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© European Medicines Agency, 2012. Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.
20 September 2012 EMA/CHMP/40072/2010 Rev. 1 Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP)
Guideline on clinical investigation of medicinal products, including depot preparations in the treatment of schizophrenia
Draft Agreed by Central Nervous System Working Party January 2011
Draft Agreed by Biostatistics Working Party February 2011
Adoption by CHMP for release for consultation February 2011
End of consultation (deadline for comments) 31 August 2011
Agreed by Central Nervous System Working Party September 2012
Agreed by Biostatistics Working Party September 2012
Agreed by PDCO September 2012
Adoption by CHMP 20 September 2012
Date for coming into effect 1 April 2013
This guideline replaces NfG on clinical investigation of medicinal products in the treatment of
schizophrenia (CPMP/EWP/559/95).
Keywords Schizophrenia, cognitive deficit in schizophrenia, negative symptoms in
schizophrenia, partial response, treatment resistant schizophrenia,
short term treatment, maintenance treatment
Guideline on clinical investigation of medicinal products, including depot preparations, in the treatment of schizophrenia
Table of contents
Executive summary ..................................................................................... 4
1. Introduction (background)...................................................................... 4 1.1. Schizophrenia.................................................................................................... 4 1.2. Schizophrenia in the paediatric population ............................................................. 5 1.3. Other psychotic disorders .................................................................................... 5 1.4. Treatment......................................................................................................... 5 1.4.1. Medical treatment ........................................................................................... 5 1.4.2. Supportive treatment....................................................................................... 6
2. Scope....................................................................................................... 6
3. Legal basis and relevant guidelines......................................................... 6
4. Specific considerations when developing products for the treatment of schizophrenia .............................................................................................. 7 4.1. General strategy ................................................................................................ 7 4.1.1. Use of placebo ................................................................................................ 7 4.1.2. Specific claims ................................................................................................ 8 4.1.3. Extrapolation to other psychoses ....................................................................... 8 4.2. Assessment of therapeutic efficacy ....................................................................... 8 4.2.1. Choice of efficacy outcomes and assessment tools ............................................... 8 4.3. Clinical Pharmacology studies .............................................................................. 9 4.3.1. Pharmacodynamics.......................................................................................... 9 4.3.2. Pharmacokinetics ............................................................................................ 9 4.3.3. Interactions.................................................................................................... 9 4.4. Clinical efficacy trials .......................................................................................... 9 4.4.1. Exploratory trials............................................................................................. 9 4.4.2. Demonstration of dose response relationship..................................................... 10 4.4.3. Confirmatory trials......................................................................................... 10 4.4.4. Study design for long term trials...................................................................... 12 4.5. Specific claims ................................................................................................. 14 4.5.1. Efficacy on negative symptoms........................................................................ 14 4.5.2 Efficacy on cognitive deficits ............................................................................ 14 4.5.3 Trials to study monotherapy in treatment resistant/refractory patients................... 15 4.5.4. Trials to study augmentation/add-on or combination treatment............................ 16 4.6. Special populations........................................................................................... 16 4.6.1. Paediatric population...................................................................................... 16 4.6.2. Elderly ......................................................................................................... 17 4.7. Safety evaluation ............................................................................................. 17
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4.7.1. Specific adverse events to be monitored ........................................................... 18 4.7.2. Long term safety ........................................................................................... 19
References ................................................................................................ 20
Methodology of clinical trials concerning the development of depot preparations of approved medicinal products in schizophrenia ................. 21
1. Introduction .......................................................................................... 21
2. Purpose of the development plan .......................................................... 21
3. Pharmacokinetics .................................................................................. 22
4. Efficacy.................................................................................................. 22 4.1. Design features................................................................................................ 22 4.2. Trial population................................................................................................ 23 4.3. Comparator..................................................................................................... 23 4.4. Endpoint ......................................................................................................... 23 4.5. Duration ......................................................................................................... 23
5. Switching .............................................................................................. 23
6. Safety .................................................................................................... 23
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Executive summary
This document is intended to provide general guidance for the development of medicinal products,
including depot preparations, for the treatment of schizophrenia. The guideline has been developed
during a transitional period in which the DSM IV classification and diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia
(and other psychotic conditions) are being revised in the preparation for DSM 5.
This guideline will not address development of medicinal products for the treatment of psychotic
conditions other than schizophrenia.
The main requirements for the development of medicinal products for the treatment of schizophrenia,
with regard to study design, patient population and outcome measures are described. Specific issues,
including treatment resistant patient populations and other specific patient groups (children and
adolescents) are addressed. Attention is focused on alternative treatment options such as add-on,
augmentation, and combination therapy. The importance of specific domains in schizophrenia including
cognition and negative symptoms are also discussed.
The change in outcomes of clinical studies performed in patients with schizophrenia in the last decades
(e.g. higher placebo response, stability of clinical response) has triggered a broad discussion. Possible
study designs in terms of use of placebo, study duration, and patient population have been reviewed
and have been redefined where needed. The main scope is to provide guidance on the choice of clinical
studies that are feasible and likely to produce interpretable results.
For convenience and harmonization of documents, guidance for the development of depot preparations
is added as appendix.
This document should be read in conjunction with other relevant EMA and ICH guidelines (see section
3).
1. Introduction (background)
1.1. Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a severe psychiatric disease with a heterogeneous course and symptom profile. The
personal tragedy associated with schizophrenia is extreme, since it attacks the human properties
considered most precious and distinguishing. The worldwide lifetime morbidity risk of the disorder is
about 1 percent across diverse geographic, cultural, and socio-economic regions and has not changed
over the years. The age of onset of the first psychotic episode is typically in the late teens, but can be
as late as into the mid thirties. Onset prior to adolescence is rare. Age of onset is earlier in men than in
women. In most patients the disease follows a chronic course with lasting impairment.
Schizophrenia presents clinically with so-called positive and negative symptoms. The positive
symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, disorganised speech, and disorganised or catatonic
behaviours. Negative symptoms include affective flattening, restriction in the fluency and productivity
of thought and speech and in the initiation of goal directed behaviour. The positive symptoms appear
to reflect an excess or distortion of normal functions, whereas negative symptoms appear to reflect a
diminution or loss of normal function.
In addition, cognitive deficits (defects of working memory, information processing, attention/vigilance,
learning, reasoning and social cognition) are common. Whether these should be considered to belong
to the core symptoms is currently under discussion. Cognitive deficits generally show poor
improvement with current antipsychotic treatment.
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Besides these predominant symptoms, schizophrenia is associated with an increased incidence of other
psychiatric symptoms such as manic and depressive symptoms, anxiety or obsessive-compulsive
symptoms, substance abuse and dependence, and personality disorder. Schizophrenia with co-morbid
symptoms should be distinguished from other psychotic disorders (see also section 1.3).
