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Global Vision International, Kenya Report
Global Vision International Kenya, Expedition Report 064 9th October – 18th December 2006 G R Corti, R J Crouthers, H M Felix, K C Graham & S L Trafford – December 2006 In partnership with: Kenya Wildlife Service
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Citation Corti, G.R., Crouthers, R.J., Felix, H.M., Graham, K.C. & Trafford S.L., (2006) Global Vision
International, Kenya, Expedition Report. Global Vision International, Kenya Report
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Executive Summary
This report documents the work of Global Vision International’s (GVI) Wildlife Research, Marine
Mammal Studies and Community Development Expedition in Kenya run in partnership with Kenya
Wildlife Service. From the partnership’s initiation in January 2006, through to December 2006, Global
Vision International has:
Supplied manpower and training to Kenya Wildlife Service, and alternative income and indirect
funding to members of the Mkwiro community.
Provided employment and sustainable income for up to 15 members of the Mkwiro and
Shimoni communities. Provided free local capacity building in terms of English language
lessons, environmental education, development of alternative income generation and training
in scientific survey techniques.
Conducted 9 months of baseline data on cetacean populations and marine mega fauna, and
coastal forest primate populations, faunal biodiversity, floral biodiversity and levels of human
resource use.
Recruited and trained 95 Expedition Members (EMs) to collect high quality scientific data.
Initiated and supported ecological and cultural tourism initiatives.
Collected 8820 photographs for a photo-identification catalogue of delphinid populations and
catalogued 62 individuals.
Developed working relationships with Kenya Sea Turtle Conservation Committee (KESCOM),
World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) and a number of community based
organisations to support and develop scientific research and local capacity building.
Facilitated promotion of local community based organisations’ ventures.
Enabled local communities to benefit from support provided by EMs on their return to their
home countries through fund-raising, sponsorship, material donations and marketing. This
includes sponsorship of three students to access secondary education and one student to
access special needs education.
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Acknowledgements The achievements of the Global Vision International Kenya expedition over the previous three months
would not have been possible without the support, hard work and dedication of the following people.
We extend our sincerest appreciation and gratitude.
GVI Kenya Local Partners:
Kenya Wildlife Service
Mohamed Dhida, Mohamed Omar Said Omar, Yussuf Adan, Tom Amisi Amulavu and all the wardens
and staff at the KWS Kisite-Mpunguti MPA Headquarters in Shimoni and KWS Coast Headquarters in
Mombasa.
Kwale District Education Department
J.W Chiuri
One Earth Safaris
Ranjit Sondhi, and the staff at Shimoni Reef Lodge and Mombasa Reef Hotel.
National Museums of Kenya
Jimbi Katana and the staff at the Mombasa and Ukunda offices.
World Society for the Protection of Animals
Dipesh Pabari and Raphael Omondi
The committee members, staff and students of Mkwiro Primary School, the committee members, staff
and children of Al-Hanan Orphanage, the committee and members of; Mkwiro Village Committee,
Mkwiro Youth Group, Tumaini Women’s Group, Shimoni Village Council, Shimoni Slave Cave
Committee, Shimoni Youth Conservation Project, Shimoni Conservation Committee, Shimoni-Mkwiro
Dhow Tours, Kidong Ex-Poachers Group. The community members of Mkwiro, Shimoni and Kidong,
for their friendship, enthusiasm and support.
Global Vision International head office staff
Richard Walton, Steve Gwenin, Andy Woods-Ballard, Tabitha Cooper, Sophie Greatwood, Rowana
Walton, Paul Jones, Amy Collins, Alexis Bleasdale, Deborah Reeves, Ian Redgewell, and all the other
staff that support the expedition behind the scenes.
Global Vision International East Africa expedition staff
Graham Corti, Rachel Crouthers, Sara Trafford, Kyla Graham, Hugo Félix, Charlotte Le Page,
Lorenzo Scala and Piet Oudejans.
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Expedition Members
Wiebke Aurebekk, Sarah Bieber, Paul Burrows, Catherine Collop, Lucy Fleet, Caroline Fogde, Ros
Humphreys, Sirya Karisa, Jillo Katello, Eileen Kurtz, Raymond Mwangata, Sally Scott, Gabrielle
Stecker, Ilo Van Gilder.
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Abbreviations
EM Expedition Member
GVI Global Vision International
KMMPA Kisite Mpunguti Marine Protected Area
KWS Kenya Wildlife Service
WSPA World Society for the Protection of Animals
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Table of Contents 1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.1 GLOBAL VISION INTERNATIONAL ........................................................................................................................... 12 1.2 GLOBAL VISION INTERNATIONAL KENYA................................................................................................................ 14
1.3 PARTNERS ............................................................................................................................................................ 14 2. EXPEDITION TRAINING ......................................................................................................................................... 18 3. MARINE RESEARCH PROGRAMME ................................................................................................................... 20
3.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 20 3.2 AIMS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 21 3.3 METHODS ............................................................................................................................................................. 22
3.3.1 Vessel based dolphin survey methods ..................................................................................................... 22 3.3.2 Vessel based dolphin survey forms .......................................................................................................... 24 3.3.3 Boat based mega fauna surveys............................................................................................................... 28
3.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................... 29 3.4.1 Bottlenose Dolphins ................................................................................................................................... 31 3.4.2 Humpback Dolphins ................................................................................................................................... 34 3.4.3 Humpback and bottlenose dolphin mixed groups .................................................................................... 36 3.4.4 Marine Mega Fauna ................................................................................................................................... 37
3.5 CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE WORK ...................................................................................... 37 4.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 38 3.2 AIMS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 39 3.3 METHODS ............................................................................................................................................................. 40
3.3.1 Line Transect Sampling ............................................................................................................................. 40 3.3.2 Primate Community Survey ....................................................................................................................... 41 3.3.3 Primate Behavioural Observations ........................................................................................................... 42 3.3.4 Vegetation & Regeneration Survey........................................................................................................... 42 3.3.5 Habitat Survey ............................................................................................................................................ 43 3.3.6 Butterfly Community Survey ...................................................................................................................... 44 3.3.7 Casual Observations of Other Fauna ....................................................................................................... 45
3.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................... 45 3.4.1 Line Transect Sampling ............................................................................................................................. 45 3.4.2 Primate Community Survey ....................................................................................................................... 46 3.4.3 Primate Behavioural Observations ........................................................................................................... 47 3.4.4 Vegetation & Regeneration Survey........................................................................................................... 48 3.4.5 Ground and canopy cover surveys ........................................................................................................... 49 3.4.6 Butterfly Community Survey ...................................................................................................................... 51 3.4.7 Casual Wildlife Observations .................................................................................................................... 52
3.5 CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE WORK .................................................................................... 52 4 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME..................................................................................................... 55
4.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 55 4.2 TIMETABLE OF ACTIVITIES ..................................................................................................................................... 56
4.2.1 School Program Timetable ........................................................................................................................ 56 4.2.2 Weekly analysis of activities ...................................................................................................................... 56 4.2.3 Daily Activities ............................................................................................................................................ 61
4.3 TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE ..................................................................................................... 62 4.3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 62 4.3.2 Mkwiro Primary School Lessons ............................................................................................................... 62 4.3.3 Adult Education .......................................................................................................................................... 65
4.4 ORPHANAGE WORK............................................................................................................................................... 67 4.5 COMMUNITY GROUPS AND INITIATIVES .................................................................................................................. 68
4.5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 68 4.5.2 Fishing Trips ............................................................................................................................................... 70 4.5.3 Drumming ................................................................................................................................................... 70
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4.5.4 Mwaozi Tumbe Village Tour ...................................................................................................................... 70 4.5.6 Cooking lessons ......................................................................................................................................... 71 4.5.7 Beehive keeping ......................................................................................................................................... 72 4.5.8 HIV/AIDS Awareness ................................................................................................................................. 72 4.5.9 Mkwiro Village Compensation Committee ................................................................................................ 73 4.5.10 Mkwiro Dispensary ................................................................................................................................... 74 4.5.11 Mkwiro Garment Industry ........................................................................................................................ 74 4.5.12 Recycling .................................................................................................................................................. 75 4.5.13 Shimoni Slave Cave Committee ............................................................................................................. 76 4.5.14 Tumaini Women’s Group ......................................................................................................................... 76 4.5.16 Water Storage/Purification....................................................................................................................... 77 4.5.17 Village Community Fund.......................................................................................................................... 78 4.5.18 Fundraising ............................................................................................................................................... 78 4.5.19 Year of the Dolphin .................................................................................................................................. 79
5. TERRESTRIAL SATELLITE CAMP ....................................................................................................................... 81 5.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 81 5.2 EX-POACHERS GROUPS ........................................................................................................................................ 82 5.3 DISCUSSION ......................................................................................................................................................... 84
6. NATIONAL SCHOLARSHIP PROGRAMME......................................................................................................... 85 7. OVERALL ACHIEVEMENTS .................................................................................................................................. 86 8. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE AIMS ................................................................................................................... 87 9. REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................................... 89
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List of Appendices Appendix 1 Event Log Form 91
Appendix 2 Sightings Form 92
Appendix 3 Dolphin Survey Form 93
Appendix 4 Ethogram 94
Appendix 5 Photo-ID Form 113
Appendix 6 Mega Fauna Survey Form 114
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List of Tables Table 1 Dolphin Species on Kenyan Coast 26
Table 2 Average Group Size Based on Best 31
Table 3 Summary of Transect Grid System in Shimoni Forest 45
Table 4 Summary of Primates Observed During Survey in Expedition 064 46
Table 5 Sampling Frequency of Sections for Vegetation and Regeneration
Surveys During Expedition 064 48
Table 6 School Programme During Expedition 064 56
Table 7 Expected School Programme During Expedition 071 56
Table 8 Weekly Timetable for Community Development Programme During
Expedition 064 58
Table 9 Holiday Programme Timetable During Expedition 064 58
Table 10 Summary of Time Allocated to Community Development Activities
During Expedition 064 59
Table 11 Daily Timetable for Activities for Community Development Programme
During Expedition 064 61
Table 12 Tourism Development Proposals within Mkwiro 68
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List of Figures Figure 1 Number of Dolphin Sightings, Behaviour Surveys and Photo-ID
Surveys 064 29
Figure 2 Mega Fauna Sightings and Surveys 064 30
Figure 3 Sightings/Hour of Effort 064 30
Figure 4 Sightings per Hour of Effort for Time of Day 32
Figure 5 Distribution of Survey Depth in Metres for Bottlenose Dolphins 32
Figure 6 Percentage of Sightings During Different Tidal States 33
Figure 7 Behaviour States of Bottlenose Dolphins for Exp. 064 34
Figure 8 Depth of Surveys for Humpback Dolphin 35
Figure 9 Behaviour States of Humpback and Mixed Groups in 064 36
Figure 10 Research Site in Shimoni Forest 39
Figure 11 Frequency of Perpendicular Distances at which Colobus Groups are
Observed 47
Figure 12 Representation Analysis of Plant Species Discovery During Vegetation
Sampling in 2006 49
Figure 13 Average Canopy Cover on Sections Sampled Across All Transects with
Polynomial Trend Lines for Each Transect 50
Figure 14 Average Canopy Height on Sections Sampled Across 5 Transects
During Expedition 064 51
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1. Introduction
1.1 Global Vision International Global Vision International (GVI) aims to build local capacity to support conservation through long-
term, sustainable community development. GVI was formed in 1998 to provide support and services
to international charities, non-governmental, non-profit and governmental organisations. Through our
international network of 50 professional personnel and 50 projects in over 20 countries GVI continues
to support many of the most critical and humanitarian projects around the world.
GVI is a non-political, non-religious organisation, which through its alliance with local organisations
throughout the world provides opportunities to Expedition Members to fill a critical void in the fields of
environmental research, conservation, education and community development. To date, over 2000
volunteers have joined projects resulting in significant direct financial and practical support.
GVI sources and supplies long-term experienced staff (1 to every 4 Expedition Members), trained
personnel, equipment and funds directly to local organisations, government organisations, Non-
Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and universities. This immediately increases the short-term
capacity of the local groups to monitor their local environment and trains local people and researchers
to assist in this vital work.
Through the work of GVI programmes, and its in-country training, GVI increases the long term
capacity of the local organisations and communities, assisting them to both utilise their resources and
monitor the effect of this use. Thus, it helps the local populations to acquire the capacity to monitor
the effects of development, and enables them to decide between short-term profit and long-term,
sustainable revenue.
GVI’s local partners select the projects they feel are of the highest priorities, work they either want to
initiate but have not had the resources to previously, or ongoing programmes that they wish to expand
through GVI’s additional resources. The partners choose the methodologies that they feel are most
useful locally and that can be compared on a regional level. The Expedition Members’ contributions
fund the programmes, and, through training with the experienced GVI staff, it is the Expedition
Members that undertake the work.
It has been shown in several instances that with suitable and rigorous training programmes, non-
specialised volunteers can provide useful and reliable baseline data for use in conservation
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management strategies. All Expedition Members undergo a rigorous training programme, learning
prior to arrival and through the entire expedition. All Expedition Members must pass both theoretical
and practical in field examinations (95% and 100% respectively), on species recognition and research
techniques prior to joining the survey teams with retesting during the expedition. All survey teams and
data are checked by the experienced staff prior to being accepted. Thus the standard of knowledge of
the surveyors, and the baseline standard of the data collected, is quantified.
GVI employs both international and local national staff to organise the Expedition Members and co-
ordinate the programme, and the Expedition Member’s work alongside local people, researchers and
teachers. This is an essential part of all GVI programmes. Each year, GVI invites 30 to 35 local
researchers, students, environmentalists and teachers to join the expeditions for free, training and
working alongside the GVI Expedition Members. Thus GVI recruits and funds 1 to 2 full time
nationals per expedition.
All expeditions focus upon the promotion of their individual partners’ area, and each project complies
with one or more of the criteria summarised below:
1. Increase scientific knowledge and interest in the area
2. Increase conservation value for the area
3. Local community cultural and environmental awareness
4. Local community training
5. Tourist cultural and environmental awareness and training
6. Increased sustainable revenue to the local communities
Thus, GVI facilitates local groups to record and document their local area and the effects local
development is having upon it. GVI aims to draw in international partners to help conserve the area,
brings in funding for the local groups and draws in other international researchers, whom all spend
monies in the local communities. GVI discusses the effects observed with the local communities,
businessmen, governmental groups, and allow them to draw their own conclusions. GVI aids local
communities directly through assisting with funding, direct manpower where needed, helping them
with their own initiatives, and through English Language lessons, this allowing them greater access to
the tourism revenues. Within some of the areas that GVI operates, this is as an alternative to other
kinds of resource use, such as poaching and petroleum. Additionally, the programme is aimed to
allow local people to access the tourism, rather than immigrants to the area from richer areas or
countries, whom utilise the resources of the local communities, develop the area and take the
benefits. GVI aims to present cultural and environmental presentations to tourists and local
community members, providing information on the history of the area, the people and the impact of
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the varied uses of the area’s resources. This leads to the overall aim of assisting local communities to
utilise their resources in a sustainable way. GVI assists in accessing sustainable sources of income,
through promotion of the area and in direct recruitment of responsible tourists. In addition, the science
and community training programmes enable them to monitor their environment to judge if the use of
their resources is sustainable. Thus, through successful, sustainable use of resources, the
conservation of the area is assured as it is this resource that the sustainable revenue relies upon.
1.2 Global Vision International Kenya The Global Vision International Kenya expedition was initiated in January 2006 and is based on
Wasini Island on the South coast of Kenya, in the community of Mkwiro village. Wasini Island lies
approximately 1km South of the Shimoni peninsula in Kwale District, Coast Province, close to the
border with Tanzania. Expedition activities are centred around the Kisite-Mpunguti Marine Protected
Area (KMMPA), which lies to the South of Wasini Island, and falls under the jurisdiction and
management of the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS). The marine programme research activities are
undertaken within the KMMPA and surrounding areas incorporating Wasini Channel, Funzi Bay and
Sii Island. The terrestrial research programme is focussed on an area of coastal forest in the South-
East corner of Shimoni peninsula, close to Shimoni village. The majority of activities under the
community programme are focussed on Mkwiro village, with some activities that support community
initiatives in Shimoni village. Community development activities are also being developed in Kidong, a
rural village near Taveta, between the Western boundary of Tsavo West National Park and the border
with Tanzania.
The GVI East Africa expedition is a partnership primarily with KWS supporting their research and
management objectives in respect of the KMMPA. Additional partners in the area include Kwale
District Education Department, National Museums of Kenya, Kenya Marine & Fisheries Research
Institute, World Society for the Protection of Animals as well as a number of community based
organisations in Mkwiro and Shimoni. Expedition members are trained by GVI’s international
expedition staff to conduct research and community development activities on behalf of our national
and local partners. This report summarises the marine and terrestrial programmes’ research activities
and the community programme’s community development and capacity building activities over the 10
week period of the 06-4 expedition, between 9th October and 18th December 2006.
1.3 Partners GVI’s scientific research and community development activities in Kenya are carried out on behalf of
our local partners, at their request, addressing areas that they have identified as priorities in terms of
research and capacity building. Methodologies and activities have been implemented in response to
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their needs. GVI merely facilitates the achievement of their objectives through the provision of
experienced staff, trained personnel, equipment and resources. GVI East Africa currently operates in
support of 15 partner organisations, 4 of which are governmental, 1 is non-governmental and 10 of
which are community based organisations, as follows:
The Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS); a governmental organisation responsible for the management of
Kenya’s National Parks, National Reserves and wildlife. The marine research programme is
undertaken in direct support of their objectives for the management of the KMMPA. The community
programme is also undertaken at their request to build capacity within the Mkwiro community which so
far does not receive the economic benefit from tourism that is evident in both neighbouring Wasini
and Shimoni villages. The terrestrial programme and community development activities in Shimoni
also support the organisation’s objectives for community outreach. GVI East Africa and KWS have
also formed a working committee with international and local commercial tour operators TUI,
Pollman’s Tours & Safaris Ltd and Charlie Claw’s to oversee community activities in support of the
International Year of the Dolphin 2007.
Kwale District Education Department; a local government department responsible for school
education in the district. GVI East Africa is supporting the national curriculum for primary schools in
English language learning at Mkwiro Primary School. Expedition Members under the supervision of
GVI teaching staff take English classes for standards 4 to 8 during term time with additional
environmental education activities outside of term time. All activities in the school are undertaken in
liaison with the teaching staff and Mkwiro Primary School Committee, a community based
organisation.
National Museums of Kenya (NMK); a governmental organisation with responsibility for the
management of Kenya’s national historic and cultural monuments and, through their Coastal Forest
Conservation Unit, the protection of forest biodiversity. The terrestrial research programme supports
coastal forest biodiversity research, whilst Expedition Member involvement with the Shimoni Slave
Cave nature trail, an area that falls under the protection and management of National Museums of
Kenya, directly supports the organisation’s management aims. Further to this, Expedition Members
have conducted work on the historic monuments in Shimoni in support of National Museums of
Kenya’s Shimoni Development Proposal.
Kenya Marine & Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI); a governmental research organisation
responsible or marine research and conservation in support of national objectives and international
collaborations. As GVI’s marine research programme develops it is expected that we will be able to
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support a number of the organisation’s research objectives including baseline cetacean research and
marine habitat monitoring.
World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA); an international non-governmental
organisation concerned with animal welfare. The organisation is planning to work in collaboration with
KWS on anti-whaling awareness in Kenya and restore Kenya as a voting representative on the
International Whaling Commission. GVI East Africa supported the organisation’s awareness
campaign through a community initiative that will build capacity for income generation through the
recycling of rubbish washed up on Kenya’s coast and has also provided volunteers to assist in the
organisation’s environmental awareness activities at the Zanzibar International Film Festival. GVI
East Africa is also initiating a collaboration with WSPA to support community capacity building and
development around Taveta, Southern Kenya, to tackle socio-economic issues that leave
communities reliant on the illegal bushmeat trade and environmentally destructive charcoal burning
practices.
Al-Hanan Orphanage Committee; a community based organisation that runs the orphanage in
Mkwiro, accepting children throughout Kwale District and coastal areas who can not be supported by
their relatives. The orphanage is entirely reliant upon donations, primarily coming from Islamic
organisations throughout the South coast. The organisation also receives donations from the Global
Vision International Charitable Trust to improve the conditions and facilities. Expedition Members
have visited the orphanage to undertake activities with the children and provide more practical
assistance in the development and maintenance of their dormitories.
Mkwiro Village Committee; a community based organisation that oversees the interests of the
Mkwiro community. Expedition Members have delivered adult education classes to support English
language acquisition in the community, participated in a variety of workshops and GVI East Africa is
helping set up a community fund so that proceeds from tourism and other community initiatives can
be administered for the benefit of the whole community.
