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Effectively Communicating about Science in an Era of Virally Disseminated

NonsenseWilliam K. Hallman, Ph.D.

Professor /ChairDepartment of Human Ecology

School of Environmental and Biological SciencesRutgers University

Visiting ScholarThe Annenberg Public Policy Center

University of Pennsylvania

“Communicating about science effectively with public audiences, . . . turns out to be more difficult than it might at first appear.”

https://www.nap.edu/catalog/23674/communicating-science-effectively-a-research-agenda

“People communicate about science for diverse reasons, there is no single audience for scientific information, and the societal contexts surrounding different scientific issues can vary considerably. Communication approaches need to be adapted to reflect the circumstances that prevail.”

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• Share the findings and excitement of science.• Increase appreciation for science as a useful way of understanding and

navigating the modern world.• Increase knowledge and understanding of the science related to a specific

issue.• Influence people’s opinions, behavior, and policy preferences.• Engage with diverse groups so that their perspectives about science

related to important social issues can be considered in seeking solutions to societal problems that affect everyone.

Five Goals for Communicating Science

Key Assumptions:

• For each goal, the assumed roles of the communicator and audience differ– Who has information worth sharing?– Who should be part of the process of deciding?

• Trouble comes when the answers to these questions are not shared between the communicator and audience

• Simply to share the findings and excitement of science.• To increase appreciation for science as a useful way of

understanding and navigating the modern world.• To increase knowledge and understanding of the science

related to a specific issue.• To influence people’s opinions, behavior, and policy

preferences.• To engage with diverse groups so that their perspectives

about science related to important social issues can be considered in seeking solutions to societal problems that affect everyone.

Why are you communicating?

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THE SIMPLE—AND FALSE—MODEL OF SCIENCE COMMUNICATION“. . .the “deficit model” is widely held, simple on the surface, and appealing, but frequently does not hold. This model depicts nonscientists simply as not yet informed about what science has to say on a topic. In this model, “the science" of an important question is settled, and stands immutable and clear to the experts; the task of communication is simply to explain the facts to the public. However, real-life science communication rarely if ever operates in this way.”

Why Education Alone Doesn’t Work

• Simply providing facts rarely meet an individual’s needs, wants, or expectations.

– Distance between knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, intentions, behaviors – Stage models of behaviors

• Educational efforts often assume a base level of knowledge that doesn’t exist.

– Much of the public does not understand the context that would allow them to incorporate the information presented.

• They also often assume a base level of interest in the details that doesn’t exist.

• People don’t know what they don’t know – so are unlikely to seek education.

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Perception

• Perception is reality– We act or fail to act based on our perceptions

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Motivated Reasoning

• We look for and readily incorporate new information that is consistent with our beliefs

Motivated Reasoning

• We tend to reject new information that is inconsistent with our beliefs

• We resent those who try to “correct” us

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• Algorithms used to deliver targeted information – based on our demographics, previous searches, likes, and

sharing behaviors

• Social media filters information through our friends– highlighting views and opinions that we agree with

• Most users of social media are connected to a small number of like-minded others.

Motivated Reasoning and Social Media

The Public is Predictably Irrational

• People’s perceptions are often inaccurate• People’s actions may be inconsistent, and they

ultimately may not be in their own best interests.

However, • Perception and behavior are predictable

– And manageable

Can The Public Reach The Right Decision?

• Yes– But it depends on what your definition of “right”– Public perceptions are unlikely to match expert perceptions

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Can The Public Reach The Right Decision?

• We tend to believe that:– others share our values – know many of the same things we do– are naturally interested in the same things we are

• We generally overestimate how representative our own knowledge and opinions are

Can The Public Reach The Right Decision? • We also believe that given the same set of facts, others

would come to the same set of conclusions – This belief is strongly held by scientists

• It’s the basis for the scientific method– This belief is also socially reinforced

• We choose friends with similar values and interests who do think much the same way we do

– In part, this is why we enjoy our associations with them

Can The Public Reach The Right Decision? • We tend to think that everyone does (or should) think the

same way we do• We question the competency or motives of those who do not

agree with us • As a result, it is easy for experts to conclude that the public is

inconsistent, “irrational”, or just plain “stupid.”