The current diagnostic criteria are made explicit in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (4th edition) (DSM IV) and in the International Classification of Diseases, (ICD 10). These
criteria are valid for the purpose of case identification. According to DSM IV (1994) the essential
features of schizophrenia are a mixture of characteristic signs and symptoms (both positive and
negative) that have been present for a significant proportion of time during a 1 month period, with
some signs of the disorder persisting for at least 6 months.
1.2. Schizophrenia in the paediatric population
Schizophrenia is very rare in pre-pubertal children and is more likely to be associated with
chromosomal/cytogenetic variations. However, when it does occur, schizophrenia in pre-pubertal
children is comparable at the symptom level to schizophrenia in adults.
Fleeting hallucinations and delusions are common in paediatric subjects and therefore a high rate of
misdiagnoses is reported. The differential diagnosis includes affective disorders (major depressive
episodes and bipolar disorder), psychosis secondary to medical conditions, side effects of medication
and/or substance abuse, autism spectrum disorder, conduct disorders, post-traumatic disorders and
personality disorders under development.
Schizophrenia in adolescents may be preceded by prodromal cognitive impairment at a young age but
these abnormalities have neither diagnostic specificity nor predictive value. A deterioration in
functioning is often associated with the schizophrenic prodrome. With increasing age, symptoms
increasingly resemble those of adults. However, negative and cognitive symptoms (such as flat or
inappropriate affect) are more prominent from the beginning in adolescent patients. In addition the
disease tends to follow a more severe course, has lower response to treatment and a worse long-term
prognosis than adult onset schizophrenia.
Because of these characteristics in children and adolescents, for registration purposes only patients
with a definitive diagnosis of schizophrenia would be eligible for inclusion in clinical studies.
1.3. Other psychotic disorders
Several other psychotic conditions are recognised. However, their classification and diagnostic criteria
are being thoroughly revised within the preparation of DSM 5. The diagnosis and treatment of
psychotic conditions other than schizophrenia will not be discussed in the current guideline (see also
section 2).
1.4. Treatment
1.4.1. Medical treatment
The aim of conventional antipsychotic treatment can be categorised into: 1) acute treatment primarily
to control positive symptoms, and 2) maintenance treatment to consolidate stabilized control of
symptoms and to prevent exacerbations. In addition to the traditional emphasis on positive symptoms,
a number of clinical trial programmes have investigated products specifically for their possible effects
on negative symptoms, cognitive function, and on depressive symptoms seen in schizophrenia.
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The effectiveness of the so-called first generation or typical antipsychotic agents, on symptoms in
schizophrenia is mostly attributed to their anti-dopaminergic effect, particularly at the D2 receptors.
The so-called second generation or atypical antipsychotic agents show in addition a varying degree of
affinity for serotoninergic (notably 5-HT 2A), dopaminergic, muscarinic, cholinergic, α1 adrenergic and
histamine H1 receptors, which are thought to be involved largely in the negative symptom
presentation.
Recently, compounds that modulate glutamate receptor activity are being studied in line with theories
that dysregulation of the glutamatergic system might contribute to the pathophysiology of
schizophrenia. Other targets including but not limited to acting on the GABA (γ-Aminobutyric acid)
system, on alpha-2 adrenergic receptors and on various serotoninergic and dopaminergic receptors
including D1 receptor agonists as well as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and muscarinic acetylcholine
receptor agonists are being studied for their impact on either cognition or other symptoms not directly
linked to the positive symptoms.
For patients whose psychotic symptoms are not sufficiently controlled with one medicinal product there
are a number of possible augmentation strategies with various treatment objectives. Although such
strategies are quite widely used in clinical practice there are no products currently approved in the EU
(European Union) for use in this way at the time of writing of this document, and there is a general
lack of supporting evidence.
1.4.2. Supportive treatment
In most EU countries, patients with schizophrenia are offered supportive treatment, such as
standardised psychotherapy, psycho-education, social support, and counselling. These supportive
treatment practices vary considerably among EU member states but have their value for sustainability
of drug effects.
2. Scope
This guideline focuses primarily on products developed specifically for schizophrenia. Some comments
are also made about treatment of psychosis as a part of other disorders. However, data requirements
to support an indication for other disorders are out of the scope of this guideline.
During the development of this guideline DSM IV is under revision, and it is expected that it will be
replaced by DSM 5. This might have consequences for the definitions of the disorders as given in this
guideline, and these may need amending accordingly.
3. Legal basis and relevant guidelines
This guideline has to be read in conjunction with the introduction and general principles (4) and part of
the Annex I to Directive 2001/83 (as amended) and relevant CHMP and ICH guidelines, in particular:
Dose-Response Information to Support Drug Registration (CPMP/ICH/378/95 , ICH E4)
Pharmacokinetic studies in man (EudraLex vol. 3C C3A).
Points to Consider on the Clinical Requirements of Modified Release Products Released as a
Line Extension of an Existing Marketing Authorisation (CPMP/EWP/1875/03).
Note for guidance on clinical investigation of drug interactions (CPMP/EWP/560/95)
The Clinical Evaluation of QT/QTc Interval Prolongation and Proarrhythmic Potential for Non-
Antiarrhythmic drugs (CHMP/ICH/2/04, ICH E14)
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Guideline On The Non-Clinical Investigation Of The Dependence Potential Of Medicinal Products
(EMEA/CHMP/SWP/94227/2004)
Statistical Principles for Clinical Trials (CPMP/ICH/363/96, ICH E9)
Choice of Control Group in Clinical Trials (CPMP/ICH/364/96, ICH E10)
Points to Consider on Adjustment for Baseline covariate (CPMP/EWP/2863/99)
Guideline on Missing data in confirmatory clinical trials (CPMP/EWP/177/99)
Note For Guidance On Population Exposure: Extent of Population Exposure to Assess Clinical
Safety (CPMP/ICH/375/95, ICH E1)
Reflection paper on the extrapolation of results from clinical studies conducted outside Europe
to the EU population (EMEA/CHMP/EWP/692702/2008)
Note For Guidance On Clinical Investigation Of Medicinal Products In The Paediatric Population
(CPMP/ICH/2711/99, ICH E11)
Note For Guidance On Studies in support of special populations: geriatrics (CPMP/ICH/379/95,
ICH E7)
Guideline on the exposure to medicinal products during pregnancy: need for post-authorisation
data (EMEA/CHMP/313666/2005)
Note for Guidance on the evaluation of the pharmacokinetic of medicinal products in patients
with impaired renal function (CHMP/EWP/225/02)
Guideline on the evaluation of the pharmacokinetic of medicinal products in patients with
impaired hepatic function (CHMP/EWP/2339/02)
4. Specific considerations when developing products for the treatment of schizophrenia
In developing medicinal products for the treatment of schizophrenia, specific issues should be
considered. These include:
4.1. General strategy
4.1.1. Use of placebo
There is a debate about the use of placebo in clinical trials in the treatment of schizophrenia. Concerns
about ethical issues and feasibility have been raised. However, assay sensitivity cannot be guaranteed
even in well designed and conducted trials if a placebo arm is not included. Historical controls are not
useful for current clinical trials, since the concept of the disorder, the diagnostic criteria and the
efficacy criteria have changed. In recent trials in schizophrenia, the difference in efficacy between
active treatments and placebo has tended to be smaller than the differences seen in the past.