Mkwiro Youth Conservation Group; a community based organisation with the objective of furthering
health and environmental education in the community and developing alternative sources of income
generation including accessing tourism. Expedition Members have worked closely alongside
members of this organisation to develop workshops and the Mkwiro Village Tour with its associated
tourism activities.
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Tumaini Women’s Group; a community based women’s group in Mkwiro that make traditional hand
crafts for sale primarily to tourists. Expedition members have been working with the organisation to
help develop products for the tourist market and to aid the marketing of their products.
Shimoni Slave Cave Committee; a community based organisation that has been delegated
responsibility by National Museums of Kenya to manage and operate the tourism at Shimoni Slave
Cave, a gazetted national monument. The committee operates a guided walk in to the cave and are
looking to develop the tour further by incorporating a nature trail through the forest above the cave
which by default is also under protection from National Museums of Kenya. The guided tour targets
tourists visiting KMMPA and also attracts school parties from across Kenya, Shimoni’s history
featuring in the national curriculum. Proceeds from the Slave Cave tour go towards a Shimoni
community fund which pays for teachers in the local primary schools, scholarships for students to
attend secondary school, pharmaceuticals for the local dispensary and other community projects.
Expedition members have been assisting the committee in developing their nature trail.
Shimoni Youth Conservation Project (SYCP); a community based organisation that aims to
promote environmental awareness, responsible management of natural resources and development
of sustainable sources of income generation. Members of SYCP have joined expedition members
during their forest biodiversity training and research activities as part of a capacity building
programme to enable them to manage and monitor their natural resources. Under the stewardship of
GVI, SYCP committee members created the Shimoni Conservation Committee (SCC) with
representatives including two elders and one woman from each of the six villages within Shimoni sub-
location that are stakeholders in the forest areas. Following the awareness and sensitisation activities,
the SCC with GVI support has petitioned community members and submitted a proposal to relevant
government authorities requesting that they be designated authority to manage their forest resources
on behalf of and for the benefit of local communities. Through community management they aim to
designate conservation areas, manage sustainable resource use, reduce illegal timber extraction and
develop ecotourism initiatives.
Shimoni Mkwiro Dhow Tours; a community based organisation which has been recently formed as
a co-operative of tourist dhow operators, taking tourists in to the KMMPA on dolphin watching and
snorkelling trips. This co-operative aims to redress the balance of tourism on Wasini Island, planning
to take their clients to Mkwiro village for lunches instead of Wasini village. By working alongside this
organisation it is hoped that Mkwiro community groups can gain access to tourism revenue, and that
these local operators will be the first beneficiaries of education and training, encouraging responsible
dolphin watching activities.
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Kidong Ex-Poachers Group; a community based organisation comprising 40 members from the
village of Kidong near Taveta, formed in April 2006, to seek alternative forms of income generation
and therefore abandon poaching of wildlife in and around Tsavo West National Park to supply the
illegal bushmeat trade and environmentally destructive charcoal burning. GVI East Africa plan to
support capacity building and environmental education activities.
2. Expedition Training Expedition members are put through a two week intensive training programme upon arrival on the
expedition prior to participation in programme activities. Theoretical and practical tests are conducted
at the end of their training period. Training consists of:
Marine Research Programme: Expedition members receive classroom training on cetacean
species identification and marine megafauna identification. Expedition Members learn field
identification of nine species of cetaceans. Eight of these are dolphin species and include:
Indian Ocean Bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops spp. Truncatus and aduncus), Humpback dolphin
(Sousa chinensis), Common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), Spinner dolphin (Stenella
longirostris), Striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleaoalba), Pan-tropical spotted dolphin (Stenella
attenuate), Rough-toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis), and Risso’s dolphin (Grampus
griseus). In addition to the dolphin species, the Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeanglia) is
known to occur in the Kisite-Mpunguti area. Reference material is available for self study. Five
species of marine turtles are known to occur in Kenyan waters and during training EMs are
also taught and examined on the identification of these species. These include: Green turtle
(Chelonia mydas), Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea),
Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), and Loggerhead (Caretta caretta). This is followed by
testing utilising slides, requiring a 95% pass mark. Expedition members receive classroom-
based presentations and practical field training in cetacean and megafauna survey techniques
and theories, the collection of environmental data, accurate completion of data forms, distance
estimation and GPS training. This is also subject to testing with a pass mark of 95% prior to
participation in research activities.
Terrestrial Research Programme: Expedition Members receive classroom-based
presentations and practical field training on primate identification, behaviour and ecology,
butterfly ecology, coastal forest ecology as well as primate community surveys utilising
distance sampling, butterfly community surveys utilising canopy traps, vegetation surveys and
casual observation of fauna surveys. Training is followed by theoretical test requiring a 95%
19
pass mark. Practical training and in field testing is also undertaken on the use of the panga,
compass and GPS. Expedition Members receive distance estimation training and in field
testing for which participation in sighting distance estimation during primate community
surveys is contingent on expedition members achieving an average error within 10m.
Community Development Programme: Expedition Members receive the GVI Introduction to
TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) training and an additional Introduction to
TEFL for Children course designed to prepare them for teaching in Mkwiro Primary School and
activities at the Al-Hanan Orphanage. Their training incorporates practical activities and
guidance in classroom management. Following training Expedition Members receive practical
testing in the form of lesson planning. Expedition Members receive individual assessment and
feedback.
Health & Safety: Expedition Members are all subject to comprehensive health & safety
awareness training in the form of risk assessments, a specific hazardous marine life
presentation, forest field safety talk, dangerous game and wildlife viewing protocol, a boat
safety orientation, radio protocol training, emergency oxygen use training and fire extinguisher
& fire safety orientation. Further to this all expedition members are put through the Emergency
First Response Primary Care and Secondary Care training courses. Assessment for
certification is optional. Expedition Members are also asked to complete a 200m swim test, if
unsuccessful then wearing of life jackets in the boats is compulsory.
In addition, Expedition Members are also offered additional training, presentations and talks during
the expedition on oceanography, marine environment, primate evolution and ecology, African wildlife
natural history, bio-geography of Africa, Muslim culture and Kiswahili.
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3. Marine Research Programme
3.1 Introduction
Kisite-Mpunguti Marine Protected Area (KMMPA) lies south of Wasini Island and covers an area of 39
square kilometres. The KMMPA includes the National Park surrounding Kisite Island and the Marine
Reserve surrounding the Mpunguti islands. The KMMPA and the marine wildlife it contains are an
important tourist attraction and, as a result, an important resource for Shimoni and surrounding
communities. The islands within the KMMPA are surrounded by coral reefs attracting divers and
snorkellers to the area. Almost every day swim-with-dolphin and dolphin-watching companies
operating from Shimoni travel through Wasini Channel to the KMMPA (Emerson and Tessema, 2001).
These tourist dhows most frequently encounter bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops aduncus, and less
frequently, Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins, Sousa chinensis. Currently, there is neither a code of
conduct to follow when manoeuvring around the dolphins nor are levels of interaction monitored or
regulated in any way. The impact these activities may be having on the dolphins is unknown. In
particular, it’s not known whether increased or even current levels of dolphin tourism are sustainable
for local dolphin populations.
Very little scientific research has been conducted on the cetaceans of East Africa and little information
is available on even the baseline ecology of these species. Baseline data is required before the
impact of dolphin tourism can be accurately assessed (Stensland et al.,1998). The main objectives of
the marine research programme are to obtain baseline ecological and demographic data on the
dolphin species that occur in the KMMPA and surrounding waters. The study area encompasses a
wide range of habitats from mangrove forests, coral reefs, inter-tidal rocky reefs, sea grass beds, and
offshore areas.
GVI Kenya’s main working partner is the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS). The research conducted by
GVI will be shaped to satisfy the objectives of KWS, so as to assist them towards better management
of the area. All data collected thus far is made available to KWS to aid in management plans of the
study area.
The Marine Programme is supporting KWS to collate data by conducting vessel and land-based
surveys. The marine programme will primarily focus on two research areas: (1) the ecology of
humpback and bottlenose dolphins and (2) the biodiversity of marine mega fauna. The collection of
this data will provide important information on the ecology of dolphins and mega fauna (large marine
vertebrates such as turtles, whale sharks, dugongs, and seabirds) within the area and improve the
21
scientific basis and baseline data for management strategies. This information can help lead towards
long-term sustainability of cetacean-based tourism and other human activities within the KMMPA and
Shimoni area.
During the initial phase of the marine programme research will focus on assessing dolphin species
abundance. Later, parameters such as demographic composition, residency and diel movement
patterns will be analysed.
Mega fauna species are also attractive to tourists and as such a valuable resource for the Shimoni
and Wasini Island communities. Their conservation is important for the protection of marine biological
diversity on a number of levels. Another objective of the marine research programme is to obtain
information on the occurrence of marine mega fauna within the study area. This information can then
be utilised by our working partners to manage the area accordingly.
3.2 Aims
During the first year of operations the marine programme of GVI Kenya has completed initial research
activities to determine species distribution within the KMMPA and surrounding areas. Research
questions were established to ensure that all the research methodologies used were able to obtain
the relevant information to satisfy objectives set by KWS.
The marine programme would like to collect data to address the following questions on the dolphins
and mega fauna in Kisite-Mpunguti Marine Protected Area and its surrounding areas.
From vessel based surveys:
Abundance and habitat occupancy
Demographic composition
Residency
Habitat-activity relationships
Diel movement & activity
Population structure
Rates of human-induced injury & mortality
Mega-fauna presence and behaviour
From land-based surveys:
Tidal and diel movement
22
Diel activity
Dolphin behaviour before, during, and after exposure to vessels
Boat traffic within the area
Mega-fauna presence and behaviour
3.3 Methods
3.3.1 Vessel based dolphin survey methods
During expedition 064 GVI East Africa primarily used two research vessels to conduct surveys within
the KMMPA and surrounding areas. Stingray, a 5.83m catamaran style power vessel with two 85
horsepower motors, was used during morning surveys from approximately 0730 to 1200. In addition
to Stingray, ET, a 6.19 m power vessel was used for shorter afternoon surveys from approximately
1400 to 1600. The areas covered by this vessel were smaller scale but provided extra data on dolphin
movements in the afternoon.
Photographs were taken using a Canon EOS 350D digital camera (75-300 ml lens).
To obtain information on population size, demographics and other biological parameters photo-
identification (Photo ID) and mark-recapture methods are used for data collection and analysis.
Photo-identification: Photo-ID refers to the identification of individuals by distinctive features (shape,
outline, natural markings and scarring) of their dorsal fins, flanks and flukes. Some scars will be
retained through life, whereas others will be added and may fade through life. The depth and severity
of the wound will determine the length of time this may be used for identification. These features allow
known individuals to be re-sighted. The re-sighting rate can be plotted on a discovery curve, the
plateau of which suggests population size. Photo-ID can also be used to determine residency and
demographic data such as inter-birth intervals, patterns of ranging and mortality. Photographs can
also help to determine sex of individuals by noting mother and calf pairs.
The primary aim of photo-ID will be to try to determine population size. Photographers attempt to
photograph all the individuals within the group during a photo-ID survey so as not to bias the data by
focusing on individuals with distinctive markings or certain behaviours. Results can vary due to
conditions, surfacing bouts and animal behaviour.
Photo-ID survey times vary and are dependant on group size, activity and environmental conditions.
All photographs are taken from the vessel as it manoeuvres into position to get the best angle, lighting
23
and clear shot of dorsal fins. During a photo ID survey the photographer informs the scribe of spacer
shots (to separate groups or surveys) and number of shots taken in order to separate frames into
individuals. The primary aim during a photo ID survey is to photograph the right and left flank of each
individual. Making note of frame numbers and groups of dolphins assists with latter analysis of
photographs (See the Forms section for further explanation of this procedure).
Once photographs are downloaded onto the computer they are saved into the photo-ID database. For
the first year this database is divided into various users, so that they are analysed individually and all
users know that they are analysing photos in a similar way. Each user quality grades the photos into
categories including: deleted, tail flukes, spacer shots, and quality categories which range from 0
(poor quality, distant, out of focus, partial images) to 3 (perfect photo-ID shots). Users then identify
individuals by using permanent identifying marks or features. Once the users agree on the recognition
of individuals a photo-ID catalogue will be created in which individuals are given unique ID numbers
and/or names. This is an important procedure allowing for future re-sighting of individuals on a long
term basis. Over time the information from this database will provide additional information such as
associations and calving intervals.
Mark-Recapture: Mark-recapture methods can be used to calculate population size from the
proportion of known individuals re-sighted over the study period. In order for mark-recapture methods
to yield accurate results a number of conditions must be met.
A marked animal will always be recognised if it’s seen again. In order to satisfy this assumption;
only stable, long-term distinguishing features should be used to recognise individuals.
Samples of individuals must be representative of the population being estimated. If ‘marked’
individuals (recognisable individuals that have been photographed) do not mix fully with the rest of
the population this assumption is violated.
‘Marking’ (photographing) an individual does not affect the probability of that individual being
recaptured.
Within one sampling occasion, every individual in the population should have the same probability
of being ‘captured’ (photographed). To reduce the risk of this assumption being violated as many
individuals should be captured as possible.
The population must be closed i.e. no emigration or immigration.
Initially, a sample of individuals is photographically ‘captured’ (n1) of which a number, and on a
subsequent occasion, a second sample of individuals is ‘captured’ (n2) of which a number were
24
already identified in the first sample (m2). The proportion of individuals that are marked in the second
sample can be equated with the proportion in the overall population (N). The mark-recapture
formulas are as follows (Evans and Hammond, 2004):
Equation 1
(m2) = n1 n2 N The number of individuals captured and marked is known which allows the population size to be
estimated (Ň):
Equation 2 Ň = n1 n2
m2
3.3.2 Vessel based dolphin survey forms
Four forms were used to incorporate the above methodologies and collect information on population
size, demographics and behaviour. These forms include the Event Log, Sightings form, Dolphin
Survey form and the Photo ID form.
Event Log: Throughout the survey day an Event Log (Appendix 1) is completed. On this data sheet
the search effort throughout the day is recorded along with the number of surveys completed and
environmental and condition changes. Every fifteen minutes one person (the scribe) records the
current environmental conditions and any environmental or effort changes. Every half hour the
observers rotate roles and view points and every two hours each observer receives a half hour eye
break as the scribe. If a dolphin is spotted then all observers maintain the same position while filling
out one specific survey form. This allows for consistency in data notation making it possible for
questions regarding data collection, i.e. reading illegible handwriting, to be easily answered.
At the beginning of the day and at every interval of data collection the recorder notes the following:
1. Date
2. Vessel
3. Time (24hr clock)
4. GPS Co-ordinates (using WGS84 datum)
5. Event (See Appendix 1 to see categories)
6. Dolphin Survey number, each day surveys begin as DS01, DS02…
25
7. Speed of vessel
8. Environmental conditions (swell, beaufort, cloud, precipitation, visibility and tide; All categories
are listed in Appendix 1)
9. Additional comments i.e. if there is a sighting what it was
Sightings Form: The Sightings form was put in place partway through the first expedition and is used
to record all sightings of dolphins and mega fauna. This form collates the relevant information to
conduct distance sampling. It also produces valuable information if a behaviour survey can not be
conducted, for example, due to weather conditions, when there are too many vessels present, or the
dolphins are only sighted once. The recorder notes if the sighting occurred due to the presence of a
vessel or whether the land based platform informed us of the presence of dolphins. This information is
then included in the analysis to note any sightings that may have been missed by the naked eye or if
the vessel was simply not in the same area as the sighting.
Once dolphins or mega fauna are sighted, the recorder documents the following data into the sighting
form (see Appendix 2).
1. Time using the 24 hour system
2. GPS Co-ordinates of the vessel
3. Effort type during the sighting
4. Sighting number and survey number (either a mega fauna or dolphin survey)
5. Distance and angle to sighting
6. Tidal state upon sighting (introduced during expedition 064)
7. Species sighted
8. Group size on initial sighting using min, max. and best categories
9. Whether the sighting was due to dhow presence
10. Whether a Photo ID survey was conducted or not
11. Number of boats present
12. Comments
Dolphin Behaviour Survey Form: The photo-ID survey protocol provides a systematic approach for
sampling the behaviour of free-ranging dolphins. As part of this protocol a Dolphin Behaviour Survey
is used to record basic behaviour data when conditions allowed a dolphin survey to be conducted
(Appendix 3).
26
This survey is used in conjunction with the Ethogram (see Appendix 4) which provides a guide for
dolphin behaviours. GVI East Africa has simplified this methodology to ensure that accurate
information is gathered. All EMs receive training on dolphin behaviours to ensure that each individual
will be able to recognise behaviours in the field. As well, there is always at least one marine officer
assisting with data collection to ensure that behavioural observations are consistent across observers.
Survey encounters differ in many ways—e.g. the number of animals encountered; the degree to
which to individuals can be directly observed and identified. As such, the depth and quality of data
that are collected during surveys may vary widely. While detailed and individual-specific observations
are desirable, at times it is only possible to collect basic data such as the time and location of
encounter.
Common Name Scientific name Bottlenose Dolphin Tursiops truncatus/aduncus Humpback Dolphin Sousa chinensis Spinner Dolphin Stenella longirostris Common Dolphin Delphinus delphis
Rough Toothed Dolphin Steno bredanensis
Risso Dolphin Grumpus griseus
Striped Dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba
Pantropical Spotted Dolphin Stenella attenuate
Table 1: Dolphin species in Kenyan coast (Peddemonns V.M, 1999)
Highlighted in bold are the 3 species which have been identified to date.
Dolphin surveys commence once the sighting form has been completed and the species is identifiable
(See species list above, Table 1). Dive durations are measured from the time of the first positive
identification until the time of departure from the group. A scan sample of behaviour and group
composition is conducted over a 10 minute period. Observers note how many animals are present as
early as possible once a group is sighted - group size indicates how many individuals that must be
identified visually or through photo-id. This sample is intended to provide an unbiased ‘sample’ of the
behaviours and the identity of the individuals present for the calculation of association coefficients and
other analyses.
Initially the observation time was only five minutes in duration but during Expedition 062 the
observation time was increased, and kept for the rest of the year, to ten minutes. This ten minute
27
sample period is used because it is a more suitable amount of time; it is: (a) is short enough to
approximate a true scan sample (more below) and (b) long enough to cover (on average) two to three
surfacing bouts during which identifications can be made and group activity, direction, and group
composition can be assessed. We also survey for this amount of time because it is short enough to
reduce the effect the vessel may have on the original activity of the dolphins when first sighted.
For the purpose of defining a ‘group’ of dolphins (see further below) two individuals must be within
100 m of each other or within 100 m of the initial group to be in the same ‘group’. If fifty percent or
more animals are within 100m of another group they are classed as a sub-group and a sub-group
behavioral survey completed. If a group is seen outside of this 100 m radius a new survey form is
completed.
Cetacean behaviours can be distinguished as either events (short duration behaviours) that include,
spy hops, tail slaps, leaps or porpoises or states (long-duration behaviours) such as resting, travelling,
foraging and socialising (Mann, 2000). The predominant group activity or state is defined as the
activity that fifty percent or more of the group members are simultaneously engaged in (See Appendix
4 Ethogram). Observers scan the group to determine the group’s behaviour state and then record it
on the form. Any secondary behaviour states, i.e. when most of the group is foraging but a couple of
animals are resting during the survey, are also noted. Events that occur during the survey period are
noted in the ‘activity notes’ section.
To help aid the process of identification and number of individuals present any distinctive fin shapes,
obvious scars or speckling of individuals is noted. Data is collected on the presence of mother-calf
pairs and whether they include neonates or young of the year. Neonates are defined as calves which
are up to three months old. These calves will have curled flukes and dorsal fins, foetal folds and
usually swim in a position parallel to and forward of the mother’s midline. Young of year are older than
three months and are more independent than neonates. They still will travel next to the mother but in
the infant position which is behind the mother’s midline near the mammary slits (Mann, 2000). The
notation of this data combined with information from Photo-ID should allow for the determination of
female animals and the identification of their calves.
Vessel interaction is also recorded during this survey to assess the impact that the research vessel
may have on dolphin behaviour. This is recorded by noting whether the dolphins react away from,
toward or not at all to the survey vessel. This data was initially recorded on a scale of 1-3; however
this was modified because the definition of this scale was subjective and not clearly defined in an
objective, quantitative scale.
28
Once the ten minute scan sample is over the scribe completing the Event Log continues recording
every fifteen minutes while the vessel continues to follow the dolphin group for the collection of Photo-
ID data. When both surveys are complete the forms are reviewed by all observers to ensure that the
information recorded is accurate and all observers agree with what is written. The ten minute scan
sample may be reduced due to environmental conditions or when there are too many vessels present.
Should this happen it will be recorded on the form.
Photo ID Form: The procedures for this form have changed slightly since the beginning of the year.