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Danger in Dismissing the Public

• Concluding that efforts to provide information and education are a waste of time and money.– ensures that the public will not have the tools needed to make

informed decisions.

• Concluding that the public cannot make “good” decisions.– As such, those who are rational (the experts) should

make decisions that are “good for the public.”– the public often becomes angry that decisions about the acceptability

of a perceived risk are being made for them.

Most of the Public Health Risks We Worry About

AreInvisible

Norovirus

Hepatitis ASalmonella

E coli

Malachite Green

Melamine

Bacteria Viruses Chemicals Allergens

Peanut Ara h 1

Shrimp Tropomyosin

Central Thesis:

• Many important technologies and systems, especially those at the genetic, cellular, or nano-scale are both literally and figuratively invisible to people.

• They operate on a scale that makes their mechanisms difficult to explain or to comprehend without reference to scientific principles that are unfamiliar to most.

• However, formal efforts designed to educate the public about these technologies and systems have been largely unsuccessful.

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Mental Models

• Important to know what people know about an issue.• Important to know what people want to know about an issue.• More important to know how people think about an issue.

• Important to understand what they see as “the big picture’ and how they construct that view

Views of Complex Systems

• Only 20% of Americans rate their understanding of science as poor– Most have a poor grasp of basic scientific facts

• In fact, they often exhibit a kind of ‘false fluency’– They may have the right vocabulary, but not the right constructs– Knowledge is ‘a mile wide and an inch deep’– They ‘fill in’ gaps in facts to complete their version of ‘the big picture’

• They will use whatever information is available to do so• This can create problems

Mental Models

• Mental modeling efforts have often focused exclusively on the science or technology

• ‘How things work’– This can be useful in understanding how people are likely to interact

with a technology

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How the immune system works

Victory

How Does Vaccination Work?

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How Does Vaccination Work?

• Consistent with the military metaphor:– It adds extra troops to

your ‘germ fighters’– It’s like the cavalry riding

in

How Does Vaccination Work?

• Vaccines help your germ fighters recognize the enemy and respond to them more quickly

Expert model

Intended

Experts

Create Lead to

Technology/ science Consequences

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Lay model

Motivations/ Intentions

Intended

Unintended

Possible

Feared

Experts

Create Lead to

Technology/ science Consequences

Risks

Benefits

SocietyValues Ethics

Values Matter

Connecting with shared values is often a more effective communications strategy than using “facts” to convince people that they are wrong

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Cognition and Affect

• Many psychologists (and especially economists) who incorporate affect into their theories of risk and decisions believe that affect is the byproduct of cognition.– People evaluate the information they are given, which leads to an

overall affective reaction (i.e. fear, anger, dread, outrage).

Cognition and Affect• However, research suggests that people have a remarkably

poor understanding of what influences their perceptions and behaviors.– They can’t say

• Why they feel the way they do.• Why they made a particular choice.• Why they act the way they do.

http://www.colbertnation.com/the-colbert-report-videos/24039/october-17-2005/the-word---truthiness

Affect Can Come First• Affect can also drive future cognition.

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Food Advertising Often Relies on Affect

Activist’s Messages Often Rely on Affect

Nutrition Information Relies on Cognition

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Food Safety Messages Rely on Cognition

Risk Perception

• “Risk perception is a mix of facts and feelings, intellect and instinct, reason and gut reaction. And in many cases, the feelings/instinct/gut have the greater influence.”

- David Ropeik

Risk communication must address each of these influences

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http://www.lesevangelistes.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/conversation-prism.jpg

http://thedigitaldope.in/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/SMD.jpg

Number of Users of Social Media

Number of active users worldwide in millions as of January, 2017

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“A lie can travel halfway around the world while the truth is putting on its shoes.”

- Mark Twain

Lies only have to be plausible to be accepted

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Byeatingageneticallymodifiedfruit,aperson'sgenescouldalsobecomemodified.

Eatinggeneticallymodifiedfoodsismorelikelytocauseobesitythaneatingnon-

geneticallymodifiedfoods.

Eatinggeneticallymodifiedfoodshascausedanincreaseincancer.

