hot water treatment, 347
needed per acre, 114per ounce, 114production isolation distance,
514storage, 522yields, 520
shipping containers, 493solar injury, 452spacing, 121storage:
conditions, 432controlled atmosphere, 440life, 429moisture loss, 442
temperature:base, 106classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplant production, 62, 64transplanting, 56U.S. grades, 474, 477vitamin content, 53world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 38, 421
Tomato, current:botanical classification, 23edible plant part, 23
Transplant production:cell size, 63–64conditioning, 77containers, 58–59controlling plant height, 74–75DIF, 75–76diseases, 73–74electrical conductivity of media,
69fertilizers for, 68germination temperature, 64information sources, 79irrigation, 70–71
617
INDEX
organic production, 57plant growing mixes, 65postharvest handling, 77–78rooting depth, 252problems, 72–73seed required, 62, 63–64seeding suggestions, 60–61soil sterilization, 66starter solutions, 78time required, 63–64water quality for, 70
Transplanting vegetables, 56Transport equipment inspection,
496–497Turmeric:
botanical classification, 6edible plant part, 6
Turnip:air pollutant sensitivity, 312–313boron:
in irrigation water, 307response, 240–241
botanical classification, 12chilling injury, 446, 447compatibility in mixed loads, 456composition, 49days to maturity, 417diseases, 363–364edible plant part, 12fertilizer:
New England, 228New York, 229
freezing injury, 449harvest method, 422in nine languages, 27insects, 379postharvest diseases, 461respiration rate, 438response to micronutrients, 239rooting depth, 252salt tolerance, 168seed:
certified, 516germination:
days, 112standards, 513tests, 510
hot water treatment, 347needed per acre, 114per pound, 114production isolation, 515storage, 522yields, 520
shipping containers, 494spacing, 121storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 433
temperature:classification, 107for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. grades, 474vitamin content, 53yield per acre, 36, 38, 421
Turnip greens:botanical classification, 12composition, 49edible plant part, 12harvest method, 422nutrient concentration, 209spacing, 121storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 433
vitamin content, 53
Ulluco:botanical classification, 10edible plant part, 10
Valerian family, 24Varieties:
618
INDEX
Varieties (Continued )naming and labeling, 523–527selection, 527–528
Vegetable(s):air pollution damage, 310–313botanical classification, 2–24chilling injury, 444–448consumption trends, 41cooling, 423–428diseases, 354–371edible plant part, 2–24estimating yields, 419ethylene production, 453fertilizer recommendations, 223–
229freezing injury, 449germination standards, 512–513grades:
fresh vegetables, 469–474international, 478processing vegetables, 475–477
harvesting and handling, 411–414in nine languages, 25–27information, 542–545insects, 372–384marketing, 498–501nematodes, 350, 352nutrient absorption, 179–181organic production system, 385–
386per capita consumption, 42postharvest diseases, 459–464production in high tunnels, 141quality, 465–477salt tolerance, 168seed:
germination standards, 512–513sources, 529–539storage, 522–523yields, 518–520
shipping containers, 483–494spacing, 118–123
storage, 429–443temperature for, 104–108tolerance to soil acidity, 159U.S. consumption statistics, 41–43U.S. production statistics, 33–40varieties, 523–528world production statistics, 44–45yields, 420–421
Vegetative propagation:seed potatoes required, 132–133storage, 130–131field requirements, 131
Vegetable seed sources, 529–539Violet (pansy):
botanical classification, 24edible plant part, 24
Violet family, 24, 32
Wallrocket:botanical classification, 13edible plant part, 13
Wasabi (Japanese horseradish):botanical classification, 13edible plant part, 13
Water:quality for transplant production,
70soil characteristics, 257supplying to vegetables, 250
Water chestnut (Chinese waterchestnut):
botanical classification, 24edible plant part, 24storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 433curing conditions, 441
Water chestnut family, 24Watercress:
botanical classification, 13compatibility in mixed loads, 456days to maturity, 417
619
INDEX
edible plant part, 13harvest method, 422respiration rate, 438seed:
germination:standards, 512tests, 507
spacing, 121storage:
compatibility, 457conditions, 433
tolerance to soil acidity, 159Waterleaf (Suraim spinach):
botanical classification, 22edible plant part, 22
Water Lily:botanical classification, 21edible plant part, 21
Water lily family (Cabombaceae), 13Water lily family (Nymphaceae), 21Watermelon:
botanical classification, 15chilling injury, 444, 446compatibility in mixed loads, 455composition, 49cooling methods, 427days to maturity, 417, 418diseases, 368–370edible plant part, 15ethylene production, 453fertilizer:
Florida, 226Mid-Atlantic states, 224New England, 228New York, 229magnesium response, 245rates per linear bed feet, 221
fresh cut, 482in nine languages, 27insects, 381–382nematodes, 352nutrient:
concentration, 209–210fresh petiole concentration, 211
per capita consumption, 42plant analysis guide, 189postharvest diseases, 462production statistics, 34–35respiration rate, 438rooting depth, 252seed:
certified, 516germination:
days, 112standards, 513tests, 510
needed per acre, 114per pound, 114production isolation distance,
515storage, 522yields, 520
shipping containers, 494spacing, 121storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 432moisture loss, 442
temperature:base, 106classification, 105for growth, 107seed germination, 108
tolerance to soil acidity, 159transplant production, 62, 64transplanting, 56U.S. grades, 474vitamin content, 53world production, 44yield per acre, 36, 421
Water milfoil family, 19–20Water plantain family, 2Watershield:
botanical classification, 13
620
INDEX
Watershield (Continued )edible plant part, 13
Water spinach (kangkong):botanical classification, 14edible plant part, 14
Wax gourd (winter melon):botanical classification, 14composition, 49edible plant part, 14shipping containers, 494vitamin content, 53
Weeds:control:
practices, 398recommendations, 399
cover crops, 395herbicides, 396identification, 393management strategies, 390–392noxious, 393organic farming, 394
Wildlife control:birds, 387deer, 387mice, 387raccoons, 387
Windbreaks, 140, 141
Yacon strawberry:botanical classification, 9edible plant part, 9
Yam:chilling injury, 446, 448storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 433life, 429moisture loss, 442
Yam, bitter:botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
Yam, Chinese:
botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
Yam, elephant:botanical classification, 3edible plant part, 3
Yam, false:botanical classification, 20edible plant part, 20
Yam family, 4Yam, Indian:
botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
Yam, lesser:botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
Yam potato (aerial yam):botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
Yam, yellow:botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
Yam, white (water yam):botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
Yam, white Guinea:botanical classification, 4edible plant part, 4
Yellow velvet leaf:botanical classification, 5edible plant part, 5
Yields:estimating, 419vegetables, 36, 38, 39, 420–421
Yuca (cassava, manioc):botanical classification, 17chilling injury, 446, 448edible plant part, 17harvest method, 422shipping containers, 494storage:
compatibility, 458conditions, 430
621
INDEX
curing conditions, 441moisture loss, 442
Zinc:application, 243critical values, 195–210deficiency symptoms, 233recommendations, 237
response, 239soil tests:
DTPA extraction, 215interpretation, 234Mehlich-1 extraction, 217
yield response, 218