Rather than conducting photo-ID during behavioural surveys only opportunistic photographs are taken
if the individuals move towards the vessel. Photo-ID is usually conducted after the behaviour survey
so the vessel can maintain a further distance so as not to change dolphin behaviour. Photo-ID survey
times vary and depend on group size, activity and environmental conditions. During photo-ID the
vessel can manoeuvre into a better position to obtain the optimum distance and angle for
photographs to be taken; this is when the boat is travelling parallel to, and in line with, the dolphins.
The most valuable photos for Photo-ID are in-focus, directly perpendicular to the dorsal fin, with the
sun behind the photographer and as close a shot of the fin as possible.
During a photo-ID survey the photographer tells the photo-ID scribe the frame numbers of spacer
shots, recognizable or distinct individuals and the number of shots taken (Appendix 5). The
photographer tries to photograph both the right and left flank of each individual and if this is
successful they will note this in the comments section. When the photographer has finished they will
take a final shot of the photo ID sheet to separate it from other encounters. This method helps with
the assistance of identification in the analysis and also helps separate individuals and encounters for
the photo catalogue.
3.3.3 Boat based mega fauna surveys
These surveys are conducted using the same procedures as the dolphin surveys. The Event Log and
Sightings Form are completed and then the data is collected on the mega fauna survey form (See
Appendix 6). This data includes:
1. Time
2. Vessel GPS position and general location
3. Depth
4. Beaufort
5. Tide
29
6. Species
7. Habitat
8. Number of individuals present
9. Photos taken, if possible
10. Any additional notes
3.4 Results and Discussion
During Expedition 064 there was a total of 132.38 hours of vessel survey effort. There were no
landbased surveys this expedition due to personnel numbers and focus on work in other areas of the
expedition.
Stingray was the primary research vessel for surveys from 0730 to 1200 and ET was used for shorter
afternoon surveys which ran from around 1400 to 1630. This search effort resulted in a total of 50
dolphin sightings of which 38 were also surveyed for behaviour, 36 photo-ID surveys (Figure 1) and
19 mega fauna surveys (Figure 2).
01020304050
Bnd Hbd
Unkno
wn
Bnd/H
bd
Dolphin species
freq
uenc
y
Dolphin sightings
Behavioursurveys(including secondgroup surveys)
Photo ID surveys
Figure 1: Number of dolphin sightings, behaviour surveys and photo-ID surveys 064
30
0
5
10
15
20
Turtles AfricanFish Eagle
Unknow nfish/Marlin?
Species
Freq
uenc
y Megafaunasightings
Megafaunasurveys
Figure 2 Mega fauna sightings and surveys 064
When sightings/hour of effort is calculated it shows the frequency of animals sighted: Bottlenose
dolphins 0.29; turtles 0.124; humpback dolphins 0.053; unknown dolphins 0.03; and other mega fauna
0.023 (See Figure 3). During these sightings the survey team, was on the following search efforts:
Dedicated Search (62 sightings, 89%), Casual watch (7, 10%) and Photo-ID (1, 1%). The total
number of photos taken this expedition was 1834; 1550 photo of bottlenose dolphins, 192 of
humpback dolphins, 78 of both species together and fourteen of mega fauna.
0.29
0.053
0.03
0.124
0.023
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Bnd
Hbd
Unk
Turtles
Other megafauna
Spec
ies
Sightings per hour of effort
SIghtings Index
Figure 3 Sightings/hour of effort 064
Of the two species of dolphin surveyed from the boat more bottlenose dolphins were sighted and
more dolphin behaviour surveys were completed on this species (see Figure 1 above). Bottlenose
dolphins were sighted 39 times (78% of total dolphin sightings), humpback dolphins were sighted
seven times (14 %) and unknown dolphin species were sighted four times (8% of sightings). Thirteen
dolphin sightings (26%) were seen due to the presence of tourist dhows with the animals. There were
no boats present during 34 of the 70 sightings (49%) and this was also the most common number of
31
boats present. The maximum number of boats during sightings was five and this only occurred during
one sighting.
3.4.1 Bottlenose Dolphins
In Expedition 064 the total number of bottlenose dolphin sightings was 39 and 30 (77%) of these
resulted in behaviour surveys. The total observation time for bottlenose dolphin during behaviour
surveys was approximately 5.8 hours; 83% of the total survey time (7 hours) for all dolphin species.
The average size of bottlenose dolphin groups, using best group size, from sightings was 3.8 with a
range of one to 45 dolphins. After behaviour surveys dolphin average group size was 8.6 with the
same range (see Table 2). The difference in group sizes is due to the fact that the survey team are
more able to estimate group size after getting closer to the animals and observing them for the ten
minute sample time than upon initial sighting.
Dolphin species
average group sizes (based
on best)
Bottlenose dolphin sighting
group size
Bottlenose dolphin Post-
behaviour survey group
size Average 3.8 8.6
Min 1 1 Max 45 45
Table 2 Average group size based on best
During expedition 064 behaviour surveys on first groups of bottlenose dolphins were all completed in
open water habitats excluding one that was conducted in a sandy bottom habitat. This assessment of
habitat is based on what can be observed from the boat so is not very accurate due to variability in
water visibility. As a result, the marine programme intends to map sightings on a marine chart of the
area to better assess the habitat of dolphin surveys.
Based on the Sighting Index for time of day (Figure 4) humpback dolphins were seen most often
between the hours of 0900 to 1100 and most sightings occurred in the morning.
32
0.000.050.100.150.200.250.300.350.400.45
07:00 -09:00
0901 -1100
11:00 -13:00
14:01 -16:00
16:00 -18:00
Time categories
Sigh
tings
/hou
r
Bottlenose dolphinsHumpback dolphinsUnknown dolphinsTurtles
Figure 4 Sightings per hour of effort for time of day
Bottlenose dolphins were surveyed in depths that ranged between 7.4 m to 22.2 m with most surveys
occurring in the 15 to 20 m depth zone (see Figure 5). Twenty two (57%) of all the surveys occurred
during ebb tides (Figure 6) this expedition. At present, the sample size is too small to make any
assumptions on tidal activities and dolphin presence.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
< 5 5 - < 10 10 - < 15 15 - < 20 20 - <25
Depth ranges
Num
ber o
f sur
veys
Figure 5 Distribution of survey depth in meters for Bottlenose dolphins
33
22
16
4
2
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%
100%
Percentage
Bottlenose Humpback
Species
FloodEbb
Figure 6: Percentage of sightings during different tidal states (this graphic is also referenced in the humpback discussion)
During behaviour surveys it was noted whether bottlenose dolphins reacted away from, toward or not
at all to the presence of the research vessel. A previous study of bottlenose dolphins has found that
there was statistically significant behaviour noted towards boat traffic, but in general they displayed
neutral response to boat traffic. Neutral response was defined as no apparent change in directional
movement, prior to and after vessel arrival (Gregory and Rowden, 2001). During this expedition
bottlenose dolphins reacted toward the research vessel three times (9%), away two times (6%) and
not at all during 30 (85%) of the 35 behaviour surveys.
During surveys behaviour states were evaluated and are displayed in figure seven. The primary
behaviour (> 50% of the animals spent > 50% of the time) most observed was travelling (11 surveys,
32%) followed by unknown (behaviour could not easily be assessed) (9, 26%), socialising (8, 24%)
and foraging (6, 18%).
34
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Foraging Socializing Travelling UnknownBehaviours
Figure 7 Behaviour states of Bottlenose dolphins for exp. 064
Photo-ID surveys were completed for 29 out of the 35 behaviour surveys. A total of 1550 photos were
taken of bottlenose dolphins. Work is currently underway to process the photos to assess the number
of recognisable individuals encountered and the re-sighting rate of those individuals, which will
indicate population size.
3.4.2 Humpback Dolphins
As with the Bottlenose dolphins work is currently underway to establish the number of recognisable
individuals sighted, and their re-sighting rates. Initial findings from data collected in the Shimoni area
suggest that a large percentage of encounters are re-sightings of previously seen individuals. This
could indicate a small population size of this species in the area. Humpbacks were sighted seven
times during this expedition and surveyed six times. The total time spent on behaviour surveys was
60 minutes; 14% of the overall time spent on observing dolphins (seven hours).
Humpback dolphins tend to occur in coastal water habitats, areas of shallow rocky reefs and estuaries
of the Indian Ocean and western Pacific (Ross et al. 1994). To date we have encountered the
humpback dolphins around Shimoni in near shore habitats and in small group sizes. Most of the
surveys were conducted in near shore habitats and 66% occurred during ebb tides (Figure 6 see
above in the bottle nose discussion).
Using best group size as an indicator the Humpback dolphin groups sighted this expedition had an
average group size upon sighting of 3.8 individuals, with a range of one to seven animals. After the
35
completion of the behaviour surveys the average group size was 8.1 with a range of one to ten
animals. As with the bottlenose dolphin surveys the marine programme intends to compare location
data with habitat data in a marine chart.
As can be seen in Figure 4 in the bottlenose dolphin results section the humpback dolphins were
seen the most from 1400 to 1600. Compared to the bottlenose dolphins the humpback sightings were
more evenly distributed throughout the day. All surveys were conducted in depths between nine and
23 meters with the most frequent occurring between five to ten meters (see Figure 8).
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
< 5 5 - < 10 10 - < 15 15 - < 20 20 - <25
Depth ranges
Num
ber o
f sur
veys
Figure 8 Depth of surveys for Humpback dolphin
In all the surveys there was no evidence of reaction towards or away from the research vessel.
Behaviour states were analysed for each survey and the results can be seen in figure 9. The most
common behaviour observed for Humpback dolphins was foraging. Due to the fact that there were
only seven surveys conducted on this species this analysis is not very significant.
36
0
1
2
3
Foraging Socializing Travelling UnknownBehaviours
Freq
uency Humpback
Humpback andBottlenose
Figure 9 Behaviour states of humpback and mixed groups in 064
Photo-ID surveys were completed for five out of the six behaviour surveys. A total of 192 photos were
taken of humpback dolphins. Work is also currently underway to process the photos to assess the
number of recognisable individuals encountered and the re-sighting rate of those individuals, which
will indicate their population size.
3.4.3 Humpback and bottlenose dolphin mixed groups
During this expedition two behaviour surveys were conducted with mixed groups of humpbacks and
bottlenose dolphins. The first mixed group occurred when photographs were being taken of a group of
bottlenose dolphins and some humpbacks joined the group. The second time a group of humpback
dolphins were being photographed when some bottlenose joined them. The total observation time for
mixed groups was twenty minutes (5% of the seven hours of total dolphin observation time). During
the two surveys the combined group sizes for the first and second surveys were ten and thirteen
respectively.
The first mixed group was surveyed during an ebb tide and the second during a flood tide. Both
surveys occurred in near shore habitats; the first at coral reef/shelf habitat and the second near the
shelf platform. Both surveys occurred between 0700 and 0900 and during both surveys the groups did
not react to the survey vessel. As can be seen in Figure 9 for both surveys of mixed species the
animals were socializing. During the first survey the bottlenose dolphins (initial survey species) were
foraging and started socializing when the humpbacks joined them. During the second mixed group
survey the humpback dolphins (first surveyed) were travelling and also started socializing when the
37
bottlenose joined them. From the photo-ID surveys of these two mixed groups 78 photographs for
analysis of individual presence were taken.
3.4.4 Marine Mega Fauna
The majority of mega fauna sighted during this expedition were unknown turtle species. Short
surfacing periods and environmental conditions make it difficult to identify turtles to species level in
the field. There were a total of 17 sightings of turtles during this expedition. In addition, one mega
fauna survey and one photo-Id survey were completed on an African Fish Eagle and one mega fauna
survey was of an unknown fish, possibly a marlin, which was initially thought to possibly be a shark.
3.5 Conclusions, recommendations and future work
Now that we are coming into 2007 GVI’s marine programme will continue to collect data to provide
information on the baseline ecology of the dolphin and mega fauna species encountered within the
KMMPA and surrounding waters. This information will form the foundations of a long-term cetacean
monitoring programme as well as providing valuable information that can be used to better implement
a management plan for both cetaceans, and the tourism based around them in the KMMPA.
Currently the study area is not sampled in a systematic way but rather most surveys have been
randomly placed, as routes, where it is best to survey based on weather conditions. To solve this, a
grid of transects will be designed and randomly placed over the study area. Transects will then be
randomly selected each day and completed, weather permitting. Such transect survey methods will
result in even coverage of the study area over subsequent expeditions. As of yet these transects have
not been put in place as the marine programme has to do further research in the proper placement of
transects in the research area.
Since this is the last expedition of 2006 the marine programme will be focussing on analysis of photos
to start developing the discovery curve. Currently, the bottlenose dolphins have been analysed up to
mid-February and there are forty recognized individuals. The Humpback dolphin photos have been
analysed up to August and there are approximately 22 recognized individuals. This expedition there
were 1500 more photos added to the photo-ID database resulting in just under 9000 photos to be
analysed for the whole year.
38
4. Terrestrial Research Programme 4.1 Introduction
The Eastern arc forests of Kenya and Tanzania are an internationally recognised biodiversity hotspot.
They support high levels of endemism and important populations of species that have wide-ranging
but fragmented distributions and so remain vulnerable. Tanzania’s Eastern Arc mountains for
example are renowned for their communities of endemic amphibians, reptiles and mammals. The
coastal forests of Kenya form the northern fringe of the Eastern Arc forests, of which much less is
known, but which represent an important and unique yet diminishing forest habitat.
The coastal forests around Shimoni and Wasini Island form a thin strip of ‘coral rag forest’, officially
labelled Northern Zanzibar-Inhambane Lowland Coastal Forest. This forest zone is found along
coastal areas of Kenya, Tanzania and Somalia, formed on old coral reef exposed by falling sea levels,
leaving limestone rock and shallow soils. This in conjunction with salinity levels and the coastal
climate influences the plant community that is found and the structure of the forest, for example
favouring shallow root systems that reduce stability.
Study sites: The research is conducted in Shimoni forest on the Shimoni peninsula, positioned
between Shimoni village on the western side and the coast on the southern and eastern side (Figure
10, circled in black). The location is situated between the coordinates 04º64.900'S, 39º38.600'E and
04º64.300'S, 39º40.300'E.
39
Figure 10 Research site of Shimoni forest circled in black
Shimoni forest represents an area of important indigenous coastal forest, but is currently threatened
by resource extraction and clearing of land, a situation that may be exacerbated by the continuing
development of Shimoni village, particularly for tourism. The area of forest was selected for
biodiversity research primarily because at present it still forms a viable area for biodiversity and in
particular supports an important population of the Angolan Black & White Colobus (Colobus
angolensis palliatus). Discussions with community based organisations in Shimoni highlighted the
importance of the forest to the wider community and in particular Shimoni Conservation Youth Project
were keen to seek protection and sustainable management. As a result we have developed our
terrestrial research programme to support local stakeholders. On a more practical level the forest is
readily accessible and we are logistically able to support a long-term wide ranging biodiversity survey
and monitoring of the area.
3.2 Aims
The aims of the terrestrial research programme are as follows;
To establish a grid system of 6 east-west transects for access, mapping and long-term
monitoring.
40
To conduct vegetation and regeneration surveys to assess biodiversity, species composition
and regeneration potential under different levels of disturbance.
To conduct disturbance surveys to assess and monitor levels of resource use including
extraction of poles and timber in addition to other forms of anthropogenic activity.
To conduct primate community surveys to assess population density, distribution, habitat use
and demography.
To gather additional biodiversity data on the fauna through recording of casual observations.
To support the Shimoni Youth Conservation Project in their petition for community
management of forest resources, building capacity within the community for responsible
resource use and monitoring.
To support the Shimoni Slave Cave Committee in the development of their nature trail,
building capacity within the community to access tourism revenue from responsible
management of natural resources.
These aims will contribute towards our objectives of assessing the biodiversity of the coastal forest in
the Shimoni area in support of long term sustainable management of forest resources and capacity
building amongst local communities, supporting national and international conservation of threatened
habitats and species.
3.3 Methods
3.3.1 Line Transect Sampling
The overall methodology for the terrestrial research programme is structured around a transect grid
system utilising West-East transects. Parallel transects are spaced 200 m apart, facilitating a 100 m
survey distance on each side of the transect. This follows the Tropical Ecology, Assessment and
Monitoring (TEAM) Initiative Primate Monitoring Protocol.
Transects are divided into 50m sections to enable the survey data to be categorised more accurately
and facilitate distribution mapping. A South-North ‘spine’ is used to ensure the 200m separation
between parallel transects and aid accessibility.
The transect lines need to be straight and relatively easy to walk to enable the surveys to be
conducted. Transects are laid following a compass bearing as it has been found that use of GPS
equipment is unreliable. Disturbance is minimised where practical by utilising ‘off sets’ – where it is not
practical to continue the transect line on an Easterly compass bearing, measured segments of the
41
transect are staggered to the North or South of the bearing to bypass obstacles before resuming the
original bearing. Transect lines are marked with yellow plastic tags at 5-10m intervals for recognition
in the field. Labelled double tags are used to indicate 50m sections and triple tags used to indicate a
perpendicular change of direction or ‘off-sets’.
3.3.2 Primate Community Survey
The primate community surveys are based on distance sampling methods, utilising two nominated
observers whilst additional members of the team walk behind ensuring that they do not draw attention
to any primate groups that the nominated observers have not identified. This maintains consistency in
the effort for each survey.
Primate surveys are conducted along one transect at a time, during the mornings when primates are
more likely to be active. Transects are walked at a steady pace and all primates must be spotted from
the East-West transects. Perpendicular North-South segments of ‘off-sets’ are not included during
surveys.
For all groups of primates spotted (a solitary individual counted as a ‘group’) the sighting distance (the
distance from the observer on the transect line to the geometric centre of each group of primates) is
estimated and recorded. Distance sampling analysis utilises the perpendicular distance from the
transect line to the geometric centre of observed groups. To calculate the perpendicular distance the
sighting angle is also recorded from the transect line at the position of the observer to the centre of
the observed group using a compass.
Distance sampling requires a number of assumptions to be met including random distribution of the
surveyed objects. In order to meet this assumption for social species such as primates, groups rather
than individuals are recorded. It is also necessary to be confident that any group with a perpendicular
distance of 0m from the transect line has a 100% probability of detection, an assumption that we are
satisfied we are able to meet.
The behaviour of the primate group when first observed is recorded along with primate species and
group size. Where possible, time is taken to identify individuals in each observed group by sex and
age class; 0-3 months (‘infant’), 3-6 months (‘juvenile’) and > 6 months (‘sub-adult’ / ‘adult’). Age
classes were selected on the basis of pelt colouration enabling confidence in accurate categorisation
rather than attempting to estimate by relative body size.
The survey duration (start and finish times) and weather conditions are also recorded for each survey
to assess comparative effort and environmental conditions between surveys.
42
3.3.3 Primate Behavioural Observations
Behavioural surveys of Angolan Black & White Colobus can be used to investigate habitat use, group
structure and interaction, and through habituation support the development of tourism initiatives to
derive sustainable income from the forest wildlife.
Preliminary behavioural observations of Angolan Black and White Colobus have been conducted as a
precursor to developing a behavioural research protocol.
A protocol was trialled during this expedition, using paired observers, one of whom continually
observes a focal primate individual whilst the other records observations on the data sheet. A
preliminary ethogram was designed with behavioural definitions and designated codes for recording,
to ensure consistency and comparability between observers.
The trialled methodology requires the observer to state a behaviour category, posture category and
position category. Behavioural categories were deliberately broad for the purpose of this pilot study
and designed to cover the majority of behavioural activities expected based on preliminary
observations during previous expeditions. Posture categories relate to the physical posture of the
primate and position relates to the habitat layer they occupy.
Observations were conducted on focal individuals selected for ease of viewing, and data recording
only initiated after a period of at least 10 minutes to reduce bias caused by the arrival of the observer
pair. Observations were recorded at 5 minute intervals, as a focal individual scan. That is, a primate
individual was selected, based on ease of observation and tracked or as long as that individual
remained visible. If an individual moved out of view and observers were not able to confidently identify
the same individual upon reappearing, the survey was ended. There was no time limit set for
observations.
3.3.4 Vegetation & Regeneration Survey
The vegetation in the forest is important not only for the primate community; the local human
community makes use of the natural resources. The vegetation survey is used to gather information
about the composition of the forest including species diversity, maturity and canopy profile. This
provides data on plant species composition and recruitment, available resources for human
populations and habitat information to compliment primate and other faunal surveys.
43
Species identification is done by the assistant of the botanist attached to the National Museums of
Kenya Coastal Forest Conservation Unit, a member of SYCP as a result of capacity building with the
organisation and terrestrial officers. Labelled specimens are collected in the field where a confident
identification can not be made, for later identification. Only woody vegetation is surveyed and
identified. Tree size is measured by Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) following UK forestry protocol.