Therefore, a placebo control has been considered necessary for internal validation of non-inferiority
trials comparing new drugs to an active control and is also highly desirable so that the 'absolute'
effects (both therapeutic and adverse) of a product can be ascertained.
To avoid unnecessary risks for patients and others, placebo controlled studies should be performed in a
highly controlled setting, with stringent follow-up to apply predefined escape criteria, rescue
medication and stopping rules. Provided these safeguards are in place, the benefits of using a placebo
arm will generally override any ethical reservations in short term controlled efficacy trials (see section
4.4.3.1) Long term administration of placebo to patients in need of active treatment is ethically
problematic and is associated with a high rate of premature withdrawals, making interpretation of the
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data difficult. For demonstrating maintenance of effectiveness of treatment in the long term, the use of
a placebo arm is however possible and appropriate in a randomised withdrawal study in which patients
stabilised on open label test treatment for at least 12 weeks are randomised to active test treatment or
placebo. Patients who relapse meet study endpoint criteria and can receive active treatment
immediately without compromising the study requirements. Provided the study is appropriately
designed and conducted patients in the placebo group who become in need of active treatment will not
be denied it and hence there should not be ethical problems.
4.1.2. Specific claims
For first and second generation antipsychotics an effect on schizophrenia should be demonstrated
before efficacy on specific domains (such as cognition or negative symptoms) can be claimed. This is to
avoid unnecessary polytherapy. For other compounds with different mechanisms of action that target a
specific domain and for which no antipsychotic effect is expected, specific claims could in principle be
made without a general indication for treatment of schizophrenia. Each of these claims should be
supported by robust evidence and this will require trials specifically designed to test the specific aspect
of efficacy for which a claim is to be made. The patient population studied, the comparator that is
chosen, and the usefulness (validity, relevance) of the rating scales used to measure efficacy for that
situation should all be justified (see section 4.5).
4.1.3. Extrapolation to other psychoses
As stated in sections 1.3. and 2, psychotic symptoms may occur in other disorders which may either be
syndromes distinct from schizophrenia or prodromal to the development of full schizophrenia.
Diagnostic criteria can be found in DSM IV and ICD 10. As such disorders may differ substantially in
terms of patient characteristics and their natural course, it is not possible to extrapolate data from a
specific psychotic disorder (e.g. schizophrenia) to another (e.g. delusional disorder). Therefore, it is
not acceptable to perform studies in order to support a broad indication for treatment of psychosis.
4.2. Assessment of therapeutic efficacy
To support an indication for the treatment of schizophrenia, efficacy on a broad range of schizophrenia
symptoms, as captured by the total score on instruments such as the PANSS or BPRS, has to be
demonstrated in short-term studies (see section 4.4.3.1.) and maintenance of treatment effectiveness
has to be shown in at least one long term study (see section 4.4.4.). Both types of data should be part
of the package submitted for marketing authorisation.
Cognitive impairment in schizophrenic patients may be part of the chronic illness or may be due to
other causes such as transient exacerbations of acute psychotic symptoms, medications (especially
anticholinergic agents), depression, or understimulation of the patients (as a result of hospitalization).
In order to support an indication for the treatment of cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia, a
treatment effect should be shown on cognitive symptoms that are clearly a core part of the syndrome
of schizophrenia. The effect of treatment on cognitive function should be documented even if no
specific indication is sought, for the purpose of characterizing the safety of the drug product.
4.2.1. Choice of efficacy outcomes and assessment tools
Efficacy has to be measured with the use of accepted, reliable and valid measurement scales. In some
cases alternative assessment tools may be appropriate, but the choice of other tools should be fully
justified based on standard test quality criteria.
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The primary efficacy measure should be a composite measure of the symptoms of schizophrenia. For
this, the widely accepted measurement scales are the PANSS (Positive and Negative Symptom Scale)
and BPRS (Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale), which are still considered to be reliable and validated.
However the use of other valid, more recently developed instruments is encouraged, provided
reference can be made to the well known instruments, PANSS/BPRS.
In addition secondary efficacy measures should be presented to assess the effect of the test product on
further aspects of the disease. Clinical global impression (CGI) data should also be presented, both
CGI-severity and CGI-improvement.
For assessment of negative symptoms in particular, the use of specially designed rating scales is
necessary. Older assessment scales such as the BPRS give little emphasis to negative symptoms and
are not suitable for this purpose. Satisfactory reliability and validity has been demonstrated for the
negative symptoms subscale of the PANSS and for the SANS (Scale for the Assessment of Negative
Symptoms). Due to the limitations of available scales as mentioned, the development of new scales is
encouraged. This also applies to instruments used to assess treatment effects on cognition.
4.3. Clinical Pharmacology studies
4.3.1. Pharmacodynamics
The use of biomarkers such as receptor occupancy PET studies (e.g. D2 and 5HT 2A receptor
occupancy) and imaging techniques to detect structural changes in the brain may be useful in dose
finding and proof of concept studies in early drug development. However, specific claims will be
obtained based on results from clinical outcomes and not on biomarkers, which can provide only
supportive evidence.
4.3.2. Pharmacokinetics
No specific requirements for medicinal products in schizophrenia are necessary (see Guidelines on
pharmacokinetic studies in man, modified release products, and on evaluation of the pharmacokinetics
of medicinal products in patients with impaired hepatic and renal function). The extent to which the
drug crosses the blood-brain barrier should be established. For depot preparations, see appendix.
4.3.3. Interactions
All pharmacodynamic interactions between the test drug and other drugs that may be prescribed
simultaneously in clinical practice and have potential PD interaction, should be studied, as well as
potential pharmacodynamic interactions with alcohol and CNS (Central Nervous System) active
substances. Reference is made to the drug interaction guideline.
4.4. Clinical efficacy trials
4.4.1. Exploratory trials
For exploratory or proof of concept studies various designs are acceptable. In these studies the
emphasis tends to be maximization of the power of the study to detect a treatment effect, rather than
on broad applicability of the findings. Methods of achieving this include using narrow inclusion criteria
or other selection of patients considered most likely to respond, and excluding placebo responders
(enrichment design). These design aspects are only acceptable for exploratory trials, and should not be
applied to provide confirmatory pivotal evidence of efficacy.