Eatinggeneticallymodifiedwheathascausedmorepeopletobecomesensitivetogluten.

Somepeoplehavehadallergicreactionstogeneticallymodifiedfoods.

TRUE LikelyTrue Likelyfalse FALSE Unsure Refused

Beliefs about Eating GM Foods

Hallman, Cuite, Morin, 2013 Survey of 1148 American Adults

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Tomatoesgeneticallymodifiedwithgenesfromcatfishwouldprobablytastefishy.

Pollenfromgeneticallymodifiedcornwasshowntokillbutterflylarvainalaboratory.

Alargefast-foodcompanyusedchickenssoalteredbygeneticmodificationthatthey

can'tbecalledchickenanymore.

Geneticallymodifiedcropsareharmfultobees.

Sugarmadefromgeneticallymodifiedsugarbeetsisdifferentfromsugarmadefrom

regularsugarbeets.

TRUE LikelyTrue Likelyfalse FALSE Unsure Refused

Beliefs about GMOs

Hallman, Cuite, Morin, 2013 Survey of 1148 American Adults

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• When the FDA announces a product recall– People in other countries often contact their own food authorities to

determine if the product is sold there.

Our Audiences are International

The Internet is an Abundant Resource

The Messages are Often Consistent

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The Source of the Advice is often HiddenBut who shared it with you is often the basis for credibility

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Too Much Information Available• The Public Depends on Curators and Interpreters of Food

Safety Information– Health Professionals– Science Communicators– Government Agencies– Consumer Organizations– Authors / Journalists– Museums– Advertising– Interactions with Other People– Websites and Blogs– Social Media

Trust Components

• Credibility - The extent to which a source or institution is perceived to have the knowledge and expertise to assess, manage and communicate about a risk.

• Honesty - The extent to which a source or institution conveys information about a risk in an open, truthful and transparent way.

• Care - Care for the interests of the other party and that the source or institution shares the same values and concerns.

http://foodbabe.com/

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“Helpful Tips From Healthy Helen”(Retired Health Professional)

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What You Can Do

Engage

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• Not possible to have a meaningful presence everywhere– Once you create an online presence, its difficult to back away

• Meaningful social media monitoring may need to be focused

• Bottom line – Choosing the right platforms is important– These are constantly evolving

• Focus on appropriate audience segmentation– Understand which audiences use which platforms, when, for what

purposes

Create a Presence on / Monitoring Social Media

• Is your intent to educate or to persuade?– Make this clear to your audiences

• If your intent is to persuade, say so – and why– Persuasion research shows this is more effective than trying to hide this

fact

Be Clear About Your Goals

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• What is it that people:– Know– Should know– Want to know

• What mental models are people using?– How do they understand the nature of the problem and proposed

solutions?– What intended and unintended consequences do they fear?– What motivations do they assume key actors have in trying to persuade

them?

Understand the Starting Points of Audiences

• Virally Disseminated Nonsense is Pervasive and is Increasing

• Communicating the “facts” is important– But is only effective in the absence of information– People resist/resent being told that they are wrong

• Understand and connect with shared values and concerns– What underlying concern does this misinformation express?– Simply correcting information doesn’t necessarily address the concern

• Use your status carefully– Indicate when you are speaking as an authority with expertise– Be clear when you are providing an opinion as an educated person who

has reviewed the available evidence

Go Beyond the Deficit Model

• The public and the scientific community can both benefit when scientists engage

• But few scientists have had formal training in communicating science– Most of us rely on our intuitions

• Intuitions, even informed by experience, aren’t always right• We need to use scientific principles to determine how best to

communicate about science.

Learn the Science of Science Communication

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For More Information:

Professor/ChairDepartment of Human EcologyRutgers University55 Dudley RoadNew Brunswick, NJ 08901-8520(848) 932-9227

Hallman@sebs.rutgers.edu

© William K. Hallman, PhD. Reproduction, distribution, and use of these materials is by permission of the author.

Visiting ScholarAnnenberg Public Policy CenterUniversity of Pennsylvania202 S 36th St. Philadelphia, PA 19104-3806(215) 746-3206

Hallman@sebs.rutgers.edu

William K. Hallman, PhD.