Vegetation and regeneration surveys are conducted in a 2 m corridor running parallel to the North of
transects. Woody vegetation <1 cm DBH is sampled in a randomly selected 10m sub-section.
Random selection is made by rolling dice (1 = 0-10 m, 2 = 10-20 m subsection etc. A 6 requires re-
rolling). Specimens are identified and categorised as ‘small’ and recorded within height categories of
the stem as follows; 0-50 cm, 51-100 cm, >100 cm.
Woody vegetation ≥1 cm DBH is surveyed along the entire length of each 50 m section. These are
identified and recorded with their DBH. Woody vegetation that has between DBH of 5-15 cm is
categorised as ‘poles’ if the trunk has 2 m of relative straightness, identifying it as potential resource
for construction. Woody vegetation >15 cm DBH is categorised as ‘timber’, identifying it as potential
resource for timber.
For woody vegetation categorised as ‘timber’ the canopy height is calculated. This is done using a
clinometer to measure canopy angle to the top of the canopy above the tree base with the distance
from the angle reading to the base of the tree measured and the height from the ground to the angle
reading. The canopy radius is measured by calculating the average of the distance from the outer
margin of the canopy in the four cardinal directions (North, South, East and West) to the base of the
tree.
Vegetation sampling was initially conducted on every fourth section moving East to West along each
transect to maximise the total area of the forest sampled. However, due to time constraints this was
increased to every eighth section to ensure widespread sampling during the course of the expedition.
3.3.5 Habitat Survey
A basic measure of ground cover and canopy cover, and additionally canopy height is recorded in
order to describe the forest profile and compliment faunal surveys and distribution patterns.
At the start of each 50 m section a 1 m2 quadrat is placed directly to the northeast of the marker. In
the quadrat an estimation of the percentage cover (to the nearest 1%) at ground level of the following
categories is recorded:
44
exposed rock
bare earth
leaf litter
woody vegetation
non woody vegetation
other (noted)
Estimations of the canopy cover and canopy height are recorded for every 10 m of each 50 m section
enabling the five recordings to be averaged for the section. Estimates are made by looking straight up
through inverted binoculars, estimating the percentage of the area blocked by tree canopy foliage and
branches, to the nearest 5 percent. Measurements of canopy height are taken at the point where the
canopy cover is taken. Canopy height is measured using a clinometer to measure canopy angle to the
top of the canopy. The horizontal distance over which the canopy angle is recorded, is measured and
the height of the canopy from the ground is calculated taking into account the eye height of the
observer.
Ground cover surveys had been completed during previous expeditions, but canopy surveys were
repeated in order to assess seasonal variation.
3.3.6 Butterfly Community Survey
Butterflies (Order: Lepidoptera) offer an excellent indicator taxon of plant species diversity, habitat
diversity and disturbance levels. This expedition canopy traps were trialled as a pilot study for
surveying of the forest butterfly community.
Canopy traps are constructed of fine netting sewn in to a tube and closed at the top, approximately
1m in height and 30cm diameter. A plastic base is suspended about 5cm from the bottom to allow
butterflies entry. In general butterflies will fly upwards and so are unlikely to escape. Mashed banana
that has been allowed to ferment for at least 3 days is used to bait the traps in a plastic dish secured
to the bottom plate. Traps are raised over branches in the canopy and suspended on ropes so that
they can be lowered when checked. Traps are baited and left for approximately 24 hours before
checking. Three canopy traps are used simultaneously on each trapping day.
Details of each trap are recorded including location and trap height, measured with a tape measure
between the bottom plate and the ground. Weather conditions are recorded on each day that the
traps were checked as this is likely to affect butterfly activity and hence number of captures.
45
Butterflies caught in the traps are removed by gently but firmly holding the thorax and digital
photographs of the upperside and underside of each individual taken for later identification using
Torben B Larsen’s ‘Butterflies of Kenya and their Natural History’ (1996).
3.3.7 Casual Observations of Other Fauna
During all other surveys, records are also made on dedicated data sheets of other Fauna observed
and identified in the field, noting species with confidence of identification, location, habitat, group size
and other applicable notes. Indirect observations of animals such as tracks or dung are also recorded
as indicators of presence. This expedition the amount of time, or effort, spent in the forest when
casual observations were applicable was also recorded.
3.4 Results and Discussion
3.4.1 Line Transect Sampling
The laying of transects was completed over the previous three expeditions and due to the time
required to travel to the furthest areas of the study area in Shimoni forest it is not considered practical
to increase the study area through the formation of further transects.
Table 3 summarises the total number of sections and lengths of each transect. Transect 1 was
initiated 100 m North of the southern coastal edge of the forest area, and subsequent transects
initiated 200 m North of each other. Although a total of 20 sections have been laid to the West on
Transect 3, safety concerns about the terrain resulted in only 16 of the sections being utilised for
surveys this expedition. Therefore while a total of 11.15km of transect is available for surveys, only
10.95km was considered for surveys this expedition and due to time constraints only 10.05km was
actually utilised, the Western half of Transect 6 also not utilised this expedition.
Table 3 Summary of transect grid system in Shimoni forest
Transect Sections West of
North-South spine
Length West
(m)
Sections East of
North-South spine
Length East (m)
1 0 0 17 850
2 8 400 26 1300
3 20 1000 32 1600
4 11 550 32 1600
46
5 8 400 31 1550
6 7 350 31 1550
Total 54 2700 169 8450
3.4.2 Primate Community Survey
11 Primate community surveys were undertaken on 10 separate days and with two observers a total
of 29 man hours of effort was spent on primate community surveys. Primate surveys were undertaken
on all Westerly and Easterly sections of Transects 1 – 5. Time constraints prevented surveys being
conducted on Transect 6 this expedition.
We recorded two species of primate as follows: 7 groups of Angolan Black and White Colobus and 2
groups of Syke’s monkey during primate surveys this expedition. The results are summarised below in
Table 4.
Table 4 Summary of primates observed during surveys in expedition 064
Angolan Black & White
Colobus
Sykes Monkey
Area surveyed (km²) 1.84 1.84
Number of primate groups 7 2
Number of primate individuals 28 6
The data set on observations recorded at different distances, necessary for distance sampling
analysis can be added to from this expedition. Distance categories are in 10 m groups, Figure 11
shows distance categories of observed groups of colobus for this expedition combined with previous
expeditions.
47
Figure 11 Frequency of perpendicular distances at which colobus groups are observed. Expedition 064 data has been added to previous data set
Colobus group sightings
0
5
10
15
20
25
0<10 10<20 20<30 30<40 40<50 50<60 60<70 70<80 80<90 90<100
Distance (in m)
# gr
oups
Exp 064Exp 061+062+063
Primate groups for primate community surveys were fewer than in previous expeditions, 7 colobus
during 064 compared a cumulative 74 over three previous expeditions. As with the previous
expedition when they had also been fewer, it may be the continued and consistent rainfall has
reduced their activity and as such made them less easy to spot. The rainfall has supported growth in
the forest and it may be that increased canopy density, up to 79.7% this expedition, has made
detection more difficult. Alternatively and abundance of food resources may have increased their
dispersal with smaller group sizes being harder to detect.
The Sykes encounters remain too small a sample to start analysing.
3.4.3 Primate Behavioural Observations
During this expedition 1 hour 40 minutes of behavioural observations were conducted during one day
on Angolan Black & White Colobus as a pilot for the methodology. Five individuals were observed in
total for between 5 and 25 minutes, at the Westerly end of Transect 3, close to Shimoni village.
Individuals included an adult male, adult females and a sub adult. Resting, feeding and travelling
behaviours were all observed in the middle of a cloudy day. There is not enough data for any
worthwhile analyses, but amendments to the ethogram and protocol in selecting troops and focal
individuals were evident.
48
3.4.4 Vegetation & Regeneration Survey
During this expedition the availability of the assistant of the botanist, attached to the National
Museums of Kenya Coastal Forest Conservation Unit enabled vegetation and regeneration surveys to
be continued from earlier in the year.
A total of 50 hours and 30 minutes effort was spent on vegetation surveys, over 13 days, on 29
sections across all 6 transects, distributed as shown in Table 5 below. Transects 1 and 2 were
sampled most frequently (every 4th section), the remaining sections less frequently. With the
exception of transect 5 with only one section sampled, transects were sampled evenly from West to
East. Transect 1 had already been sampled up to section 8 in previous expeditions.
Table 5 Sampling frequency of sections for vegetation and regeneration surveys during
expedition 064
Transect Number Sections Surveyed Total Number of Sections
1 8, 12, 16 3
2 -8, -4, 1, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 28 9
3 -16, 0, 8, 16, 24, 31 6
4 -4, 4, 13, 20, 28 5
5 4 1
6 -7, 0, 8, 16, 24 5
All transects 29
A total area of 2900m² was surveyed during this expedition for woody vegetation ≥ 1cm DBH, and
480m² surveyed for woody vegetation < 1cm DBH.
A total of 3911 woody plants were recorded, 1110 woody plants ≥ 1cm DBH, with an average density
of 0.38 specimens per m², and 2072 woody plants < 1cm DBH, with a corresponding average density
of 4.32 specimens per m².
A total of 70 different species were recorded, with 49 species represented by specimens > 5 cm DBH.
Representation analysis can be used to indicate whether the sampling frequency is sufficient to
capture the majority of species present or whether more species could be expected were the
sampling to be increased. Figure 12 below shows the representation analysis from expedition 064. If
the discovery curve flattens out it indicates the majority of species have been recorded, however the
figure indicates that the discovery curve is still rising.
49
Figure 22 Representation analysis of plant species discovery during vegetation sampling in 2006
Representation analyses
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33
Researched area (x100 m 2)
Cum
ulat
ive
# sp
ecie
s
3.4.5 Ground and canopy cover surveys
Ground cover surveys were not conducted this expedition having been completed previously in the
year.
A total of 25 hours and 14 minutes effort was spent on canopy surveys, over 9 days, covering 140
sections across transects 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Time constraints prevented all sections across all transects
being surveyed.
The average canopy cover for a section varied from 9% to 96%, the average being 79.7%.
In Figure 13 below, the average canopy cover of every sampled section across the five transects is
represented as a point. A polynomial trend line of the second order (parabola) is fitted through the
points showing the trend of the canopy cover following the transects. The flatter the line of the
parabola the more even the canopy cover along the transect. The lines indicate reduced canopy
cover closer settlements and that the densest canopy is in the centre of the forest corresponding with
the theory of influence of human settlement closer to the forest and the influence of environmental
conditions along the coast line. Transects 1 and 5 show steep slopes, explained on transect one by
the shorter range of data (sections 0 to 17 only), and on transect 5 by a limited number of Westerly
50
sections (7). Transect 3 has been subject to the highest degree of recent disturbance on the Westerly
sections (clear-felling for agriculture) and shows correspondingly low percentages of canopy cover.
Figure 33 Average canopy cover on sections sampled across all transects, with polynomial trend lines for each transect
Canopy cover
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Section #
Cov
erag
e (in
%)
T1T2T3T4T5Poly. (T1)Poly. (T2)Poly. (T3)Poly. (T4)Poly. (T5)
51
Average canopy height was also calculated across the same sections and the results are shown in
Figure 14 below.
Figure 44 Average canopy height on sections sampled across 5 transects during expedition 064
Canopy heights
0
5
10
15
20
25
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Section #
Heig
ht (i
n m
) T1T2T3T4T5
3.4.6 Butterfly Community Survey
A total of 29 trapping days (where one trapping day is counted as one trap baited for a 24 hour
period) were undertaken this expedition over 11 separate days, at 3 different sites, 2 days at Shimoni
Reef Lodge in the gardens close to the coast (only one trap was used), 3 days in the Shimoni Slave
Cave forest and 6 days at section 3 on transect 4 in Shimoni forest.
One species, Charaxes brutus, was caught at Shimoni Reef Lodge, over two trapping days. A total of
2 specimens were caught.
One species, Charaxes brutus, was caught at Shimoni Slave Cave forest, over a total of 9 trapping
days. A total of 1 specimen was caught. However on 8 out of the 9 trapping days, the traps had been
interfered with and the bait was absent.
Five species, Bicyclus safitza safitza, Charaxes brutus, Charaxes varanes vologeses, Eurytela dryope
angulata and Melanitis leda, were caught on transect 4 in Shimoni forest, over a total of 18 trapping
52
days. A total of 72 specimens were caught. All specimens identified are awaiting verification by the
African Butterfly Research Institute based on the digital photographs.
Charaxes brutus was present in all three localities and trapped consistently between traps and over
trapping days. It is a powerful flyer, widespread and known to be attracted to the bait. Melanitis leda
was trapped only in Shimoni forest, but was the most commonly trapped species at this location. All
specimens exhibited wet season forms of the underside of wings. Bicyclus saitza safitza was only
provisionally identified as there are a number of similar species within the genus. It was also caught
regularly but only in Shimoni forest, and was more commonly caught in the lower trap in more dense
vegetation. It is also known to be attracted to the bait. Charaxes varanes vologeses and Eurytela
dryope angulata both trapped on only one occasion, again both in Shimoni forest.
The butterfly community survey pilot proved successful with the exception of the Shimoni Slave Cave
forest where it appears Syke’s monkeys regularly raided the traps for bait. This problem was not
observed in Shimoni forest where Syke’s monkeys are also present. Anecdotal observations suggest
that there were consistent differences between the 3 traps in Shimoni forest in terms of the relative
abundance of species trapped, despite their proximity, within 10m of each other. More detailed habitat
data for each trap may reveal more specific habitat preferences.
3.4.7 Casual Wildlife Observations
A total of 68 hours and 8 minutes effort was spent on casual observations of fauna during this
expedition, over 18 days, covering all 6 transects.
Confident identifications of the four new species were recorded this expedition; bushbuck
(Tragelaphus scriptus delameri), African pied hornbill (Tokus fasiatus), Dark-backed weaver (Ploceus
bicolor kersteni) and the running frog (Kassina senegalensis). In addition two previously unrecorded
amphibians only identified to genera were recorded this expedition; Bufo sp and Ptychadena sp.
Furthermore, indirect signs indicated the presence of the crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata).
A total of 14 different non-primate animal species were identified through casual observations this
expedition.
3.5 Conclusions, Recommendations and Future Work
53
Primate community surveys this expedition resulted in relatively low encounters of primates, and it
may be that earlier or more frequent surveys should be undertaken, or a larger area covered on a
given day. However it may be that seasonal differences in vegetation density have made detection
more difficult or that abundant food resources have resulted in dispersal of populations. Observations
of colobus utilising garden habitats in Shimoni more often than during previous expeditions would
support this theory. Behavioural surveys of primates would be of value in investigating seasonal
dispersal and habitat use.
It is hoped that with the development of a standard behavioural survey, seasonal activity may be
assessed in support of the primate community surveys. A pilot study of a behavioural survey protocol
suggests a revision of the ethogram is necessary, to enable it to be more comprehensive and at the
same time less ambiguous in behavioural definitions. The 5 minute focal individual scan worked well
enabling accurate assessment and recording of behaviour at the designated intervals, however
selection of focal groups and individuals need to be re-assessed and possibly more habituation
undertaken to reduce bias caused by the presence of observers and to allow individuals to be tracked
for longer periods of time.
Vegetation and regeneration surveys progressed significantly this expedition and the decreased
sampling frequency of sections enabled a greater diversity of forest habitats and areas to be sampled.
However the representation analysis suggests that further sampling is required to be confident that
the biodiversity of plant species has been satisfactorily sampled. Transect 5 remains under
represented in the sampling of sections and this should be targeted in future.
Canopy surveys continue to provide valuable data on seasonality of canopy density in support of
primate surveys, it is unfortunate that due to time limitations, an incomplete data set was collected this
expedition. It is recommended that average canopy cover data be recorded over the course of next
year, repeated for each section on each expedition, but that average canopy height data not be
repeated on sections already surveyed.
Trapping of butterlies should be continued in Shimoni throughout the course of next year to ensure
representative sampling of the different habitats present within the forest and to assess seasonal
variation in the butterfly community. Anecdotally it was also observed that a large number of butterfly
species present in the forest did not frequent the traps. This is likely to be either that they are
habitually low flyers and do not ascend to the height of the traps or that they are not attracted by the
bait. Therefore complimenting the canopy traps with other methods of surveying the butterfly
community, such as sweep netting should be considered.
54
Casual observations continue to reveal greater faunal diversity in the forest and the presence of the
bushbuck in the colonizing bush vegetation on transect 3 was of particular interest, bearing in mind its
proximity (about 50m) to houses in Shimoni village.
Future work is summarised as follows:
Continue primate community surveys along transects in Shimoni but with the aim of
simultaneous surveys over all 6 transects. It has also been requested within KWS that forested
land at the KWS Shimoni head quarters also supports Angolan Black & White colobus and this
should be investigated next expedition.
Revision and further trialing of primate behavioural surveys should be undertaken in
conjunction with a conscious habituation process.
Continue with evenly distributed sampling of sections for vegetation and regeneration surveys
until representation analysis indicates a leveling of the discovery curve.
Continue seasonal repetition of canopy density surveys to support primate community surveys
Standardise butterfly community trapping protocol, increase habitat data collection for traps,
and continue trapping in different habitats and seasons within Shimoni forest and eventually
other forest areas. Pilot complimentary methods of sampling the butterfly population such as
sweep netting.
Continue casual observations of non-primate fauna and trial protocols for targeting different
taxa to accelerate the process of collecting biodiversity data.
55
4 Community Development Programme
4.1 Introduction
At the request of KWS, GVI’s Community Development Programme is focused on the community of
Mkwiro Village. We aim to assist KWS in their objective of capacity building within the community, to
access tourism revenue bought in by the KMMPA and to improve the socio-economic status of the
villagers.
Mkwiro has a population of approximately 1400, with around 200 children attending Mkwiro Primary
School, and 26 resident boys in the Al-Hanan Orphanage. The village remains a relatively isolated
and very traditional rural Islamic community, with a mainly sedentary population. Traditional fishing is
essentially still the main form of economic income, but is supplemented by seasonal small scale
arable farming, livestock keeping and other small scale activities such as traditional woven crafts and
supplying the shell trade.
With the creation of the KMMPA, the community lost many some fishing rights within the area, and
the perception amongst the community is that they have yet to see the compensatory economic
benefit from tourism. There is one tourist operator based in Mkwiro, operating diving, snorkelling and
dolphin-watching tours within the KMMPA. Tourists with this operator are brought to Mkwiro for lunch
at private facilities, offered a short tour of the village, but very few stay overnight.
In Mkwiro, the priority for almost every community group within the village continues to be the
adequate provision of fresh water. By supporting the local economy, we aim to contribute to the
village community fund established in expedition 061. Among other things such as funding Madras
teachers, this fund will also help to facilitate the people of Mkwiro in restoring their water storage
tanks with their own funding. GVI has assisted members of the community to develop funding
proposals for the water catchment area and tanks.
GVI also continues to support many community organisations, identifying and developing tourist
activities and small scale industries that could provide an alternative income for the village. These
activities include a village tour, apiculture, recycling plastic bottles and flip flops, marketing of crafts
and a small scale garment industry. A percentage of the revenue gained from these developments will
continue to be directed into the community fund, and has once again already contributed to a
substantial amount being raised.
56
Both adult and primary school education lessons are delivered by GVI in the community. Villagers
have been very keen to learn these new practical skills, and numbers remained relatively high in
comparison to previous expeditions. A three week holiday program consisting of environmental
education and craft activities was also implemented for Mkwiro Primary School students.
Additional activities incorporated into the community section of the project included beach cleans,
white washing the inside of the school, tidying the site of Mwaozi Tumbe’s grave, and supporting the
launch of the ‘Year of the Dolphin’.
4.2 Timetable of Activities
4.2.1 School Program Timetable
As shown in Table 6, the ten week period was broken up into several different sections including:
Training – 3 weeks
School time - 4 weeks of lessons
Holiday time – 3 week holiday program
Table 6 School programme during expedition 064
Weeks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 T T S S S T S H H H T = Training, H = Holiday Programme, S = School Term
In the next expedition, the EM’s will have the opportunity to work in the school for 8 weeks as shown
in Table 7.
Table 7 Expected school programme during expedition 071
Weeks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 T T S S S S S S S S T = Training, H = Holiday Programme, S = School Term
4.2.2 Weekly analysis of activities
Community development activities fall broadly into four categories:
Mkwiro Primary School lessons
Adult Education lessons
57
Orphanage sessions
Community Group development
The weekly timetable is scheduled so that each group within the expedition participates in each of the
various categories during the week. During expedition 064 activities were run four days a week, from
Mondays to Thursdays, a change from previous expeditions where the community development
programme had been run over a six day week. This program worked well, as all standards in the
school were still able to receive at least two lessons a week, orphanage sessions were conducted
twice a week, and adult education was held on alternate days. This ensured that activities were
balanced for each group of EMs, and there was continuity for both EMs and students.