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4.4.2. Demonstration of dose response relationship
It is essential that the proposed doses for the SmPC are robustly justified. Preliminary data on the dose
range anticipated to be therapeutic can be obtained from non clinical data such as animal models and
receptor occupancy studies. However dose-response relationships need to be established in clinical
trials using validated efficacy endpoints. The minimum effective dose and the dose at which best
efficacy is obtained should be established. Flexible dose designs are unsuitable to provide this
information and therefore designs with multiple fixed doses and a placebo control are required. It is
preferred to make direct dose comparisons of multiple doses in a single study. Dose response is
typically established in short-term studies, and this information serves as a basis for dose selection in
both additional short-term phase 3 studies and the longer term maintenance study. It is strongly
recommended to establish the dose-response of the investigational drug prior to the start of
confirmatory trials (Phase 3) as the use of inadequately justified doses may hamper interpretation of
the latter trials. In addition, the study population in the dose finding studies should preferably reflect
the entire targeted patient population. For general strategy and design refer also to section 4.4.3.
Refer to ICH E4 regarding dose-response estimations and the utility of modelling.
4.4.3. Confirmatory trials
The purpose of short term confirmatory trials is to demonstrate the efficacy of the medicinal product
and obtain initial information on safety in the wide patient population.
4.4.3.1. Study design for short term trials
Crossover designs are unsuitable for trials in patients with schizophrenia. Confirmatory trials should be
double-blind, randomised, parallel group trials.
The study protocol should provide a justification of the choice of the active comparator – this would
normally be an active comparator with proven efficacy and, if from a similar class, a similar clinical
pharmacological profile to the test product. If the product is the first in its class an appropriate active
comparator would be a product licensed in the target indication and population or, if there is no
suitable licensed product, a medicinal product recognised as the “gold standard” for the target
indication and population in clinical practice should be chosen as a suitable active comparator.
If the aim of the study is to demonstrate non-inferiority to an active comparator, then a three-arm
study of placebo, test product and active comparator is recommended (see also section 4.4.3.7.).
Superiority to placebo should be demonstrated in order to ensure assay sensitivity of the study.
Alternatively, a two-arm study of test and active comparator would be acceptable provided superiority
of the test product over an appropriately justified active comparator was demonstrated.
4.4.3.2. Study population
Patients should be diagnosed and classified according to the criteria of DSM IV or ICD 10, and
subsequently classified according to the longitudinal course of their disease (e.g. exacerbation,
remission, inter-episode residual symptoms, or chronically ill). The diagnosis should be made by a
qualified psychiatrist and confirmed with the use of a structured assessment tool e.g. the SCID-I
(Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders). Further descriptive parameters (co-
morbidity, substance abuse), demographic characteristics and a detailed disease history (duration of
disease, duration and number of exacerbations, naïve or exposed status, and previous treatment
outcome) should be documented.
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In contrast to proof of concept studies, for pivotal efficacy studies it is important to maximise external
validity and broad applicability to the intended patient population, without unduly compromising
internal validity. This may require exclusion of patient groups that may introduce confounding by e.g.
co-morbidities or concomitant medication. Exclusion criteria should be clearly justified.
Patients in an acute phase (with florid positive symptoms) may generally show a much larger response
to pharmacological treatment compared to patients in a chronic phase. Therefore, if patients in
different phases of the disease are included in the same clinical study, stratified randomisation is
recommended to ensure that the different types of patients are evenly represented throughout
treatment arms. It is recommended to include at least 20% of patients with a disease history of less
than 5 years. The inclusion criteria should define the patient population in terms of severity of
symptoms. Cut-off scores can be based on efficacy measurement scales (e.g. PANSS).
4.4.3.3. Study duration
The preferred design for demonstrating short term efficacy is a 6 week clinical trial. This is because so
far for first- and second generation antipsychotics, a reasonable stability of effect has been observed
as well as some effect on negative symptoms, often only after 6 weeks of treatment. Shorter study
duration (e.g. 4 weeks) could also be considered, especially for drugs with a similar profile to existing
antipsychotic drugs. This carries the risk of negative results if maximal therapeutic effect is not
obtained at 4 weeks and the shorter duration is disadvantageous in terms of the ability to demonstrate
stability of effect. For new compounds with novel mechanism of action (different from the currently
available antipsychotics) and/or targeting other domains such as negative symptoms or cognition, the
study duration might need to be adapted accordingly (see section 4.5).
4.4.3.4. Co-medication
Co-medications, for example benzodiazepines, may be permitted to the extent that they do not
compromise detecting signals of safety and efficacy of the drug candidate. In the interest of
generalizability of the data to the intended patient population, a rationale for excluding concomitant
medications should be provided. It may be appropriate for the sponsor to place limits on the amount of
use of benzodiazepines within a study or to specify that patients should be on a stable dose regimen
for some time before starting the trial.
Treatments that may augment the test treatment should be excluded, despite the consequences of
these exclusions for generalizability of the trial results. Therefore other antipsychotic drugs should be
discontinued, except in the case of augmentation studies (see also section 4.5.4.).
Standardised psychotherapy, psycho-education, support or counselling may be offered as
supplementary treatment, but their use should be prospectively defined in the protocol and
documented in the trial report. The effects on treatment should be discussed in the dossier.
4.4.3.5. Screening and run-in periods
Following screening, qualitative and quantitative baseline assessments should be conducted in a short
run-in period. Prior antipsychotic medication should be washed out, normally tapered in a single blind
placebo run-in period of sufficient duration aiming at elimination of prior treatment without substantial
worsening of symptoms. Typically a few days will be appropriate for run-in, but this period may vary
according to the targeted patient population (e.g. chronically ill or acute exacerbation). Placebo
responders should not be excluded from randomisation, except in the case of exploratory studies. In
some instances screening, baseline assessments, randomisation and start of study medication may be
performed in a single day, especially if patients are severely ill.
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4.4.3.6. Efficacy parameters
Primary efficacy measure(s) should be presented as the numerical change in schizophrenia symptom
score from baseline to study endpoint (final measurement). The results should be discussed not only in
terms of statistical significance but also in terms of clinical relevance. Presentation of the proportion of
patients with a pre-specified degree of improvement on the symptom score is valuable. For this
purpose, responder analyses should be presented. Also the proportion of patients deteriorating during
treatment should be documented.
In short term trials in patients with acute/exacerbated symptoms at least a 30% reduction on the total
PANSS score compared to baseline is generally considered to be clinically relevant and can be accepted
as a definition of responder. This figure may need adjustment in case of inclusion of more chronically ill
patients, therefore a flexible approach can be taken. For sensitivity analyses the presentation of
additional responder analyses using alternative criteria for response rates is recommended, e.g. the
proportions of patients with minimal and with substantial improvement.
4.4.3.7. Statistical considerations
For more complete guidance on statistical principles for clinical trials, please refer to ICH E9 statistical
principles for clinical trials.