With community groups and initiatives, each with numerous members, it was beneficial in previous
expeditions to remain flexible in our approach to setting up meetings each week. However, time
constraints during previous expeditions had meant that a limited amount of time was spent on these
projects. In expedition 064 dedicated time was actually set aside each afternoon for working on
community development projects and interest groups. This meant there was a lot more time to work
on these areas, and expedition members appeared to feel more ownership of the projects.
Lessons were allocated so that each team taught the same two English classes twice a week. In
expedition 064 pupils from standard eight were offered tutorials by expedition members in the
afternoon, rather then lessons during school hours. This was beneficial in the lead up to exams as
they were able to get individual help in the areas they were concerned about, and the use of a series
of KCPE exam question and answers books in Science, Maths, English and Social Studies also
facilitated their sessions.
Table 8 outlines the general weekly schedule for each of the GVI groups in the community during
school time. During the two weeks when the satellite camp was being run, community activities were
only held on Tuesdays and Thursdays. These particular days were chosen so that adult education
would not be affected by the satellite camp and continuity would be maintained.
Day Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Group 1 1 2 2 3 3
AM Mkwiro
School
(5 & 6)
Mkwiro
School
(5 & 6)
Mkwiro
School
(7 & 4)
Mkwiro
School
(7 & 4)
OFF OFF
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Early Afternoon
Std 8
Tutorial
Community
Group
Work
Women’s
Education
(14-16:00)
Std 8 Tutorial
Community
Group Work
Community
Group Work OFF
Late Afternoon
Orphanage Community
Group Work Orphanage
Men’s
Education
(16.15-
18.15)
Table 8 Weekly timetable for community development programme during expedition 064
Table 9 below outlines weekly activities during the three weeks of the holiday programme in
expedition 064. The holiday program in utilised the Pan African Conservation Education material and
DVD’s, as well as the Blue Planet DVD to construct activities and lessons plans on issues
surrounding communities living near the ocean, and general marine ecology.
Living by the Ocean – harmful (dynamite, seine net) fishing practises versus sustainable ones
(gill nets, fish traps), alternative sources of income to fishing, and protecting the marine
environment including mangroves.
Blue Planet DVD
Turtles – an introduction to Turtle ecology, morphology, species ID and conservation.
The Holiday program in expedition 064 was well advertised but numbers attending were variable from
day to day. Although the schedule was timetabled to target different levels on different days, in reality
the classes were often a mix of levels, as some younger and older students wanted to participate
each day, and we did not turn away students eager to learn during their school holiday break.
Table 9 Holiday programme timetable during expedition 064
Day Tim
e Week One Week Two
Week Three
Monday AM Std 6: Living Ocean off Std 6: Turtles
PM Community
Development off Community Development
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Tuesday AM Std 5: Living Ocean
Std 4, 5 & 6: Blue
Planet Std 5: Turtles
PM Adult Education Adult Education Adult Education
Wednesday AM Std 7 + 8: Living Ocean off Std 7 + 8: Turtles
PM Community
Development off Community Development
Thursday AM Std 4: Living Ocean Std 7 & 8: Blue Planet Std 4: Turtles
PM Adult Education Adult Education Adult Education
Once again it was observed that during the holiday sessions students were not as punctual, as similar
to the previous holiday programme, we would often start with a class of 3 or 4 students and end up
with a full class by the end of the session. In expedition 063 two hour lessons were conducted in the
morning and in the afternoon, however in 064 we only ran one two hour session each morning to
allow more time for community development issues in the afternoon. Also, as it was the end of the
school year, we were advised that students may not be as willing to attend. During school time we are
limited to 35 minute lessons, so these two hour sessions were a welcome change for both EM’s and
students, and resulted in some relaxed sessions in which much was achieved.
Table 10 below summarises the total amount of time spent on scheduled activities per week during
expedition 064. It is important to remember that this figure does not reflect the true nature of the work
effort put in, as it does not show the large number of hours spent preparing lessons, creating
resources, and also the meetings held on a flexible weekly basis with community members and
groups each week.
Table 10 Summary of time allocated to community development activities during expedition 064
Actual teaching time only,
excluding preparation
Primary
Education
Orphanage
Adult
Education
Community
Development Projects
Week One (training) 30 min 1.5 hrs 2 hrs -
60
Week two (training) 30 min 1.5 hrs 2 hrs -
Week Three (3 days school + Eid)
6 hrs 3 hrs 2 hrs 20 hrs
Week Five (sat camp, 2 days school)
4.5 hrs 1.5 hrs 4 hrs 8 hrs
Week Six (training+ week off)
30 min 1.5 hrs 4 hrs 8 hrs
Week Seven (Exams + 3 days school & prize giving)
6.5 hrs 9 hrs 4 hrs 20 hrs
Week Eight (4 days holidays)
8 hrs - 4 hrs 16 hrs
Week Nine (sat camp, 2 days holidays)
4 hrs - 4 hrs 8 hrs
Week Ten (4 days holiday) 2 hrs - 2 hrs 28 hrs
Total 32.5 18 28 108
The number of time spent in primary education dropped by approximately 20hours, this was partly
due to time off base during terrestrial research. However the extra tuition offered to the Standard
Eight Class in the lead up to exams, and long sessions during the school holidays helped to alleviate
this. Both students and expedition members appeared to thoroughly enjoy and benefit from the after
school tutorials. Attendance by EMs was not always high, as it was optional, but the majority of the
time they chose to use their time in this way and this should again be offered in expedition 07-1, for
the new standard eight class.
Orphanage hours also dropped slightly as with only two groups we did not visit them as much as
pervious expeditions, however extra sessions in the weekends and in the lead up to exams to practise
their prize giving performance boosted the number of hours spent in the orphanage.
As recommended in the expedition report 063, after consultation with the women adult education for
the ladies was changed from a Saturday to a Tuesday. Attendance at the women’s classes remained
high even with the change of schedule. The drop in hours in adult education from previous
expeditions can be attributed to the fact that adult education was delivered twice a week this
expedition as opposed to three timetabled lessons per week.
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In expedition 071 if three adult education lessons are timetabled in per week, it is recommended to
use the third adult education session as a beginners only session.
4.2.3 Daily Activities
Table 11 below outlines the typical structure of a day spent on community.
Table 11 Daily timetable of activities for community development programme during expedition 064
Time Activity
7.00-
8.50
EM’s revise their lesson plans for the morning, completing materials or resources required
to implement the lessons smoothly, and ensuring all involved know their roles and
responsibilities during the lesson.
8.50-
12.30
Lessons are delivered at Mkwiro School. After each lesson there is review and reflection
time, assessing what worked and what could have been improved in the lesson. Lessons
are then planned ahead for the next day or next week’s lessons.
12.00-
13.00 Lunch and free time
13.00-
14.00 Community Development projects
14.00-
15.00
Adult Education lesson planning/and or delivery (Tues) + Community Development
Projects
15.00-
16.00 Community Development Work and Std Eight Tutorials
16.15-
18.30 Adult Education Lessons delivered at Mkwiro School (Thurs) or Community Development
15.00-
18.30 Orphanage sessions (2x a week).+ Community Development
The current timetable seems to work relatively well, with most days in the community being very full.
In previous expeditions it was recommended to implement remedial reading with school students in
the afternoons, and to explore the potential of EMs being utilised as Teacher Aides in school during
the afternoons. Teachers at Mkwiro Primary school who were approached about the idea of teacher
aides seemed very open to the idea, and have promised to organise a list of students who we would
focus our in-class attention on. We are still waiting for the list of students who would be targeted to
receive remedial reading attention.
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However, we would need to be wary about initiating these early afternoon programs. The mornings
spent on community are often very energy demanding, and the late afternoons and evenings right up
can also be busy and tiring. It may be that any early afternoon activities such as extra tuition in class
or remedial reading, would have to remain optional. This will undoubtedly result in variable numbers
of EMs being available in the school in the early afternoons, so should be discussed very carefully
and thoroughly with Mkwiro Primary school teachers before being initiated.
Daily Timetable Recommendations
Investigate EM response to additional early afternoon activities and Mkwiro teacher response
to these activities if they were to be optional, resulting in variable numbers in the classes each
day.
4.3 Teaching English as a Foreign Language 4.3.1 Introduction
Permission was granted by the Kwale District Education Department early in 2006 to work during
school hours in Mkwiro Primary School. Part of the agreement in being allowed to work during the day
in the school was a stipulation that we must follow the Kenyan Primary Schools Syllabus. During the
holidays we deliver lesson content based on our own objectives, essentially environmental education.
Adult Education lessons are also held two or three times a week depending on the expedition and EM
numbers. These have been very successful with certificates given out at the end of each expo, and
regular attendance by a core group of individuals.
4.3.2 Mkwiro Primary School Lessons
We utilise the New Progressive Primary Schools English syllabus books (teacher and student copies),
and have been using these as the basis around which our lessons are planned.
Using this method has been effective, in that we are seen by the regular teachers to be following the
syllabus, we have a solid framework around which we can plan lessons, and we can also introduce
our own activities into the lesson. In expedition 064 feedback from the EMs reconfirmed that the
syllabus is above the level of the students we teach. To combat this problem we employ a variety of
methods to break down the information into simpler chunks that are able to be assimilated and
practised more easily by the students. While still delivering the national syllabus, this enables us to
make the lessons less challenging for the students in the school, and also easier for the EMs to
deliver.
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Methods include:
Pre-teaching lots of extra vocabulary from the books, and using the vocabulary lists on the
back to reinforce targeted words.
Simplifying lesson plans, focusing on a very small part of each chapter at a time.
Deconstructing grammatical activities so that each member of an EM group is able to have a
chance at completing the activity, or so that it is easier for the EM to teach.
Breaking up activities to make them fun or more accessible for less able students.
Role play, miming, and using flash cards to elicit vocabulary.
Basing new/alternative activities around the content of each chapter to give students access
to different learning situations.
Chapters were allocated in consultation with each class’s regular teacher, so that GVI took
responsibility for a whole chapter avoiding over-lap between us and the regular teachers. In this way
we ‘bunny hopped’ through the book with the regular teachers, teaching alternative chapters.
The structure of each lesson given varies, but basically consists of a GVI staff member leading a
quick introduction or warmer activity, before breaking into small group activities allocating 4-5
students per EM.
At the end of each unit a vocabulary list is regularly put up on the walls and tested (with spelling tests)
to encourage memorisation of new words. EMs mark, record and analyse the results of these tests.
Any marking done by EMs is in a green pen, and students are encouraged to head up work done by
GVI with the words ‘GVI’ and the date, to indicate when and for which teacher the work was done.
We were once again able to successfully avoid the first lesson of the day and thus the morning
assemblies, which can go on for longer then anticipated cutting into lesson times, and during which
physical disciplinary procedures occur.
Results from the spelling tests were once again variable, and it is recommended to teach younger
students learning skills such as ‘look, cover, spell, look’ methods of how to learn new words, and to
provide spelling cards or notebooks for them to take home and learn.
Additional resources from Pan African Conservation Education (PACE), focusing on ‘Living next to the
Ocean’, were implemented into the holiday program and will be used again in the future. In expedition
64
064 two new resource books were added to the library which proved extremely helpful in planning
activities and lessons.
In previous expeditions dolphin fact sheets were used in environmental lessons, these were sent out
by an organisation in England called Siren. In expedition 064 EMs and staff translated these sheets
into Kiswahili, and they were distributed to attendees at the launch of ‘The year of the dolphin’.
Corporate sponsorship of these fact sheets may mean they are mass produced and then distributed
to all the schools in the area.
At the end of Expedition 061 several library books were donated to the school, with a card system of
borrowing in place on the inside back cover of each book. This system has not yet been adopted by
the school, and at the beginning of expedition 063 the library consisted of several books stored in a
cardboard box. In expedition 063, three bookshelves and 200 books were purchased with volunteer
donated funds.
A new building in the school has meant the old 7 and 8 classes are empty, so these have been set
aside to utilise as the school library. The card system is yet to be implemented, but teachers at
Mkwiro Primary School have informed us they will take over the role of librarians and keep track of
books going home in the future.
In expedition 063 GVI sponsored a trophy for the first annual inter-class football tournament – named
‘The GVI Cup’. This involved each standard playing several other standards in a series of football
matches after school. This event is now held each term, and was again supported by volunteers and
the community in expedition 064.
Expedition Members also white washed class one of the junior school, and began on educational
posters for the senior school.
Mkwiro School Recommendations
Continue using the New Progressive Primary Schools English syllabus books as a framework
to construct lesson plans, pre-teaching extra vocabulary, focusing on small parts of each
chapter at a time, and add in extra activities to reinforce the subject matter taught.
Teach younger students the skills for learning new vocabulary, and provide them with spelling
cards/note books to take home and learn.
Support the implementation of a library by providing books, and encouraging students to read
the books by asking questions about them and doing their own book reviews.
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4.3.3 Adult Education
Adult education lessons are offered in the first week after training, between 4.15 pm and 6.30pm at
Mkwiro Primary School for men, and between 2pm and 4pm for women at the Nursery School.
Students normally learn conversational English and extend their vocabulary, and range from lower
intermediate to advanced learners. In expedition 063 however, basic computer literacy lessons were
introduced utilising the GVI lap tops, and this was continued this expedition.
Women are free to bring their children and young babies to these lessons, to encourage attendance.
The presence of so many young children in the women’s classes often makes them quite challenging,
but the EMs cope admirably and find the lessons to be both rewarding and worthwhile.
The number of men attending lessons remained fairly consistent with other expeditions, class sizes
again ranged from 1 pupil to 6 pupils with an average of 3-4 per lesson. The average class size for
the women’s lessons remained relatively consistent with only a slight increase at 14 pupils, with once
again a maximum attendance of 17 pupils. The number of different women attending classes was 22,
a decrease from last expedition, but these women were fairly consistent in attending lessons.
Overall 30 different men and women attended adult education classes during this expedition. There
were core students who regularly attended without fail, and ‘drop in’ students less motivated or with
other commitments.
The implementation of computer literacy lessons has once again attracted various community
members, and has proved to be very popular. Various community members have picked up the
concepts quickly and have started exploiting their new skills for community benefit, writing proposals
and letters.
There have been many requests from community members for individual computer tuition, but we are
unable to offer this. Both lessons for men and women on the computers are now also beginning to
become difficult to manage, with new students turning up at each lesson, requiring the students
currently sharing the computer to go back over the basics. These issues could be alleviated if there
were more computers available to use, and this has been passed onto the fundraising committee to
try and address in the future.
During normal adult education lessons the majority of students attending the men’s classes were at
an intermediate to advanced level, and benefited from activities such as debating, discussions, formal
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letter writing, and vocabulary extension. However, there is a co-hort of the community that we are yet
to access – the true beginners in English. It was recommended in expedition 062 to deliver a four
week intensive beginners class, however this has yet to be implemented.
To make this work in the current timetable we would have to run con-current English lessons, in order
to maintain lessons for more advanced students. This would be possible if three adult education
lessons per week were resumed in expedition 071. It is recommended that in the review of the
community timetable for 2007, this issue is investigated and if possible a beginner course initiated. It
is hoped that if a new course for less advanced students was offered, numbers of men attending adult
education lessons might increase to a level that is currently enjoyed by the women.
During expedition 064 we created and started to present an education programme for the tourist dhow
operators of the Shimoni-Mkwiro Dhow Tours. During these five dhow presentations operators and
staff were trained on topics including: cetacean biology and behaviour, species identification, impacts
to cetaceans, codes of conduct and what research GVI is conducting. These presentations were very
successful and between 15 to 20 people in attendance per session. The feedback from the
presentation was very positive and GVI intends to continue with these sessions for other companies
in consecutive expeditions.
Adult Education Recommendations
Continue to deliver computer literacy lessons, if necessary splitting the lessons to allow for the
different ability levels.
Deliver varied, interesting and relevant lessons to the classes, integrating more community
based themes (such as proposal writing, budgeting etc) that will assist in the development of
community initiatives.
Provide an intensive four week evening course for beginners, structured around the syllabus
provided in the official GVI TEFL teaching syllabus, delivered con-currently to the men’s
advanced group, or utilise the third session to teach true beginners.
Look into the fundraising or donation possibilities for computers for the community.
Continue to utilise the knowledge and skills of EMs, teaching other languages or skills such as
budgeting to community members.
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4.4 Orphanage work
Twice a week EMs visited the orphanage to spend time with the boys. This time was unstructured to
allow the EMs and the orphans to interact with each other in a more relaxed manner.
Activities included:
reading library books and listening to stories
lateral thinking exercises and development of cognitive skills using interactive books brought
out by Ems
playing sports like frisbee, football, volleyball, acrobatics and athletics
other physical activities like hacky sac, poi dancing and dancing to music
creative arts such as colouring in, using crayons, felt tips, and paints to create paper murals
for the walls
help with homework and exam study
group games and circle time
performance arts
Although the amount of time spent with the boys in the orphanage in expedition 064 was limited due
to the school holiday break, it still proved to be one of the highlights for many of the EMs. The boys
were once again hugely responsive to the attention given to them, and enjoyed participating in
activities led by EMs.
EMs and staff worked with the boys to deliver a presentation at the end of year prize giving ceremony
entitled ‘Africa our Home’. This performance was based around the PACE educational material and
involved groups of boys reciting information about forests, soil, water, energy, people, and wildlife.
Some of the boys exhibited a real aptitude in performance, and all of them appeared to gain a feeling
of pride in representing their orphanage at a school celebration.
The Global Vision International Charitable Trust (GVI-CT) has pledged 1000 pounds to the orphanage
per expedition. In expedition 064 the major output from this funding was the digging of a water pit at
the orphanage to provide fresh drinking water all year round. A new set of clothes and shoes for each
of the boys was also purchased with GVI-CT funding to celebrate the last day of Ramadan, known as
Eid.
68
Continued donations from the GVI-CT will greatly be appreciated, and will be spent in liaison with the
Al Hanan orphanage caregivers to prioritise projects they deem most important. In expedition 064 it
was stressed to caregivers to prepare in advance any requests for funding, as in this and other
expeditions they often requested help at the last.
GVI has also helped the caregivers of the orphanage formulate and write proposals for further funding
from additional sources from within Kenya.
Orphanage Recommendations
Continue providing EM support to the orphans in the evenings
Continue close liaison with orphanage caregivers to develop and improve the orphanage,
utilising the GVI-CT funds in the most cost effective way, and on a project by project basis
4.5 Community groups and initiatives
4.5.1 Introduction
Individual expedition members who have an interest in particular projects in the community form
groups to develop each project. Community members are not only invited to be involved and
participate in these discussions, but to ultimately make the major decisions concerning their own
community ventures.
Community projects are handed over to successive expedition members so that the work being done
towards the objectives of each of the community based organisations is perpetuated. Community
members and EMs constructed a list of activities that could attract tourists, these are listed in Table
12. A summary of the work achieved on these and other community projects is also given.
In expedition 064 actual dedicated time was set aside to work on these projects each day, resulting in
more output from the expedition members, and solid outcomes for the projects.
Table 12 Tourism development proposals within Mkwiro
Name of activity Details
Fishing Trips ( with
local fishermen and
women)
- traditional line fishing in a small dug-out canoe
- checking traps
- octopus hunting
- catching squid (calamari) in a small dug-out
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Village Tours - tour the village with local guide
- eat a traditional lunch
Guided nature Walks - in Kaya Bogoa, a forest with cultural significance to
the local community
- beach and mangrove forests on the south side of the
island
- hunt for (catch and release) the large and rare
Coconut Crab
Cultural activities - visit the grave of Mwauze Tumbe to hear the story
of her life and death
- visit Jiwe jahazi, or ‘dhow rock’, and hear the story of
how it changed from a dhow into an island
- visit the sacred cycad trees, where offerings are still
made
- visit cultural cave sites where the villagers’
ancestors went to pray
Drumming Lessons - Msondo (men and women, in lines)
- Kipumbwi (general drumming)
- Msapata (dangerous)
Cooking Lessons - cook in the home of a local women, learning the
secrets of her trade
- take the fish you caught earlier in the day, and cook
on an open fire while listening to village stories
around the flames
Community Centre - one of the women’s groups have a co-operative
building that is currently being used as a restaurant.
If this could be developed, it could become a focal
point for the community. This is where they could
advertise the tourist activities provided in the village,
and where they could sell some of their goods. GVI
could also help by putting up information about the
research being conducted in the area.
70
4.5.2 Fishing Trips
EMs and staff have participated in fishing trips out in dug out canoes. These trips were a big success,
not only in the fish that were caught, but also in the enjoyment of both fishermen and GVI members.
By using expedition members as ‘guinea pig tourists’ the fisherman were able to see some of the
ideas they need to work on to offer these trips to the larger tourist community. An initial brochure and
flyer has been designed to advertise the trips, but these have yet to be finalized with community
members.
Recommendations:
Finalise the brochures and flyers with community members and distribute in local areas like Diani,
Shimoni and Wasini. Perhaps also look at advertising in budget accommodation or hotels in
Mombasa, and at the camp ground in Tiwi Beach.
4.5.3 Drumming
Mkwiro Villagers are descended from the Shirazi tribe, a group historically known for their amazing
drumming and drum making. The drums are mentioned in the story of Mwauzi Tumbe but are
currently located in the Fort Jesus museum in Mombasa. Unfortunately these drums are no longer
made in Mwkiro, and instead villagers perform at weddings and in the evenings on plastic barrels.
Previous EMs have taken up the opportunity to have drumming lessons, and have enjoyed these with
community members. These have been on an informal basis, and no marketing has been developed
on this activity.
Recommendations:
Source funding for replica’s of the Fort Jesus drums to be made, and use these as one of the
focal points of the village tour
Write a formal proposal to include the original Mkwiro/Shirazi drums in a display at the
proposed Shimoni Tourist centre
Work with community members to start actively marketing drum lessons on the island by
designing leaflets and brochures to be distributed in local tourist areas
4.5.4 Mwaozi Tumbe Village Tour
Several meetings have been held between EM’s and community members (primarily from the Mkwiro
Youth Group) to discuss the development of a tour of Mkwiro Village, incorporating both natural and
cultural aspects. The focus of this tour is to be a visit to the grave stone of Mwaozi Tumbe, with a
71
local lunch offered and a short nature walk in Kaya Bogoa. In previous expeditions EMs have
participated in research trips to Mombasa Library and Fort Jesus to investigate the history of the
Mkwiro people, and the story behind Mwaozi Tumbe’s grave. A visit to Kaya Kinondo was also
provided for several community members and EMs, providing them with an opportunity to see a
similar venture that has been successful, and to observe the conduct and eloquence required of a
guide in interacting with tourists.
Villagers are keen to get started on delivering the tour as soon as possible, and have shown much
enthusiasm and energy for the project. Although some members of the community would like to start
as soon as possible, most have begun to appreciate that they need to have everything in place before
delivering their final product, and that these things take careful thought and consideration before
implementing, so that they are professional.
In expedition 06-4 more work was done on the script for the tour, finalising the telling of some of the
local legends, making cue cards for the tour and practising with the guides. In consultation with village
elders, the area around Mwaozi Tumbe’s grave was demarcated with whitewashed stones, and
flowers were planted in between the stones.
Recommendations
Continue meetings to report back on progress made on the list of tasks to be done before the
community is ready for the tour. These meetings should try to help drive the group forward, by
providing an impetus for task development by the Mkwiro Youth Group and with the additional
help of EM’s
Finalise the script for the tour by continued liaison with community members about the content
and facts involved, and by practising the script with potential guides
4.5.6 Cooking lessons
In all expeditions cooking lessons have been offered to the EMs, who leave the women a tip as
thanks. Chapattis, samosas and mandazi’s have been the focus of the lessons, but other dishes such
as pilau, local bean dishes and local tomato based dishes could also be offered. It was recommended
in expedition 06-3 to formalise an agreement between members of the community and GVI to offer
cooking lessons every phase of each expedition, however this remains outstanding.
Recommendations:
72
Liase with community members to develop cooking lessons as an activity available to the
wider tourist community, and formalise and agreement to offer lessons
4.5.7 Beehive keeping
The donation of bee hives by an NGO to the Mkwiro community has offered the opportunity for
alternative income generation through apiculture. However, community members do not appear to
have received the knowledge or expertise to utilise the bee hives effectively. Meetings have been held
with members of the community to assess their knowledge of apiculture and to look at methods of
moving forward with bee keeping.
It was found that hives had been placed deep in the forest, in areas that may not be conducive to bee
keeping. Insects such as butterflies were more prevalent on the forest edges, and thus it was advised
as a first step to relocate the hives to the edge of the forest, where conditions may be more suitable.
In expedition 062 the National Scholarship Programme (NSP) student collected information on bee
keeping and led most of the discussions. In expedition 063 community members and staff went on an
investigative trip to some working beehives in the local area to gain insight and advice on how to run
the project successfully in Mkwiro. After expedition 063, a visit to Honeycare Ltd in Nairobi on behalf
of the Mkwiro community indicated that training had been delivered to Mkwiro community members
and that the cost of this training was expected to be repaid with the sale of honey produced. To offer
the relevant training again would require payment in advance and so the decision remains with
community members as to whether they are committed to pursuing this to generate income.
Recommendations
Source alternaitve expertise on apiculture and attempt to facilitate alternative training for
community members
4.5.8 HIV/AIDS Awareness
The Mkwiro dispensary nurse has informed us that very few people in Mkwiro know their HIV status,
and very few favour the use of condoms. It is valuable that the benefits of testing for HIV/AIDS are
related to the villagers, and that the use of condoms is advocated particularly for people having
intercourse before marriage.
In previous expeditions workshops have been delivered in Mkwiro, Wasini and Shimoni communities
on HIV/AIDS awareness. The workshops were successful, with open honest environments created
73
whereby community members felt comfortable asking detailed questions and learning new information
about HIV/AIDS.
A second workshop was to be planned for expedition 064, in each of the three villages of Mkwiro,
Shimoni and Wasini. Details to be included were caring for people with HIV, more information on
reducing the stigma of aids, and details on how the illness progresses. However, other commitments
during expedition 064 meant there wasn’t time to initiate this to an acceptable standard, so it has
been postponed until next year. Before initiating these workshops contact should be made with
HIV/AIDS awareness groups such the Marie Stopes organisation in Mombasa for advice about how to
best progress. This may mean inviting certain organisations to give presentations in this area.
Recommendations
Source expertise on HIV/AIDS awareness in Mombasa and initiate discussions about what
can be done further in the Shimoni sub-location.
4.5.9 Mkwiro Village Compensation Committee
Members of the village committee have approached GVI to help draft several letters to the Minister of
Tourism and KWS officials seeking compensation for the loss of their fishing grounds to the KMMPA.
A percentage of park fees paid by tourists had been promised to the community at the time of its
creation.
Community members would also like park boundaries to be re-adjusted in favour of the marine
reserve, and for park boundaries to be clearly demarcated with brightly coloured buoys to prevent
inadvertently entering the park in their fishing dhows, and thus receiving fines. With our support they
have also written letters to request assistance in eradicating many of the illegal fishing practises that
are carried out in and around the KMMPA, which they believe are depleting their fish stocks.
GVI has assisted the community to draft many of these letters and to interpret some of the complex
language in some of their replies. We have remained impartial.
In expedition 064 a letter was once again drafted for the government, this time the focus being on the
upcoming government proposed review of communities surrounding marine protected areas. The
Mkwiro community are worried that many additional communities are trying to be included in this
review, in order to benefit from any compensation given.
Recommendations
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Use the adult education computer literacy classes to draft any further letters required, or make
the computers available to community members who are now computer proficient to write their
own letters in consultation with GVI to interpret any complex English.
4.5.10 Mkwiro Dispensary
The villagers have a range of medical needs, such as malaria, diarrhoea, pregnancies, children under
five requiring immunisations and other medical care, and a population of elderly people who also
often need assistance. There is also a lot of sharp coral rag substrate on the island, which means
there are many accidents, especially with children playing and requiring stitches. It is much easier and
safer to give stitches at the dispensary, than it is to try to get to the mainland for assistance.
Community members do not always recognise the early signs of malaria, and thus may deteriorate
quickly.
The re-opening of the dispensary has been one of the most positive and beneficial aspects of
community development this year. Feedback about the new nurse continues to be very positive, as
she has made herself available in the evenings and weekends.
This expedition the current nurse requested a review of her salary and an increase in line with Kenyan
Health authority salaries. GVI will not increase the salary from the orphanage fund, but will look for
other ways to provide funding for the nurse, aiming for the dispensary to have independent funding in
the future.
Recommendations
Regular additional funding for medicines, nurses salary and other medical equipment should
be sourced
4.5.11 Mkwiro Garment Industry
Fisherman pants made of Kikoi material continue to sell well, and the fundis have grown in confidence
experimenting with pockets, skirts, and other designs requested by EMs. These sales have greatly
contributed to the community fund.
An EM in expedition 063 proposed getting labels manufactured in the United States and air freighted
over, but again unfortunately we have had no contact with her since the expedition ended. She did
work diligently on the marketing of the project, coining the name ‘Mkwiro Mvuvi Pants’. Translated this
means Mkwiro Fisherman Pants, which ties in nicely with the fact that they are of Thai Fisherman
75
design, and also that Mkwiro’s essential income is from fishing. She also designed a small information
tag to be attached to each pair of pants, explaining a bit about the village, the history of the Kikoi
material and the community fund.
On a trip to Shimoni, Diani and Wasini the same EM approached several shops to sell the pants,
emphasising that they were locally hand made and that a percentage of the profit would be going to a
local community. Initial contact with commercial vendors was very positive, and interest in selling the
pants was expressed by several shop managers or hotel operators.
In expedition 064 a meeting was held with the fundi to encourage him to start saving long term so that
he can start selling pre-made pants and make a bigger profit. It took a lot of persuading as the fundi
found it difficult to look past the short term gains and the needs of his family and imagine the long
term potential of such a project. Further work will be needed on this in the future.
Recommendations
Research methods of printing the labels commercially either here or abroad in the UK
Encourage the community sewing fundis to start buying their own material and manufacturing
the pants for EMs to choose, rather then simply sewing the material the EMs are providing
Follow up on leads to sell the pants in Diani, Wasini and Shimoni, or from within Mkwiro itself.
4.5.12 Recycling
During this and previous expeditions several beach cleans of the mangroves along the South coast of
the island have been held. These have been conducted with community members and
commemorated such special events as ‘Dive into Earth Day’ and ‘International Clean Up Day, but
also simply as part of the general community program.
To date 800 shillings have been earned for the community from the recycling of plastic bottles into
pillows, and added to the community fund.
Flip Flops collected from the mangroves have been used to construct a promotional model Minke
whale for WSPA and the anti-whaling campaign. The whale will be transported to Europe and
auctioned, and the revenue used to help Kenya, through KWS as the governmental representative, to
either regain their voting membership in the International Whaling Commission or to support the anti-
whaling campaign in other ways.
76
Members of the community were also invited by a company called UniquEco to take part in the
construction of the whale in Nairobi, learning how to utilise flip flops and make marketable items such
as key rings, toys and jewellery. Hopefully UniquEco will then buy the products from the community
and market them internationally.
In expedition 06-3 four members of the community travelled to Nairobi to make the most of this
opportunity, and are currently utilising the new skills they have learnt to help in the construction of the
flip flop whale. Several orders have been put through for strips of the whale, and whale key rings.
Unfortunately, community members have been slow to fulfil these orders. Further encouragement and
organisational support will be needed in the future if Mkwiro community members are to provide a
professional service to Uniqueco ensuring future orders.
This venture has great potential for alternative income generation and associated publicity for Mkwiro,
and has already resulted in one film crew visiting the island and filming. Through WSPA the BBC are
making a short clip about recycling in Kenya, the waste being washed up on Kenyan beaches and the
construction of the flip flop whale. Mkwiro community will feature in this presentation, as will parts of
an interview of conducted of community members during the clean up. The viewing capacity of the
clip, which will probably be shown several times during the day it is featured in the news, could be as
many as 60million people.
Recommendations
Mentor community members to try and fulfil orders and promote business managment
4.5.13 Shimoni Slave Cave Committee
Shimoni Slave Cave Committee operates a community based tourism project at Shimoni’s culturally
important salve caves with proceeds going to a community fund, contributing to the payment of
medical supplies, teaching staff and scholarships. The committee is keen to expand their tour to
include a nature trail in the forest above the slave cave. Previously GVI have facilitated training of
guides through visiting a similar project at Kaya Kinondo near Diani. A drat brochure has also been
developed and during this expedition further amendments were made. Unfortunately constraints on
personnel and time limited further involvement this expedition.
4.5.14 Tumaini Women’s Group
Fishing is the main source of income for Mkwiro village, restricting the amount of jobs available to
women. The Tumaini Women’s group was set up to help the women earn money to support their
families by selling their crafts to tourists. They now also sell their hand crafts to GVI EMs.
77
An information leaflet has been produced to be attached to their products. EMs in expedition 06-3
approached vendors in Shimoni to sell the products, but unfortunately the vendor concerned had just
taken an order of very similar crafts from Diani. Despite this the Shimoni vendor seemed very
interested in the Mkwiro product, and may be inclined to buy from Mkwiro in the future. EMs have also
approached Charlie Claws to sell the products in their craft shop and on the boat.
In Expedition 064 an EM with contacts with 10,000 Villages collected a sample box of crafts and these
were sent to Canada to be sold on their behalf. Price checks were also made on crafts being sold in
Shimoni to check that the Mkwiro vendors prices were competitively priced.
A trip to Charlie Claws with EMs was made to gain advice on how best to proceed with sales, and
EMs finalised contacts to begin sales in the new year.
Recommendations
Take the products to Diani and try to market them to stall holders there
Encourage EMs to take information leaflets and examples of crafts back with them and contact
possible buyers overseas
Contact other major buyers of small scale crafts such as ‘Trade Aid’ and develop links with
10,000 Villages
4.5.16 Water Storage/Purification
In conjunction with members of the youth group, and the adult education group, a joint proposal with
GVI was written to Bamburi Cement for a donation to sponsor the restoration of Mkwiro’s community
water storage tans. Unfortunately the proposal was turned down, as Bamburi have delineated an area
25km from their plant in Mombasa to be their main priority for charitable donations.
In expedition 064 an engineering company in the UK contacted GVI Kenya through contact with a
previous EM. They are investigating the possibilities of water supply and water sanitation issues for
Wasini Island in conjunction with Water Aid
Use the fundraising interest group to contact other cement companies in Kenya for funding
Research alternative water purification methods, particularly in relation to making water stored
over a long time safer to drink, and to try to dispose of mosquito larvae safely in stored water
tanks (e.g coconut bacteria)
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4.5.17 Village Community Fund
Ten to twenty percent of all transactions made between GVI and Mkwiro village goes to a central
village fund. These include bread and samosa sales, clothing sales, laundry, home baking, and crafts.
This money will be used by the village committee for the benefit of the whole community.
At present the funding raised has been earmarked to assist in purchasing iron sheeting to mend part
of the community water storage facility. Five thousand shillings were spent on salaries for Madras
teachers in the school holidays, and money raised from the laundry ladies is directed towards the
mosque.
In expedition 06-3 GVI staff initiated a meeting with Village elders to determine the correct means of
money transfer to the village fund, and to identify who would be the co-signers of any transactions, as
the correct channels were still unclear. The results of the meeting were a designated secretary and
treasurer.
Recommendations
Channel any money to the community fund through the designated secretary and treasurer,
ensuring they co-sign all receipts.
Keep a GVI record of all transactions, and monitor what the fund is spent on.
Encourage the elders to establish a bank account for the village fund.
4.5.18 Fundraising
In expedition 06-3 a fundraising group was formed in response to the requests of various community
villagers for assistance with a number of issues. These include:
concrete for the water storage facility
ongoing medical supplies, equipment and support for the medical dispensary
scholarship funds for students graduating from primary school to high school
medical operations for village members
tertiary education for primary school teachers and nursery school teachers
primary education for disabled community members (such as a blind girl)
sponsorship for sporting teams such as volleyball, netball and football or simply the provision
of sporting equipment
library books for a school library
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A newsletter to be sent to previous EMs was designed in expedition 063 and will be sent out at the
end of expedition 064. This explains what smaller things can be done for the community, as well as
giving a general update on the project and new developments. Another edition was created in
expedition 064 which will be edited in the first expedition of 2007. It is hoped that this newsletter will
be perpetuated by consecutive projects, becoming a quarterly edition for all previous EMs interested.
One of our major initial concerns while working in the community was that we would create a culture
of begging, simply by our very proximity to the community and the obvious differences between our
material wealth and theirs. Once again during this expedition there were no examples of begging
behaviour by children; it appears the firm guidelines given to expedition members on this topic seem
to have taken effect with the younger members of the community.
GVI Kenya continues to collect for the EM Scholarship fund to help support local school children from
the orphanage or Mkwiro School in attending high school.
Gifts such as pens, pencils, books and items of clothing were given to students at the end of the
expedition, with each class from 1-8 receiving a farewell gift box from the EM’s.
An expedition member from a previous expedition visited in 06-4 and organised 7 boxes of football
shirts, shorts, boots and equipment to be distributed to members of the community. These were
handed out in order to the boys from the orphanage, the local Mkwiro Stars football team, orphans
living in Mkwiro, and finally on a class by class basis from standard one up to standard 5. An
inventory was recorded and those missing out on equipment in this round will receive priority in the
next round of donations. These hand out sessions need to be strictly organised with both teachers,
and/or GVI staff.
Recommendations
Continue the policy of not giving gifts during the expedition to individuals, as these are to be handed
over during formal school assemblies or class time
Continue to support the local community in seeking funding from alternative sources
When giving out donations follow strict guidelines, (e.g only dealing with a maximum of two people at
a time, orderly lines, recording who gets what, have teachers present).
4.5.19 Year of the Dolphin This expedition GVI were requested to help with the launch of the ‘Year of the Dolphin 2007’,
designated as such by the United Nations Environment Program. In collaboration with corporate
80
sponsors such as Charlie Claws, Polemans and Tui, GVI are also helping to organise a series of
activities in local schools to celebrate the year.
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5. Terrestrial Satellite Camp 5.1 Introduction
Community involvement in the protection and conservation of natural resources is essential for their
successful sustainable management. Global Vision International (GVI) working in collaboration with
the World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) and the Kenyan Wildlife Service (KWS) has
embarked on a project with community groups in the Taveta area to promote environmental
awareness, anti-poaching activities, eliminate the bush meat trade, create alternative livelihoods and
encourage community involvement in protecting and conserving their natural places in and around the
Tsavo West National Park.
The main threat to much of the wildlife in area of Tsavo West and surrounding protected areas is the
bush meat trade. In Kenya poaching and the associated bush meat trade has continued to escalate
despite concerted efforts by various conservation bodies and governmental institutions to curb
consumption. Originally thought of as a subsistence motivated activity, carried out by rural families
with a history of traditional use, poaching and the bush meat trade has now been recognised in Kenya
as more of a commercial operation, often transboundary.
Poverty coupled with a lack of alternative income generating activities in the affected areas
perpetuate the trade despite frustrations and a fear of imprisonment for those inolved. To alleviate this
cycle, it is critical that in the future poachers are provided with long term sustainable mechanisms for
participation in the conservation and management of their wildlife, while also creating alternative
methods of earning an income.
For many years in Kenya, indigenous knowledge or community participation in conservation was
ignored, as it was perceived as outdated or inferior to the modern concept of conservation. However,
this perception is slowly changing as governmental and non-governmental organisations are realising
the value of stakeholder and community ownership of environmental issues. Communities that have
historically been disenfranchised from the direct involvement of the management of their natural
resources are now being encouraged to take action and actively participate.
In April 2006 a PRA report conducted in the Ziwani area of Tsavo West National Park revealed a
serious problem. According to the report, between October 2005 and April 2006 over 507 snares were
removed and 10 poachers were arrested. Further arrests followed and in a period of six months over
thirty poachers were prosecuted for various offences related to the bush meat trade (Omondi, 2006).
82
Conservation bodies in the area such as KWS and the David Sheldrick Wildlife Foundation tried to
stem the trade through the use of anti-poaching and de-snaring units, however incidents continued to
rise to unsustainable levels. The situation was aggravated by the constant alienation of local
communities from participating in the mainstream conservation and management of their wildlife.
Local communities contain an immense amount of knowledge about terrain, landscape, frequent
hunting and poaching routes. If encouraged to actively participate in conservation, identifying and
solving problems associated with the bush meat trade themselves, they could become a powerful
weapon in the fight to stem the flow of meat being taken from protected areas.
Many inhabitants also currently perceive wildlife as a threat to crops and lives, with little compensation
from government bodies. They do not feel obliged or are unwilling to reveal information to the
authorities in fear of victimisation and arrest (Omondi & Pabari, 2006). Changing these attitudes with
education and by finding alternative methods of solving wildlife conflict issues will also be integral in
the conservation of wildlife in the local area.
Poaching and bushmeat consumption will continue to escalate unless communities which have
previously disassociated themselves from wildlife are able to take ownership for their protection. In
order to eventually eradicate the bush meat trade in this area, community involvement and
participation is mandatory. By participating in the direct conservation and management of their
wildlife, and accruing a direct economic benefit from this, communities will identify with the resource
and take full charge of its sound management for posterity. Economic benefits made by the wider
community and country as a whole will be able to trickle down to individual households, and thus raise
the standard of living for communities in the area.