The standard randomized placebo and active-controlled, parallel group trial design is intended to show
superiority of the drug candidate to placebo and to quantify the efficacy of the drug candidate in
comparison with a drug of known efficacy for the treatment of schizophrenia. Analysis populations
should include the full analysis set (FAS) and the per protocol (PP) population.
A particular problem with both short and longer term trials in schizophrenia relates to patient
withdrawals and consequent missing data. All reasonable steps should be taken to minimise their
occurrence and to follow patients regardless of adherence to protocolled treatment to better
understand the impact of missing data. Reasons for drop outs should be documented (especially to
distinguish between lack of efficacy and undesirable effects). In this respect, special attention should
be drawn to the issue of compliance, which is a problem in patients with schizophrenia. Assessment of
compliance should be ensured during clinical studies by e.g. measurement of drug plasma levels, tablet
counting.
Some of the commonly used analysis techniques, such as LOCF and BOCF approaches, have the
potential to introduce bias. While easy to implement, these methods have a number of limitations,
including over-estimation or under-estimation of treatment effects (and the associated variance) and
inconsistency with the course of disease. Sensitivity analyses that evaluate missingness assumptions
should be performed to assess the robustness of findings. All of the aforementioned analyses should be
prespecified in the protocol. Since the statistical findings might be uninterpretable in the presence of
high dropout rates, the dropout rates in a trial need to be considered when interpreting the efficacy
findings
Reference is made to the CHMP guideline on missing data in confirmatory clinical trials and the advice
therein to consider the problem of missing data in advance of the trial, and provide detailed discussion
of the missing data pattern observed and potential biases introduced once the trial has been
completed.
4.4.4. Study design for long term trials
Due to the chronic course of schizophrenia (with exacerbations) and the need for lifelong treatment,
long term data are necessary in order to demonstrate that the treatment effect found in the acute
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phase is maintained over time and that there is a continued need for treatment. Several approaches to
study design are possible.
The objective of demonstrating a continued need for treatment with superiority to placebo in the long
term is best achieved by means of a randomised withdrawal study. In this design patients are treated
open label for a period of at least 12 weeks, whereas patients who show a stable favourable clinical
response after that time are randomised to either the test product or placebo. The primary efficacy
variable is the occurrence of symptom relapse rated on a symptom scale. Patients who relapse become
study completers and can be re-started on open label treatment without delay. The randomised
treatment period should be of sufficient duration to achieve sufficient events rates (i.e. relapses) to
ensure the necessary statistical power. This will depend on the nature of the test treatment and the
patient population; periods of up to 6 months are typical. A randomised withdrawal study is also
useful for the evaluation of withdrawal phenomena.
A stand alone active comparator parallel trial is an alternative possibility. When the trial objective is to
demonstrate non-inferiority, the active comparator should be a product with a well documented
maintenance of treatment effect in schizophrenia. Due to the natural course of the disease, the
duration of such a trial should be 12 months.
The main issue with parallel design schizophrenia trials such as these, with active comparator but no
placebo, is substantiation of the assay sensitivity of the trial. If this cannot be assured then
equivalence or non-inferiority to the active comparator cannot reliably be concluded.
Traditional open label single arm extensions studies can provide little or no evidence of long term
efficacy. Apart from the obvious sources of bias, there is normally a steady withdrawal of patients who
do not respond sufficiently to treatment so that analyses in the remaining patients provide an
overestimate of overall long term efficacy.
Extension of short term studies can however provide evidence of maintenance of effect if there is an
active comparator control group and the double blind is maintained. Sponsors are encouraged to adopt
such designs instead of open label single arm extensions studies. Unbalanced randomisation so that
the majority of patients receive the test drug is satisfactory provided the study has sufficient statistical
power for its objectives. The design of the study should be such that the comparison between test and
active comparator treatments in the long term phase remains a comparison between truly random
groups. For example selecting responders to short-term treatment with the test product and re-
randomising them to receive long term test or active comparator treatments would be unsatisfactory.
Neither a randomised withdrawal trial nor a parallel group active comparator trial is ideal on its own for
showing long term efficacy for treatment of schizophrenia. The former generally does not allow for a
clear estimation of the magnitude of the treatment effect while the latter has issues with assay
sensitivity and does not reliably demonstrate continuing benefit from treatment. A hybrid design in
which a randomised withdrawal period of 6 months is incorporated into a long term parallel group
active comparator trial (after at least 12 months of treatment) could be an optimal approach as it
could include the desired aspects from both of the basic designs. Demonstration of superiority of both
active treatments to placebo in the randomised withdrawal period could confirm assay sensitivity of the
parallel group trial and provide statistically robust evidence that patients continue to benefit from
treatment in the long term.
4.4.4.1. Efficacy parameters in long term studies
The primary efficacy variables to measure maintenance of effect would depend on the design of the
clinical study, indication and patient population.
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In parallel design studies, the primary efficacy should be measured as the difference between baseline
and endpoint on the symptom score, as in the short term studies. As in short-term efficacy studies, a
proportional responder analysis would be supportive of the long-term treatment need. Drop out rates,
which are indicative of treatment failure, and the proportion of patients meeting pre-specified criteria
for relapse should be analysed at pre-specified time points as key secondary endpoints. In a
randomised withdrawal design, the primary efficacy measure would be proportion of patients with
relapse rated on a symptom scale at certain time intervals (e.g. at 1, 3, and 6 months) using pre-
specified criteria. Patients with exacerbations must be clearly distinguished from withdrawals due to
other reasons.
4.5. Specific claims
4.5.1. Efficacy on negative symptoms
If an effect on negative symptoms is claimed, specially designed studies in patients with predominant
negative symptoms should be conducted. The duration of negative symptoms and onset of the current
stable episode of schizophrenia should be documented (e.g. 6-12 weeks). To ensure that patients with
true negative symptoms of schizophrenia are studied, and not those whose symptoms are related to
depressive symptoms or extra-pyramidal symptoms (EPS), the inclusion criteria should encompass:
a) Predominant and persistent negative symptoms.
b) Flat affect, poverty of speech, and avolition being present as representative of core negative
symptoms
c) Stable condition of schizophrenic illness for longer than 6 months, especially of the negative
symptoms.
Exclusion criteria should include:
d) Major depression; low depression scores are preferable.
e) Subjects with substantially confounding extra-pyramidal symptoms.
f) Substantial non-compliance or substance abuse.
Improvement on negative symptoms should be demonstrated through validated scales (e.g. PANSS
negative subscale, SANS or other), and presented as the difference between baseline and endpoint.
Responder rates should be provided and demonstration of functional improvement, e.g. improvement
in functional capacity, as key secondary outcome measure is recommended. The design can be either
in an add-on or monotherapy setting (see 4.5.3 and 4.5.4.).
A study duration of at least 6 months on a stable dose is recommended. For design options, refer to
section 4.5.4.
4.5.2 Efficacy on cognitive deficits
To support a separate claim for efficacy on cognitive aspects in patients with schizophrenia, specific
studies should be performed. The patient population should be clearly defined in terms of a range of
relevant measures of cognitive functioning. For this purpose, the cognitive test battery as proposed
and defined by MATRICS is acceptable but other, comparable, test batteries may also be used provided
their validity is demonstrated. A relatively younger patient population might be more appropriate for
testing effect on cognition in schizophrenia, since with disease progression response to treatment of
cognitive impairment may decline.
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The effect of treatment on cognitive functioning should be demonstrated as the difference between
baseline and endpoint on the cognitive functioning test score. Whichever tool is used, mere reduction
on specific items of a larger test battery is not acceptable. In addition a functional outcome measure of
clear clinical relevance to patients’ functioning should be reported. Preservation or improvement of
functioning as proposed for efficacy in treatment of negative symptoms would be acceptable, but the
development of functional assessment instruments tailored to the assessment of treatment effects on
cognitive functioning in schizophrenia is encouraged.
A study duration of at least 6 months on stable dose is recommended. Although an improvement of
cognitive function might be observed after a shorter duration of treatment (e.g. 8-12 weeks), it will be
necessary to demonstrate that the treatment effect is maintained over time. For this purpose, a
maintenance of effect study of at least 6-12 months would suffice. Functional outcome assessed at the
end of the long-term treatment period will be a particularly important secondary efficacy measure. For
further considerations on design, refer to section 4.5.4.
4.5.3 Trials to study monotherapy in treatment resistant/refractory patients
Monotherapy in patients with treatment resistant schizophrenia could be a separate but additional
claim for compounds with an adequately substantiated general schizophrenia indication. It is not
approvable as the sole indication and should not be confused with an indication restricted to second or
third line use because of safety issues. At least one additional trial should be performed to support
extension of the indication to treatment resistant patients. Subgroup analyses among treatment
resistant patients in trials conducted in a general schizophrenia population are generally not sufficient
to obtain the extended indication, except when clearly pre-specified as a main objective of a broader
trial including sufficient representation of treatment resistant patients. In such a case multiplicity of
statistical testing should be adequately addressed if efficacy in the treatment resistant population is
not the sole primary endpoint. The design of studies and endpoint in therapy resistant patients is
essentially the same as described for other trials (see section 4.4.3.). The key differences are the
choice of control and the definition of the patient population.
Treatment resistance in schizophrenia is defined as lack of satisfactory improvement despite the use of
adequate doses of at least two different antipsychotic agents, including a second generation (atypical)
antipsychotic agent, prescribed for adequate duration with adequate confirmation of treatment
adherence and abstinence from CNS-active illicit drugs. It is essential to demonstrate clearly that the
patients included in the trial are truly treatment resistant according to these criteria and treatment
failure or insufficient response clearly documented in the dossier. It is in principle acceptable for one of
these treatment failures to be retrospective assessed, but the second one needs to be demonstrated
prospectively. Efficacy of the test drug in trials in treatment resistant schizophrenia needs to be
demonstrated against an active comparator, the choice of which should be clearly justified. There are
two possible approaches for demonstrating efficacy to support the treatment resistant indication:
1. Primary trial objective to demonstrate superiority to the active comparator, which should be a
medicinal product with which treatment failure has been documented prospectively.
2. Primary trial objective to demonstrate non-inferiority to a medicinal product that is approved in
the EU for the indication treatment resistant schizophrenia. At present the only such drug is
clozapine.
In schizophrenia, superiority trials are generally preferred to non-inferiority trials because of the
difficulties in assuring assay sensitivity. A three way trial in which the primary objective is to show
superiority to a previously failed atypical antipsychotic, with clozapine mono therapy as a third arm to
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provide a context for the magnitude of the treatment effect, might be preferable to a two way design.
If short term efficacy in this schizophrenia treatment resistant patient population has been
demonstrated, long term studies would not be required, since maintenance of effect could be
extrapolated from the studies performed for the general schizophrenia indication.
4.5.4. Trials to study augmentation/add-on or combination treatment
Augmentation strategies may be useful where there is insufficient response to antipsychotic
monotherapy. Compounds with mechanisms of action that are substantially different from typical and
atypical antipsychotics are currently being developed for augmentation strategies. The use of such
compound to augment the activity of another product (antipsychotic) is worth a specific claim leading
to a separate indication statement. The patient population might include insufficient response to one or
more antipsychotics, and the insufficient response might refer mainly to specific symptom domains,
such as positive symptoms, negative symptoms, or cognitive symptoms. Therefore the patient
population to be included in the studies should be clearly defined in terms of number and degree of
treatment failures and domains with insufficient response.
Patients who are completely refractory to treatment with an antipsychotic agent (i.e. show no change
from baseline as result of treatment) are generally considered not to be suitable for inclusion in
augmentation trials. A switch to an alternative monotherapy (and ultimately perhaps to clozapine) is
likely to be a more appropriate treatment option. In the recommended standard short term parallel
group trial design for an augmentation indication, patients are randomised to receive active
augmentation treatment or placebo in addition to open label standard medication. A list of appropriate
baseline standard medications should be defined in the trial protocol. Both short term and maintenance
data are required. A trial duration of 4-6 weeks is likely to suffice for demonstration of short term
efficacy although substantially longer durations might be necessary according to the nature of the test
treatment, patient population and symptom domains targeted.
A comparison with an established treatment is generally valuable in schizophrenia trials in order to
estimate the clinical value of the test treatment. However there are currently no products approved for
an augmentation indication and therefore a third treatment arm with an active comparator cannot be
recommended at the present time for augmentation trials.
Maintenance of effect of long term augmentation treatment can be demonstrated in a randomised
withdrawal design. In this case, responders to a combination treatment of a known antipsychotic and
the new compound are randomised after an extended period of open label treatment to one of the
following three treatments: combination therapy, monotherapy antipsychotic, and monotherapy new
compound (if appropriate).
Pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic drug interactions relevant to the specific characteristics of the
new compound should be studied prior to pivotal augmentation studies.
4.6. Special populations
4.6.1. Paediatric population
There are a number of significant differences in the typical clinical presentation, severity and natural
course of schizophrenia in adolescents compared to adults. Because of the difficulties in diagnosis and
low prevalence in younger children, it is not considered necessary to perform clinical studies in children
under the age of 13 years.
Despite differences in typical clinical presentation, for the adolescent patient population, similar
diagnostic criteria (DSM IV) apply. Compared with adults there is a high degree of co-morbidity (e.g. 16/24
autism) and overlap with symptoms of other psychiatric conditions. Because misdiagnosis at young age
is a problem, a thorough and critical assessment including psychiatric, psychological and physical
examination should be performed by clinical experts. In general the diagnosis of schizophrenia can
only be established if all criteria are met and alternative psychiatric, neurological or other medical
causes of symptoms have been excluded.
Studies in adolescents should include sufficient patients in each age range and the age distribution
should reflect the target patient population. Stratification of patients by age, e.g. 13-15 years versus
16-18 years, or by sexual development stage is recommended since the clinical features and incidence
of schizophrenia may differ between strata. Separate studies in subgroups are not required.
Early treatment of prodromal symptoms or prevention of progression to full schizophrenia is not
sufficiently investigated to be applicable at this moment (see earlier).
The design of the studies and measurement tools are in general similar to the adult studies. It may be
preferable to amend the rating scale tailoring it to the requirements of the adolescent population, and
such amendments should be well justified and discussed.
Efficacy in acute treatment should be demonstrated in at least one short term trial of 4-6 weeks'
duration. Provided pharmacokinetic data for the different age groups are assessed and short-term
efficacy is similar to adults, data on maintenance of effect for antipsychotic drugs may be extrapolated
from adults to adolescents as of the age of 15 years. Alternatively, pre- or post-marketing long term
safety studies (see section 4.7.2) in children and adolescents could be structured to include also
efficacy endpoints to support extrapolation of long-term efficacy from 13 years onwards.
4.6.2. Elderly
For the general indication “treatment of schizophrenia” no specifically designed trials in elderly (>65
years of age) patients are necessary. However, information for this group concerning dose
recommendations and safety is necessary. Therefore the number of elderly patients included in the
studies should suffice to generate this data.
4.7. Safety evaluation
In general the content of ICH E1 should be taken into consideration.
Identified adverse events (AEs), including serious AEs and AEs leading to withdrawal, should be
characterised in relation to duration of treatment, dosage, time to recovery/resolution time, age, and
other relevant variables. If using adverse event scales, these should be standardised for use in studies
with psychotropic drugs (e.g. UKU scale). Clinical observations should be supplemented by appropriate
laboratory tests and other appropriate investigations (e.g. ECG). AE rates should be presented for the
test treatment, placebo and active comparators.
As mean treatment durations including the long term open label trials will generally be longer for the
test treatment compared to other treatments (e.g. placebo), the data should be presented in a suitable
way for comparisons of event rates.
Special efforts should be made to assess potential AEs that are characteristic of the class of drugs
being investigated in view of actions on specific receptor sites. Particular attention should be paid to
anti-dopaminergic, anti-cholinergic or cholinergic, anti-histaminergic, serotoninergic and a-adrenergic,
and to glutamatergic or anti-GABAergic AEs, if relevant.
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Paediatric population
Special attention should be given to possible adverse effects on sexual maturation, cognition,
endocrine function and other aspects of development. Undesirable effects relating to changes in
prolactin levels should be actively studied (see section 4.7.1). With regard to timing of the studies,
reference is made to the requirements of the Paediatric Investigation Plans (PIPs). For long term safety
evaluation, refer to section 4.7.2.
Elderly population
Safety data should be analysed separately with special attention to safety concerns relevant to this age
group e.g. (cardio-) vascular and stroke events, as well as diabetes and CNS effects (see section
4.7.1).
4.7.1. Specific adverse events to be monitored
Extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS)
For dopaminergic products rates of extrapyramidal symptoms should be presented. In addition the
extent and severity of EPS should be actively measured using validated and specifically designed rating
scales. Dose – response relationships of EPS should be explored. During the wash out phase prior to
acute studies, possible tardive EPS should be measured to distinguish this from acute EPS due to the
test treatment. Rates of restlessness should be described.
Any claims concerning a lower incidence of EPS as compared to alternative treatments should be
substantiated by robust comparisons with at least one active control with consideration of both clinical
and statistical significance.
Tardive dyskinesia occurs late in treatment and is reported for both atypical and typical antipsychotics.
The possibility that a test drug might cause tardive dyskinesia cannot be excluded in the typical clinical
development programme and therefore the possibility should be mentioned in the SPC even if there
are no reported cases.
Withdrawal and dependence
The assessment of withdrawal symptoms should be a standard procedure in the longer term studies.
Likewise, an estimate of the dependence potential of the new compound should be part of the dossier.
Psychiatric adverse events
Psychiatric adverse events typically represent a large proportion of the AEs reported in trials in
schizophrenia patients. These events may be related to the disorder itself as well as to the study
medication. In order to explore the risk of an adverse effect on the severity of the disorder being
treated, the proportion of patients deteriorating during treatment should be documented using the
primary efficacy measure.
As part of the adverse event data, undesirable psychiatric effects including depression and anxiety
should be measured using validated rating scales.
Adverse effects on cognitive functioning
The possibility of a detrimental effect on cognition and reaction time, whether via sedation or some
other mechanism, should be monitored using validated rating scales, (e.g. part of the standard PANSS
assessment). In the adolescent population specific issues such as memory, learning, school
performance, etc. should be studied in relation to both the safety and efficacy perspective.
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Suicide
The potential for the test product to precipitate suicidal thoughts and behaviour should be actively
measured in all clinical exploratory and confirmatory studies using validated rating scales (e.g.
InterSePT Scale for Suicidal Thinking, Columbia Classification Algorithm for Suicide Assessment
Columbia Suicide severity rating scale [C-SSRS]). Rates of suicidal events (from suicidal ideation to
completed suicide) should be presented and narrative summaries of cases of suicidal behaviour or
ideation (based on patient statements or behaviours) should be provided.
Metabolic risk factors
The effects on weight, glucose metabolism and lipid metabolism should be actively measured using
standard laboratory measures. The metabolic profile of the test product should be thoroughly
characterised in comparison with placebo and active comparator(s).
Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS)
Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) has been reported for all dopaminergic antipsychotics.
Therefore possible cases should be thoroughly investigated and reported. The possibility that a test
drug might cause NMS cannot be excluded in a typical clinical development programme. Therefore the
possibility should be mentioned in the SmPC for dopaminergic drugs for drugs of this class even if
there are no reported cases.
Haematological adverse events
Special attention should be paid to incidence of neutropenia, agranulocytosis and aplastic anaemia. If
known, the time of appearance of any hematologic abnormalities should be described.
Endocrinological adverse events
Special attention should be paid to effects on sexual functioning, menstrual problems in females,
galactorrhoea, and gynaecomastia. Investigation of neuro-endocrinological parameters relating to
prolactin is necessary. In the adolescent population effects on growth and sexual maturation require
specific attention and should be closely monitored.
Cardiovascular adverse events
Due to the known cardiovascular effects of this class of drugs, cardiac adverse events should be
actively monitored. Reported adverse events that might represent orthostatic hypotension or
arrhythmia (including syncope, loss of consciousness, etc) should be presented where relevant. The
effect on QT-interval prolongation should be investigated in accordance with the ICH E14 guideline.
4.7.2. Long term safety
The total clinical experience should include data on exposure of a large and representative group of
patients in line with the guideline on population exposure (ICH E1).
Paediatric population
Long term safety data (2 years) should be generated, with a requirement of 12 months safety data
before licensing, and the other part finalized post-licensing, e.g. through observational studies and
registries.
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prepubescent’. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2009, 11(2), pp 156-61.
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40(7 Suppl), 4S-23S.
Chan WY, McKinzie DL, Bose S, Mitchell SN, Witkin JM, Thompson RC, Christopoulos A, Lazareno S,
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APPENDIX
Methodology of clinical trials concerning the development of depot preparations of approved medicinal products in schizophrenia
1. Introduction
One of the problems in treating schizophrenic patients is lack of compliance due to inability of the
patient in recognising he or she is ill. Depot preparations are meant for maintenance treatment, once a
patient is stabilised satisfactorily on an oral preparation. There are many antipsychotic agents on the
market. All of them are effective in schizophrenia, but not all of them are effective or suitable for a
specific patient. Therefore a patient usually will continue on the product that has been shown to be
effective for him. It would be very rare to start a patient on a depot preparation, as e.g. dose titration
is not possible, an acute effect may be needed or undesirable effects may occur, in which case the
preparation cannot be withdrawn. However, in some specific cases, exceptions are possible.
This annex is addressing the methodology of clinical trials for developing depot preparations. For long-
acting parenteral formulations that are strictly speaking not depot preparations, this guidance should
be considered as far as relevant.
2. Purpose of the development plan
Depot preparations of antipsychotic products will usually be given after the patient is stabilised on the
oral form. For the latter, efficacy and safety will have been shown in agreement with the existing
guidance. This implies that not only the effect in short-term trials is known (see section 4.4.3), but
that also is shown that the effect of the product is maintained over time (see section 4.4.4).
The purpose of the development is:
to establish the full pharmacokinetics of the novel formulation including the relevant release
properties and thus to show that the formulation is a depot
to compare bioavailability of the active ingredient from the depot versus the oral formulation,
to assess the duration of an acceptable level of the active ingredient,
to compare the efficacy versus the oral formulation in stabilised patients
to address switching from oral to the depot formulation.
to assess safety issues specific to the depot formulation For this the relation between PK and
effect should be known.
In principle,, clinical studies to compare efficacy of the oral and depot preparation and to justify the
dose interval are deemed necessary, unless a clear pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationship is
demonstrated for the oral formulation.
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3. Pharmacokinetics
Switching from oral to parenteral administration may also influence the interaction profile of the drug,
due to pre systemic metabolism. If dose adjustment is required of the drug in consideration or with
respect to co-administered drugs, these dose adjustments should be reconsidered with the new route
of administration. Data on release rate over time, residues in the injection site and accumulation may
be estimated by using adequate pharmacokinetic modelling with the use of pharmacokinetic data after
oral administration and data after single dose with the depot preparation. It should be taken into
consideration to calibrate a model on the different doses used, as well as in the oral treatment as used
in the parenteral treatment.
4. Efficacy
As indicated, the efficacy and safety of the compound are known and it is not necessary to show this in
itself for the depot formulation, provided no new claims are made.
However, it is of importance to know whether the new formulation affects efficacy or safety in
comparison to the oral formulation. The bridging program should address and support the issues
mentioned in section 2.
The indication is related to the patient population included in the bridging program. If the depot is
aimed at more than one disorder, clinical trials will have to be conducted in each disorder, unless
extrapolation of the data from one population to another can be justified.
In the treatment of schizophrenia usually a dose range is available and the correct dose is titrated
individually. Various doses of the depot formulation might be developed to take care of this variation in
individual doses.
The development plan should address the appropriateness of the doses chosen and the efficacy and
safety of these doses.
4.1. Design features
The purpose of the study is to show non-inferiority of the depot formulation versus the oral formulation.
This can be done in various ways, e.g., by showing that the situation at baseline is maintained or
improved to the same extent, or by using relapse/deterioration as endpoint.
The results should demonstrate non-inferiority. The non-inferiority margin should be defined in
advance and justified, taking into account among others, the available efficacy data and the patient
population, the duration of the trial and the endpoint (see ICH E10).
As in all active controlled trials, assay sensitivity needs to be addressed. One way to address this could
be to include a placebo arm. Alternatively the trial could include various dose arms.
In case a two-arm trial is chosen, including depot and oral formulation, assay sensitivity might be
increased by e.g., a longer trial duration.
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4.2. Trial population
A suitable patient population would be patients with schizophrenia who have responded adequately to
the oral formulation after an acute episode and who maintained that response before being
randomised. The adequate response should be defined and justified in the protocol. Sensitivity to
change should be taken into account when choosing the actual patient population.
4.3. Comparator
The comparator of choice is the oral formulation in appropriate dose(s). The dose(s) should be justified
in the protocol. In addition another antipsychotic agent, given as depot, could be considered. It would
validate the patient population and help interpretation of the data. Placebo, as an additional arm would
ensure assay sensitivity, but might be less feasible in this setting.
4.4. Endpoint
Efficacy should be scored by using appropriate scales, the choice of which should be justified.
Maintenance of effect can be assessed by comparing scores at baseline and end of the trial.
Relapse/deterioration, expressed as number of patients relapsing and/or time to relapse is another
option and might be more sensitive. Relapse should be defined in the protocol; usually it includes the
re-appearance of positive symptoms as scored during one or more visits on an appropriate scale.
4.5. Duration
Duration of 3 months of the double blind maintenance period will be acceptable, depending on the
inter-injection interval, but a longer duration (e.g. 6 months) might increase the assurance that the
study indeed has sufficient assay sensitivity.
5. Switching
As in clinical practice patients will be stabilised initially on the oral formulation, switching from the oral
formulation to the depot formulation is an important issue. It should be specifically addressed in the
clinical program and the recommendation in the SPC should be justified by pharmacokinetic and clinical
data.
Two issues are of importance:
The oral dose and its corresponding depot dose
Whether the oral dose can be stopped immediately when the depot is given or should be
phased out.
6. Safety
Product-related and dose-related adverse effects are known from the oral formulation, but the
database of the depot formulation should be checked for comparability and unexpected adverse effects.
In addition local adverse effects should be assessed specifically. Timing of scoring of adverse effects
should be justified, especially in case the plasma levels from each injection should exceed the
corresponding levels from oral administration for a substantial part of the inter-injection interval.
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Depending on the type of formulation the possibility of a sudden increase in absorption and
subsequently in side effects should be addressed. Data over a 6-month period will usually be sufficient,
but this might depend on the length of the inter-injection interval.