5.2 Ex-poachers groups
Community members from three main villages in the area have abandoned poaching in favour of
trying to find alternative sources of income for themselves and their families. GVI will be working with
all three groups, and it is envisaged that they will provide a working model for other communities in
the area in the future.
Kidong: 38 members
Kasaani: 30 members
83
Mandahakini: 36 members
Both GVI’s in country partners the Kenyan Wildlife Service (KWS) and WSPA identified Kidong as a
hot spot for poaching activity. As such it is crucial that the bushmeat trade in this area is tackled. If
successful the programmes implemented in this village will be used in other poaching hot spots
around Kenya.
GVI was invited to Kidong by WSPA to participate, and hope to provide a range of activities that may
help eventuate in the success of the anti-poaching program in Kidong, sending a message to other
communities and thus helping to eliminate the bushmeat trade in Kenya.
During this expedition the first satellite camp was initiated, aimed at beginning a collaboration with a
group of men and women calling themselves the ‘Kidong Ex-poachers’ group. Until recently these 39
individuals relied mainly on poaching as a means to generate income, supplying the bushmeat trade
with animals such as Dik Dik, Buffalo, Zebra, various antelope and even Elephant. Under the
guidance of Raphael Omondi, the representative from WSPA, the group have given up poaching as a
livelihood and now advocate more ethical and sustainable principals, conserving and protecting their
wild places and animals.
Under the guidance of WSPA GVI will work with all the groups to educate and transfer skills and
knowledge that can help them achieve their aims.
Activities we hope to implement in the future include educating the ex-poachers groups and other
villagers both in environmental education as well as English language acquisition, business skills,
identifying alternative means of income generation, taking part in de-snaring activities, problem
solving of wildlife conflict issues, and general capacity building within the village.
During the satellite camps time was spent exploring the local area and meeting with various officials
to open communication with local governmental bodies in the area. Places and people visited
included; the District Council, Town Clerks, Town Chief, KWS Community Officer, Village Chief, the
office of the local member of parliament, Njoro natural springs, the Taveta Market place, Kidong Hill,
and Lake Chale.
Members of the Kidong ex-poachers group also took the expedition members on a guided walk of
their area, during which Zebra, Hartebeest, Thomsons Gazelle and Gerenuk were sighted. EMs were
shown where they had been cutting trees for charcoal burning – a major cause of habitat destruction
84
and desertification in much of Africa. Since forming the group the Kidong ex-poachers have ceased
charcoal burning, and are looking at how they could start a tree planting program instead.
GVI presented a DVD dramatisation called ‘Carcasses’. This is a one hour Kenyan produced feature
supported by the Born Free Foundation in Nairobi. It raised issues about the bush meat trade such as
the risk of catching diseases like and featured a scenario where men and women from a village not
dissimilar to Kidong ended up with serious problems due to poaching.
The video raised much discussion amongst both EMs and members of the community on many of the
issues emphasised by the video, the Kidong group identifying with the story.
5.3 Discussion
GVI’s initial visits to Kidong appear to have been a boost to the morale of this, raising the profile of
their organisation and objectives. Additional men and women from the Kidong community have
subsequently expressed an interest in becoming involved.
Future development of the satellite camp may involve Expedition Members focusing on one particular
group each week, implementing a range of activities in that village. GVI’s role will be to support WSPA
in their proposed initiatives. This involvement will be emphasised to local communities and local
partners.
85
6. National Scholarship Programme GVI offers National Scholarship Programme placements on expeditions to facilitate capacity building
within partner organisations and for host country nationals. NSP placements are offered free of
charge to individuals, and are funded by GVI. NSP placement students participate fully as an
expedition member receiving the same training and experience. Our primary partner, KWS nominated
two individuals for this expedition. Jillo Katelo is a KWS ranger, previously posted at Jipe gate, Tsavo
West National Park, who joined us for the ull 10 week expedition as his attachment for a diploma in
Environmental Management at KWS’ Naivasha college. Sirya Karisa is a KWS employee based at the
coast, who joined us for the initial five weeks of the expedition to further reinforce the working
relationship and lines of communication between GVI and KWS. In addition, Raymond Mwangata, a
Fisheries management graduate with experience in primary teaching and environmental restoration of
quarries, applied independently and joined us for the second five weeks of expedition.
All three NSP students integrated exceptionally well, had much to contribute to the expedition and
reportedly gained much from their experience. From the perspective of GVI it was of great value to
work alongside KWS personnel and receive their input and feedback and it is hoped that we will be
able to continue this in future. It is also hoped that we can continue to support KWS students in
offering placements for attachments for courses of study.
86
7. Overall Achievements GVI East Africa has completed its fourth 10 week expedition based in Mkwiro, during which the
following has been achieved:
132 hours 8 minutes of effort from vessels on the Marine Research Programme
50 dolphin sightings from vessels
38 dolphin behavioural surveys
36 Photo Identification surveys of dolphins resulting in 1742 photos
19 marine mega-fauna surveys from vessels
11 primate community surveys conducted with 7 groups of colobus monkeys recorded and 2
groups of Sykes monkeys
1 hour 40 minutes of primate behavioural surveys trialled
29 trapping days undertaken for butterfly community surveys, at 3 trapping sites. 5 species
identified
2900 m² surveyed for vegetation and regeneration, covering 29 sections. 70 plant species
were identified
7 km of transects had canopy surveys undertaken, covering 140 sections
14 species identified through casual observation surveys including 4 new species recorded
32 hours 30 minutes delivering lessons in Mkwiro Primary School
28 hours delivering adult education lessons
18 hours of activities at Al-Hanan orphanage
Delivery of 5 dolphin education awareness workshops to local boat operators accessing 20
individuals
Over 13,000 KSh raised for the Mkwiro community fund through GVI economic activities
GVI-CT has funded the continuing work on the orphanage water storage tank and supplied
new clothes and shoes to all the orphanage.
87
8. Conclusions and Future Aims This fourth expedition for GVI East Africa continued to build upon what has been initiated in the
previous expeditions. The Marine Research Programme continued the core research, utilising vessel
based survey techniques. Weather conditions this expedition did not interrupt survey effort in any
significant way as there was little heavy rain, and wind conditions remained calm until the final few
weeks. GVI’s locally employed boat captain underwent further training on the marine research
programme as part of a capacity building initiative, practising photo identification surveys and data
capture, with the aim of utilising him to conduct and supervise marine research surveys in future.
Future aims are to continue the marine research programme activities attempting to continue to run
both vessel based and where possible reinstate land based surveys. Surveys using transects are
planned for the future to offer a more structured and random approach to sampling and facilitating the
use of distance sampling techniques, however further research is required to ensure that applicable
methods are implemented in our study area, to ensure confidence in data analysis. Appropriate
survey designs are being investigated in respect of this.
The Terrestrial Research Programme also continued and consolidated upon what has been initiated.
Primate surveys continued utilising the same methodology and a structured protocol for behavioural
surveys trialled. All though this needs further revision, it appears to be a workable approach for the
long term. Most significantly, the vegetation and regeneration surveys progressed significantly this
expedition, with sections sampled throughout the study area. Representation analysis indicates that
further work is required before biodiversity can be confidently assessed.
The implementation of the butterfly community survey through a pilot this expedition proved
successful and will be pursued next expedition following a more structured protocol.
GVI’s presence in Mkwiro Primary School continues to be well received and the teaching delivered by
expedition members effective in improving English language acquisition. Tutorial sessions for
Standard 8 pupils in preparation or the exams was successful and we await the results of their
eaminations. Adult education continued with computer literacy this expedition combined with
environmental education. The skills learnt are of value to members of the community who despite not
having ready access to computers have been able to utilise GVI’s computers to produce formal letters
and proposals in support of community activities. The community development programme continued
88
with increased time allocated to it, and significant progress was made with the marketing of local
crafts and garments and as well as the implementation of dolphin education workshops. This is an
important step in building capacity within the local community and assisting the responsible
management of tourism within the KMMPA, particularly with dolphin watching code of conduct in
development. GVI’s standing in the community remains positive and our focus on Mkwiro has enabled
widespread and integrated support for many community stakeholders. The primary concern has to be
the careful management of time to ensure all projects initiated receive appropriate on-going support
from GVI.
Overall, GVI East Africa has continued to successfully implement the broad objectives outlined by
KWS in the formation of our partnership and established long-term programmes to support their long-
term objectives for sustainable management of resources in the KMMPA and community outreach. As
the partnership develops GVI East Africa will review the priorities for research and community
development with KWS and implement changes within our current capacity.
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9. References Bejder, L., and Samuels, A. 2003. Evaluating the effects of nature-based tourism on cetaceans. 229 –
256.
Buckland, S.T., Anderson, D.R., Burnham, K.P., Laake, J.L., Borchers, D.L. and Thomas, L. 2000.
Introduction to distance sampling:estimating abundance of biological populations. Oxford
University Press. New York. 423 pp.
Emerton, L. and Tessema, Y. 2001. Economic constraints to the management of marine protected
areas: the case of Kisite Marine National Park and Mpunguti National Reserve, Kenya. IUCN –
The World Conservation Union, Eastern Africa Regional Office, Nairobi, Kenya.
Evans, P.G.H and Hammond, P.S. 2004. Monitoring cetaceans in European waters. Mammal
Review. 34,1. 131-156.
Gregory, P.R., and Rowden, A.R. 2001. Behaviour patterns of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops
truncatus) relative to tidal state, time-of-day, and boat traffic in Cardigan Bay, West Wales.
Aquatic mammals, 27.2. 105-113.
Mann, J. 2000. Unravelling the dynamics of social life: long-term studies and observational methods.
In: Cetacean Societies: field studies of dolphins and whales. (Ed. Connor, R.C., Tyack, P.L., and
H. Whitehead). 44-64. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Omondi, R. and Pabari, D. 2006. Participatory rural appraisal report on bushmeat consumption and
trade in Ziwani area of Tsavo West National Park conducted between 20th April and 12th May
2006. Unpublished.
Peddemors, V. M. 1991. Delphinids of Southern Africa: A review of their distribution status and life
history. In: Journal of Cetaceans Research Management. 157-165.
Parsons, K.M., 2001. Procedural guideline No. 4-5 Using photo-ID for assessing bottlenose dolphin
abundance and behaviour. In: Marine JNCC Marine Monitoring Handbook. 1-21.
Reeves, R.R. and S. Leatherwood. 1994. Dolphins, porpoises and whales: 1994-1998 Action plan for
the conservation of cetaceans IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
90
Ross, G.J.B., Heinsohn, G.E and V.G. Cockcroft, 1994. Humpback dolphins Sousa chinensis
(Osbeck, 1765), Sousa plumbea (G. Cuvier, 1829), Sousa teuszii (Kukenthal, 1892). Pages 23-42
in S.H. Ridgeway and R. Harrison, eds. Handbook of marine mammals. Volume 5. The first book
of dolphins. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Stensland, E., Berggren, P. and R, Johnstone. 1998. Marine Mammals in Tanzanian waters: urgent
need for status assessment. Ambio. 27,8. 771-774.
91
APPENDIX Appendix 1 Event Log Form
92
EVENT LOG DATE: VESSEL: STAFF: SCRIBE:
Environmental Conditions Time 24hrs Event
South 04°
East 039° Effort Trans #
Bearing WPT Speed Cloud Swell BFT Vis Tide Precip Wind Comments
T I S D
93
Appendix 2 Sightings Form
Events:
01 - Start of survey day
02 - Change in effort
type
03 - Sighting (DS OR
MFS)
04 - Start of transect
05 - End of transect
06 - Change of course
07 - Bft/Env/Spd
change
08 - Other
Events:
01 - Start of survey day
02 - Change in effort type
03 - Sighting (DS OR
MFS)
04 - Start of transect
05 - End of transect
06 - Change of course
07 - Bft/Env/Spd change
08 - Other
Boat Speed:
(use GPS)
Beaufort
0 – Glass
01- Ripples
02 - small wavelets
03 - occasional
whitecaps
04 - Frequent
whitecaps
05 - Many whitecaps
Swell: 0 - no/weak swell
1 – intermediate swell
2 – strong swell
Cloud Cover:
Measure in eighths
e.g. 0/8 – clear
8/8 - over cast
Visibility (km):
0-1 heavy fog
1-10
>10
Precipitation Type
Rain
Fog
Intensity
Intermittent
Continuous
ENTERED ON COMPUTER
Initials
Sightings Form Entered onto computer □
Date: Vessel: Skipper: Recorder:
Time
Latitude
South
04°
Longitude
East 039°
Effort
type
Sighting
number
Survey
number
Distance
to
sighting
Angle
to
sighting
(P or S)
Specie
s
Group size
Spotted
because
Dhows?
Photo-
ID?
Yes/No Comments Min
Ma
x Best
Effort type:
CW - casual watch,
DS - dedicated search,
LT - line transect
PI - photo identification
94
Appendix 3 Dolphin Survey Form
DOLPHIN SURVEY FORM
ENTERED ONTO COMPUTER
DATE VESSEL OBSERVER RECORDER SURVEY #
DS START TIME SOUTH 04° EAST 039° SPECIES DEPTH WPT#
LOCATION HABITAT NOTES TIDE Ebb/flood/slack
ASSOC SIGHT/ RESIGHT?
DOLPHIN INFO – FIRST GROUP
ID NOTES
M/C PAIRS?
WELL MARKED (BEST GUESS):
GROUP SIZE
MAX:
MIN:
BEST:
SUBGROUPS:
ACTIVITY
REST/MILLING FORAGING (SUSPECTED FEEDING) FEEDING (FISH SEEN)
TRAVELLING SOCIALISING BOWRIDE UNKNOWN
DIRECTION OF TRAVEL: N S E W NE NW SE SW
NOTES
REACTION TO SURVEY VESSEL: AWAY/ TOWARDS/ NONE
DOLPHIN INFO – SECOND GROUP (SPECIFY WHETHER THIS SECTION
IS INCLUDING 1ST GROUP OR ONLY SECOND GROUP)
ID NOTES
M/C PAIRS?
GROUP SIZE
MAX:
MIN:
BEST:
SUBGROUPS:
95
WELL MARKED (BEST GUESS):
ACTIVITY
REST/MILLING FORAGING (SUSPECTED FEEDING) FEEDING (FISH SEEN)
TRAVELLING SOCIALISING BOWRIDE UNKNOWN
DIRECTION OF TRAVEL: N S E W NE NW SE SW
NOTES
JOINED AT TIME: LAT: LONG:
REACTION TO SURVEY VESSEL: AWAY/ TOWARDS/ NONE
END
TIME: LAT: LONG:
TOTAL # ANIMALS: _____A _____YOY _____N
TOTAL PHOTOGRAPHED: _____A _____YOY _____N
PHOTOGRAPHS
ROLL NUMBER:
SPACER SHOTS:
Appendix 4 Ethogram Ethogram
This ethogram is the copyright of the long-term dolphin research project at Monkey Mia in
Shark Bay, Western Australia. The ethogram is reproduced here with permission and with
some adaptations for the Shimoni project.
I. GROUPING
96
Ten meter chain rule
For the purpose of defining a ‘group’ of dolphins (see further below), individuals in a ‘group’
must be linked by the ten meter chain rule. The rule states that in order for two individuals to
be in the same ‘group’ they must be within 10m of each other or within 10m of another dolphin
that is within 10m of one or both of them, and so on ad infinitum.
Definition of a group
We restrict the term group to refer to assemblages of dolphins in which the following
requirements are fulfilled: (a) the median inter-individual distance is <2m (i.e. a “tight” group);
(b) the predominant group activity is Rest, Socialise, and or Travel (note: all assemblages of
foraging and feeding are excluded); (c) all individuals are linked by the 10m chain rule); and
(d) all, or nearly all, of the individuals in the group have been identified. Individuals in tight
assemblages separated by >5m but in the same ‘group’ by the 10m chain rule are said to be
in different subgroups of the same group. Individuals in tight groups that are not in the same
assemblage according to the 10m chain rule are said to be in different groups.
Note that this definition is designed for studies of dolphin social behaviour and is quite
restrictive.
Group Spacing
Very tight vti modal distance between group members
is:
less than 0.3m
Tight tig 0.3 - 2m
Moderate mod 2 - 5m
Spread spr 5 - 10m
Widespread wsp 10 - 30m
Wide-disperse wdi 30 - 100m
Important Group Geometries
Abreast abr Individuals are side-by-side abreast [staggered at less than ½ a
body-length (BLD) between individuals], any distance
Staggered
Abreast
sgg Individuals are abreast and staggered between ½ and 1 BLD, any
distance
Formation frm The basic Formation is two individuals flanking another on either
side and just behind. Variations between three or more individuals
occur and should be described.
97
Group Movement
Straight str Individuals in parallel orientation moving in one general direction
(i.e. not varying more than 45 for a period of at least a minute or
through at least two surfacing bouts.
Meander mnd Individuals in parallel orientation repeatedly changing direction
(varying more than 45 within every minute or in sequential
surfacing bouts. Speed is typically slow to very slow. Single
individuals engaging in this movement pattern are said to be milling.
Milling mill Individuals changing orientation with respect to each other on every
or nearly every surfacing. Individuals in a milling assemblage are
typically stationary over an area but assemblages may also
progress at any speed.
Dive type
Dive types are discussed in Section II (Feeding & Foraging).
Speed
None 0 mph
Very slow vsl <1 mph
Slow slo 1-2 mph
Cruise cru 2-3 mph
Moderate mod 3-4 mph
Fast fas 4-6 mph
Blast bla >6 mph
II. FEEDING & FORAGING
98
We refer to foraging as those behaviours which indicate that dolphins are seeking prey.
Feeding, on the other hand, refers to the active pursuit and processing of captured prey.
Foraging is by definition a “continuous” behaviour (i.e. a behavioural state) for which we
attempt to record a duration. Thus, we may use the term foraging bout to indicate a discrete
period of time in which an individual dolphins engaged in the activity of foraging. We refer to
discrete behaviours (e.g. a tail slap) as a behavioural event). This dichotomy is useful
because typically we can use observations of behavioural events to diagnose the behavioural
state (i.e. activity).
Feeding, however, may be continuous or instaneous (note that we still refer to feeding as a
behavioural state even in situations where the duration of the activity is emphemeral). Which
category a particular kind of feeding falls into is determined by two factors: (a) whether the
prey are solitary or schooling and (b) whether the prey are large or small.
When feeding on small prey the cycle of puruit-catch-process is essentially instaneous, but
some large prey items take considerable time to process and we can record a feeding
duration for those items. Examples include bream, large squid or cuttlefish, snake eels, and
rays. Note that dolphins cannot masticate (i.e. chew) and thus must “process” prey items that
are too large to shallow (e.g. by rubbing on bottom or throwing on surface). Feeding is also
considered continuous when dolphins are feeding on small schooling fish, as the cycle of
pursuit-capture-process continues essentially uninterrupted. Examples include bouts of ‘leap-
and-porpoise’ feeding on concentrations of schooling fish such as anchovies or sardines.
Thus: (1) if we can record a feeding duration for large and small schooling fish or a large
solitary fish record the activity as Feed; (2) if we record only occasional instantaneous
observations of feeding during a continuous foraging bout, record the activity state as
Forage/Feed; and (3) if there are no indications of active feeding, but there are indications of
foraging, simply record the activity as Forage.
As with anything to do dolphins, there are many shades of grey. The key is to develop a
transparent diagnosis for what constitutes the activity state of Forage that is consistent across
different observers abd over time.
A. Foraging
Foraging
Foraging is generally characterized by single dolphins or slightly spread-out assemblages of
dolphins (i.e. >2m between dolphins). A general exception is when one or more dolphins
99
remain close to a foraging dolphin for social reasons (e.g. during herding, mother/calf pairs).
Both the dive type and the inter-individual geometry are important in determining foraging
independent of observations of feeding.
Dive type
Tail out dive td Flukes are raised above the water surface as the dolphin descends at
an angle for a deep dive.
Peduncle dive pd The peduncle is humped up out of the water as the dolphin descends
for a deep dive. Tail flukes are partially submerged.
Geometry
Milling Changing directions with every or nearly every surfacing. In an
assemblage of dolphins, individuals are changing directions with respect
to each other.
Dispersed Milling An assemblage of dolphins milling in a large area; typically 10m or more
between dolphins. There may be smaller, tighter ‘clusters’ of dolphins
within the assemblage; often after a lp/pp bout.
Lateral Line A frequently occurring type of spread (>5m) movement pattern in which
dolphins are in rank formation (i.e. abreast – ‘on-line’).
Behaviours
Weed prod A dolphin prods into a seagrass/seaweed mass at the surface with its
rostrum. Maybe followed by a fish chase such as snacking.
B Feeding
Pursuit: individual behaviours
Rapid surface rs A rapid surface in which the dolphin maintains a normal
horizontal posture and the dolphin’s ventrum does not clear
the water surface.
Porpoise pp A rapid surface in which the dolphin maintains a normal
100
horizontal posture and the dolphin’s ventrum does not clear
the water surface but in which the dolphin does completely
clear the water surface.
Leap lp A rapid surface in which the dolphin maintains a normal
horizontal posture and the dolphin completely clears the water
surface.
Humping surface hs A normal surface in which the dolphin ‘humps up’ its posterior
half to break its forward motion as it descends. Often seen
when dolphins are driving or pursuing a fish school in shallow
water.
Fast swim fsw A dolphin rapidly accelerates and/or swims fast along or below
the water surface.
Rooster tail rs A fast-swim along the surface in which a sheet of water trails
off the dorsal fin.
Belly-up chase bu A fast-swim belly-up just under the water surface. The fish
may often be seen skipping along the surface just in front of
the dolphin.
Snacking snk A slow or moderate swim, belly-up, after a small fish (typically
2” or less—a ‘snack’).
Bottom-grub bg The dolphin is vertical in the water, prodding into seagrass
patches with its rostrum.
Tail-whack tw A dolphin stops abruptly at or under the surface and wheels,
swinging its flukes sharply. May be indicated by observing fish
being knocked into the air.
Snap snp A sudden jerk of the head and snap of the jaws at or just
below the surface or underwater. The fish is often seen.
Tail-slap ts A dolphin lifts its flukes and sometimes the posterior portion of
its body out of the water and brings the flukes/body down
vigorously against the water (sometimes creating a ‘kerplunk’
101
sound).
Beach feeding Not likely to observed in Shimoni but a dolphin chases a fish
out of the water onto the beach, momentarily “stranding” itself.
Pursuit—group behaviours
Lp & pp feed An assemblage of spread out, milling dolphins in which the
predominate surfacing type is leap or porpoise. The aggregation
may progress rapidly in any direction.
Bird feed A milling assemblage in actively feeding group of seabirds.
Cluster feed/mill Feeding on a relatively stationary school of small fish (2-4”) in a
milling group but with individuals surfacing side-by-side with one or
two others. Record as cluster mill if fish not seen.
Snack party A slightly spread to spread assemblage of dolphins snacking.
Fish catch & process: direct observations
Fish catch fc Dolphin observed to catch fish or another prey item.
With fish wf Dolphin observed with fish in its mouth.
Fish toss ft Dolphin observed to toss a fish.
Fish-busting fb Dolphin observed to rub fish against the bottome (=bg+wf over
sand substrate).
Fish catch & process: indirect observations
Note: The indirect observations are dependent on context as each may indicate a different
behaviour in a non-foraging context.
Chew cw Dolphin seen to make biting motion in a foraging context.
Fin jerk fj A sudden twitch of the fin (indicates sudden movement of the
102
head); again in a foraging context.
On side osd A dolphin lies still on its side at the surface; again in a foraging
context.
Foraging types
Note: More than one type may apply—e.g. bird feed may occur with other foraging types.
Foraging (non-
specific)
Foraging that could not easily be classified as any other type.
Group Bird feed Dolphins are surfacing within or around actively-feeding seabirds.
Lp & pp feed Dolphins are multi-directional (i.e. milling) and lp/pp continuously
within an area. The area may be relatively small or dispersed over
as much as a kilometer or more. The activity usually occurs in
closely spaced bouts with abrupt starts, stops, and changes of
direction. The assemblage as a whole may progress rapidly.
Foraging
aggregation
An assemblage of foraging dolphins in which 10 or more dolphins
are present.
Individual
Bottom grub Dolphin sticks its beak to the se floor to ferret something out of the
sea floor while in a vertical position. This can only be observed in
shallow water.
Td/pd Foraging in which predominant dive type is td/pd. Breath intervals
are irregular with no long intervals between dives. Dolphins typically
stay submerged for more than a minute after a td or pd dive.
Mill Dolphin forages and changes direction (orientation) with virtually
every surface or breath. Often hovers over a particular location but
maybe progress in any direction.
Rooster tail The predominant dive type is during foraging is rt. Only occurs in
shallow water.
Tail slap Foraging in which dolphins frequently utilize tail slaps, often with
103
several tail slaps in succession followed by a fish chase.
Snack party Belly-up chase and capture of fish trapped against the water
surface.
Boat-begging Dolphin approaches to within 1-2m of stationary or slow-moving
boats and exhibits solicitous behaviours such as opening jawing or
orientating head-out.
III. MISCELLANEOUS
Some behaviours do not fit obviously into either social or feeding/foraging categories. In some
cases behaviours may occur in a wide variety of contexts including feeding, socializing, or
resting (e.g. snagging) and in some cases they can be clearly excluded from either (e.g.
stretching).
Snagging sng A dolphin floating at the surface, still or slowly moving, is
said to be snagging. When still the dolphin’s flukes will drop
to the degree that only the anterior edge of the dorsal fin
may show at the surface and the rostrum may be exposed to
the top of the mandible. Snagging may last from a few
seconds to several minutes. Occurs in a wide variety of
contexts:
(a) resting: when dolphins are in a tight group, moving slowly
with regular, peduncle, or tail-out dives and with no evidence
of foraging or socialisng
(b) socialising: snagging may occur in several social
contexts; dolphins may snag prior to joining other dolphins or
while waiting for group members to “catch up” (e.g. when
one member has strayed off to catch a fish)
104
Stretching sth Occurs frequently during snags. The dolphin flexes its body
one or several times in succession. A typical sequence is to
depress the neck region while flexing the head up, then to
flex the neck region up while pointing the rostrum down.
Stretching may include side-to-side flexing as well.
Weed rub wrb A dolphin approaches a patch of seaweed/seagrass and
rubs it while rolling side or belly-up. The dolphin’s pectorals
and flukes are often lifted out of the water, draped with
weed. May be difficult to distinguish from weed-prodding.
Chuffing chf Dolphin emits a ‘coughing’ sound. May be voluntary or
related to stress and increased respiration.
IV SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
We consider five categories of social behaviours: 1) affiliative; 2) aggressive; 3) sexual and 4)
non-contact dispays; and 5) miscellaneous for behaviours that do not fit easily into the first
four categories. Bottlenose dolphins are remarkable for the variety of synchronous behaviours
they perform. Each category includes a sub-section of synchronous behaviours.
A. Affiliative Behaviours Contact Behaviours (prb = Petting and/or Rubbing)
Petting pet Gentle contact involving movement between the pectoral fin, dorsal fin, or
flukes of one individual with any part of the body of another individual.
Petting triplets, with two individuals petting with another positioned between
them, are sometimes seen.
Observation quality:
1. Observation based on direct observation of pec-body contact:
Note whether pec is: 1) actively moving; 2) knee-jerking; or 3)
stiff
Note part of body being contacted: (common parts include:
blowhole, dorsal surface between blowhole and dorsal fin dorsal ridge
between dorsal fin and flukes; dorsal or ventral aspect of flukes; side below
dorsal fin; side peduncle; eye region; “chin” chest (between pecs); genital
area).
105
Note whether receiving pec contact is actively moving against
pec: 1) roll; 2) pitch; 3) yaw
2. Observation based on surface observation of underwater roll of one
dolphin at distance 0 from another dolphin
Frequently observed sub-categories:
keel-rubbing (krb): One dolphin rubs ventral aspect of its flukes and/or
keel of peduncle against (typically) the leading edge of another dolphin’s
pectoral fin. Female to male but may occur male-male (or female-female).
The pec often knee-jerks. One individual may keel-rub to two others
simultaneously who are side-by-side at distance 0.
mutual face-genital petting (mfg): simulataneous petting in which one
dolphin receives petting around the genital area while the other receives
petting around the eye.
rub-pec (rp): One dolphin rubs along stiff pec of another, typically along
side from behind the eye to peduncle. Often seen in herding context (female
to male), often in response to pops. Also between males in an alternating
series.
Rubbing rub Gentle to more vigorous body-to-body contact. Individuals are often seen
rubbing against each other vigorously in play groups.
Frequently observed sub-categories:
chin-rub (chr): A dolphin approaches another and rubs, head first, under
the chin of the other dolphin. Often observed female to male. The rubbing
dolphin may be right side up or belly up, but is more typically on its side.
Bonding bnd One dolphin rest its pectoral fin against the flank of another dolphin, behind
the other dolphin’s pectoral fin, and below or just posterior to the dorsal fin.
The actor is positioned just above and alongside the other at distance about
.3-.5m behind the tip of the other’s rostrum. Typically female to female, and
often in cases of harassment by males. Infrequently male to male.
Observation quality:
Note whether the observation is based on: (a) surface position (sbs
staggered by .3-.5m at distance 0) or (b) direct observation of the pec resting
against the side of the other dolphin.
Synchronous Contact Behaviours
Synch spt Two dolphins approach from either side and contact the central dolphin’s
106
petting pectorals with the same body part and perform synchronous movements
against the pec and/or are petted by both pectorals of the central dolphin
synchronously. An example is two dolphins, on side, under the pectorals
of the central dolphin, pitching toward and away from each other
synchronously.
Non-Contact Behaviours
Synch
surfs
ss Two or more dolphins surface synchronously—they both break the
surface and dive in synchrony. If the dolphins are side-by-side but
staggered note the relative location as ½ body-length difference (1/2 bld)
or 1 bld. Note distance between dolphins as: 0 = <.3m; 1 = .3-2m; 2 = 2-
5m; and 3 = 5-10m.
Synch up ss-up Two or more dolphins break the surface synchronously but do not dive
synchronously. A common example is when one dolphin remains
snagging at the surface. Distance and location are as for SS.
Synch
down
ss-dn Two or more dolphins break the surface asynchronously but dive
synchronously. Distance and location are as for SS.
Almost
synch
surfs
ss-al Two dolphins surface side-by-side but are not quite synchronous during
any part of the surfacing cycle.
Touring trg When a dependent calf repeatedly approaches (to within 2m) and leaves
from an adult or adolescent animal, or the baby remains remains at <2m
from this animal while remaining >5m from the mother. The bay does
not tour on its own (then it’s traveling). Touring is a state, and must
occur for the majority of a surfacing bout (when surfacing bouts are
discrete) to be called. If there are non-discrete surfacing bouts, then
touring should be called if it occurs for the predominant interval you are
using for measurement (i.e. 5-minute intervals).
B. Aggressive Behaviours
Individual-to-individual
Head-to-
head
hth One or more individuals line up with one or more individuals.
Tiff tf A head-to-head in which at least one individual is bobbing its head up
107
and down. Accompanied by Donald Duck vocalisations.
Head jerk hj A sharp lateral or vertical jerk of the rostrum. Often accompanied by a
sharp bang sound.
Jaw clap jc An exaggerated opening and closing of the mouth.
Fin jerk fj An indirect indicator of a HJ or JC in social groups.
Chase chs Two individuals fast swimming, one behind the other. The individual in
the aft position is the chaser.
Circle
chase
cch Two dolphins ‘chase each other’s tail’ in a tight circle.
Charge chg A dolphin rapidly accelerates and swims fast directly at another dolphin
approaching to within two meters or less.
Tail hit tht A dolphin strikes another violently with its flukes/peduncle.
Fin hit fht A dolphin swims rapidly past another so that its fin hits the other dolphin.
Pec hit pht A dolphin ‘karate-chops’ another dolphin with its pectoral fin.
Rostrum
hit
rht A dolphin strikes another dolphin with a sharp lateral strike of its
rostrum. Essentially a HJ with contact.
Bite bte A dolphin bites another with a rapid motion of the head and jaws.
Body slam bsl A charging dolphin slams into another with any part of its body other
than its rostrum, peduncle and tail, fins and pectoral fins.
Ram rm A dolphin charges into another dolphin with its rostrum.
Attack atk An intense aggressive interaction between two dolphins involving
multiple aggressive behaviours by one individual only (e.g. biting, hitting,
etc.).
Fight fgt An intense interaction between two dolphins involving multiple
aggressive attacks by both participants.
108
Group-to-Individual
Head-to-head: X on
1
hth-2, -3,
etc.
Two or more dolphins line up head-to-head against
another dolphin, e.g. hth-4 indicates a four-on-one
interaction.
Group attack: X on
1
atk-2, -3, etc. Two or more dolphins attack a single individual. The
single dolphin may or mat not fight back.
Synchronous Behaviours
Synch head jerk shj Two dolphins, side-by-side, perform synchronous head jerks.
Synch jaw clap sjc Two dolphins, side-by-side, perform synchronous jaw claps.
Synch charge scg Two dolphins, side-by-side, charge another synchronously. May
veer off synchronously in opposite directions.
Synch chase sch Two dolphins, side-by-side, blast after another dolphin or group of
dolphins. The pursuing dolphins porpoise or leap synchronously
abreast.
C. Submissive Behaviours
On-side osd In connection with being approached or (more clearly) receiving
aggression from one or more dolphins, a dolphin lies on its side at
the surface.
D. Sexually-Oriented Behaviours
Sexual behaviours are given a separate category because some behaviours may be
performed in both aggressive and affiliative contexts. As well as judging the intensity of the
behaviour, the observer should look for other behaviours (e.g. biting, petting) which would
indicate that the interaction is an affiliative or aggressive interaction.
109
Individual-to-individual
Erection erc Obvious.
Mount mnt One dolphin approaches another from the side and slides ventrum
over the dorsum of the other animal at a 5-30 angle with respect to
the anterior-posterior axis of the other dolphin. An erection may be
seen if the mounting individual is male. Males have been observed
to mount males as well as females and females have been
observed to mount males and females. Two dolphins may mount
another synchronously or iteratively from either side.
Inverted mount ivm A common variation of mounting. The individual being approached
rolls belly up at or below the surface, then the approaching dolphin
rolls over and mounts ‘upside down.’ The penis is more readily
visible in inverted mounts.
Side-press sdp A dolphin approaches another as though to mount but instead of
angling up over the back of the other it presses against its side in
parallel orientation. May be simply another variation of mounting.
Often occurs with two dolphins ‘sandwiching’ a third between them.
Double roll-out dbr Two individuals approach another from either sides though to mount
but as they come up along either side they splay up and out rather
than up and over, sliding their ventral area against the side of the
other’s peduncle. Only seen as a dyadic behaviour.
Goose goo A dolphin moves its rostrum into the genital area of another dolphin.
May be performed slowly and gently in affiliative interactions and
violently in aggressive interactions. The goosed dolphin often avoids
by rolling belly up and tail-slapping at the goosing dolphin. A tail-
slap, rub, or belly-present may also precede a goose in affiliative
interactions.
Push-up psh One or more dolphins push up under another dolphin’s mid-section
110
forcing it out of the water. The dolphin being pushed is typically on
its side or belly-up.
Pec-mount pm One dolphin approaches another and inserts the other dolphin’s
pec-fin intoits genital slit.
Group-to-individual
Group-on-one-
sex
gps An encounter in which two or more dolphins perform multiple sexual
acts on a single individual.
Herding hrd An aggressively-maintaind association. Two or more dolphins use
vocal (pops, screams) and physical (head jerks, charges) threats to
force another dolphin to accompany them. Herding dolphins engage
in normal daily activities such as foraging while herding another
dolphin as well as in social and sexual behaviours directed at the
herded dolphin. Typically seen as an aggressively-maintained
consortship between coalitions of males and a female.
Synchronous Behaviours
Synch mount smt Two dolphins approach another from either side and synchronously
mount it.
Synch goose sgs Two dolphins approach another side-by-side from either side or from
behind and synchronously goose it.
Synch side-
press
ssp Two dolphins approach another from behind, swim up on either side,
and synchronously perform side press or ‘sandwich’ the dolphin in
the centre.
Double roll-out dbr Two dolphins approach another from either side as though to mount
but as they come up along either side they splay up and out rather
than up and over, sliding their ventral area against the side of the
other’s peduncle. Only seen as a dyadic behaviour.
111
E. Displays
Dolphins, particularly males, perform a wide variety of displays. Many displays by males are
often performed in synchrony with another male or males and these can be quite spectacular.
Displays are divided into two categories, those that can only be observed as synchronous
displays (by definition) and those which can be performed by a single individual.
Individual or Synchronous
Tail-slap ts A dolphin raises its tail flukes out of the water and slaps them against the
water surface.
Chin-slap cns A dolphin raises its head out of the water and slaps its rostrum against the
water surface. Maybe light or hard.
Belly-slap bls A dolphin raises itself out of the water to at least its dorsal fin and then slaps
its belly on the water surface. Maybe light or hard.
Belly-breach blb A dolphin leap clear of the water and lands on its belly.
Leap lp A dolphin leaps clear of the water, remains orientated normally in the air
and re-enters head first. Note: this class is the most common form of leap
and occurs in many non-social contexts such as very fast Travel (i.e.
blasting) and leap feeding.
Chin-slap-
tail-slap
cst
s
A commonly occurring sequence in which a chin-slap is immediately
followed by a tail-slap.
Face-slap fcs A dolphin, on its side, raises its head out of the water and slaps the side of
its head on the water surface. May be light or hard.
Side-slap sds A dolphin, on its side, raises itself out of the water at least to its dorsal fin
and then slaps its side on the water surface. May be light or hard.
Side-breach sdb A dolphin leaps clear of the water and lands on its side.
Side-leap sdl A dolphin leaps clear of the water side-up, or turns on its side in the air, and
re-enters the water head-first.
112
Head-slap hds A dolphin, belly-up, raises its head out of the water and slaps it on the water
surface. May be light or hard.
Back-slap bks A dolphin, belly-up, raises itself out of the water at least to its dorsal fin and
then slaps its back against the water surface. May be light or hard.
Back-breach bkb A dolphins leaps clear of the water, belly-up, and lands on its back.
Back-leap bkl A dolphin leaps clear of the water, belly-up, and re-enters the water head-
first.
Vertical rise vtr A dolphin rises partially up out of the water while in the vertical position.
Dolphins have been observed rising out past the pectoral fins or son only
the rostrum breaks the surface.
Tail-walk tlw A vtr in which the dolphin rises up to at least halfway down its peduncle and
holds the position with vigorous fluke-thrusting.
Belly-
present
be
p
A dolphin rolls on its side belly toward another dolphin at distance 0-1 as it
swims past in front of or alongside the other dolphin.
Tilt-belly-in tlb A dolphin tilts its belly toward another dolphin while positioned beside and
just behind the other dolphin. Often performed by two dolphins in formation
behind another.
Tilt-head-in tlh A dolphin, from tilt-in position, angles its head into the vicinity of the other
dolphin’s genital slit.
Head-circle hcl In horizontal position, a dolphin rotates its head in circles (only seen once
as a synchronous display by two dolphins).
Rooster-
strut
rst A dolphin pushes its chest down and arches its head up and out of the
water, then moves forward, often with a slight bobbing motion of its head.
The bobbing motion is typically not as pronounced as in a rst. May be
accompanied by tail slaps.
Side-sway
display
ssd Like the rooster strut except that the dolphin sways its head from side to
side instead of up and down.
113
Tail-flailing tfl Very rapid, short strokes of the flukes in any orientation. Often used in
intense, singleton displays.
Arching
display
acd The most intense single display. Often growing out of the rooster strut, the
dolphin arches its head up higher and higher, often until it is arching out to
the dorsal fin, while whirling around, often rolling over on its side or back;
often with an open mouth. Often accompanied by tail-flailing and sometimes
tail-slaps.
114
Appendix 5 Photo-ID Form
Date (Year-Month-Day) Initials (RC/KG)
Roll # :
Photo- ID Data Sheet
Date:
Survey Number:
Start time: End time:
Photographer: Camera: Scribe:
Frame # Notes
115
Appendix 6 Mega Fauna Survey Form Megafauna Survey Form (1/06)
GENERAL INFORMATION Vessel: Entered Computer:
MFS#
116
Date
South 04 East 039 Wpt # General Location Closest Habitat Notes
Observer
Recorder
Time Depth
Species
Temp
Tide:
Ebb
Flood
Slack
Number Present
Bft
NOTES
Roll 1 (date/ID):
Frames: Spacers(s):
Roll 2: (date/ID): Frames: Spacers(s):
Photo Notes:
Megafauna Survey Form (1/06)
GENERAL INFORMATION Entered Computer:
MFS#
Date
South 04 East 039 Wpt # General Location Closest Habitat Notes
Observer
Recorder
Time Depth
Species
Temp
Tide:
Ebb
Floo
d
Slac
k
Number Present
Bft
117
NOTES
Roll 1 (date/ID):
Frames: Spacers(s):
Roll 2 (date/ID):
Frames: Spacers(s):
Photo Notes:
