Guide About Hemophilia

Prepared by Albert Farrugia, BSc, PhD

for theWorld Federation of Hemophilia

GUIDE FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF CLOTTING FACTOR CONCENTRATES FOR THETREATMENT OF HEMOPHILIA

Published by the World Federation of Hemophilia© World Federation of Hemophilia, 2003

Permission to reproduce or translate this document in whole or in part is grantedto interested hemophilia organizations, with appropriate acknowledgment of theWFH. However, permission does not extend to the reproduction or translationof this document, in whole or in part, for sale or for use in conjunction withcommercial purposes.

This guide is also available as a PDF file at www.wfh.org.

World Federation of Hemophilia1425 René Lévesque Boulevard West, Suite 1010Montréal, Québec H3G 1T7CANADATel.: (514) 875-7944Fax: (514) 875-8916E-mail: [email protected] site: www.wfh.org

The World Federation of Hemophilia does not endorse particular treatment products or manufacturers; any reference to a product name is not an endorsement by the WFH. The WFH is not a regulatory agency and cannot make recommendations relating to the safety of specific blood products.The regulatory authority in a particular country must make these judgments based on domestic legislation,national health policies, and clinical best practices.

Acknowledgments

Many people have participated in the preparation of this guide. The World Federation ofHemophilia would like to thank Dr. Terry Snape for developing a preliminary draft, and reviewersDr. Thierry Burnouf, Dr. Thomas Lynch, Dr. Hannelore Willkommen, Dr. Dorothy Scott, as wellas WFH Executive Committee members David Page, Dr. Bruce Evatt, Dr. Paul Giangrande, BrianO’Mahony, and members of the WFH Blood Products Safety, Supply, and Availability Committee.Thanks also to Elizabeth Myles for her help with editing this guide. We would like to thankGrifols and Dr. Sol Ruiz for their help with the Spanish translation. The WFH is also grateful toDr. Carol K. Kasper and Meirione Costa e Silva for the “Registry of Clotting Factor Concentrates”in Appendix 1. All the views expressed in this guide are those of the principal author, and arenot necessarily those of the WFH or any of the reviewers.

T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

PAGE

INTRODUCTION 1

SECTION 1: Factors Affecting the Quality and Safetyof Hemophilia Treatment Products 3

SECTION 2: Licensing, Regulation, and Control of Hemophilia Treatment Products (Europe and North America) 11

SECTION 3: Establishing Licensing, Regulation, and Control Proceduresin Countries Without Well-Established Regulatory Systems 15

SECTION 4: Evaluating Hemophilia Treatment Products 19

SECTION 5: Safety Aspects of Locally Made Small PoolHemophilia Treatment Products 25

CONCLUSION 29

APPENDICESAppendix 1: Registry of Clotting Factor Concentrates 31Appendix 2: Model Product Assessment Questionnaire 41Appendix 3: Glossary 45Appendix 4: WFH Resources 47

I N T R O D U C T I O N

Selecting therapeutic products for the treatment of hemophilia is a difficult task. In well-resourcedcountries, key decisions on whether a product is sufficiently safe and of high quality are made byregulatory agencies, such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the EuropeanMedicinal Evaluation Agency (EMEA), which are dedicated to assessing products and grantingmarketing licences. Many countries do not have the resources to set up such an agency, however,even in the absence of an established regulatory agency, good decisions regarding the purchaseof products for the treatment of hemophilia can be made. For this to happen, authorities need tounderstand and use a number of well-established principles when evaluating the different featuresof products offered. The aim of this guide is to provide these principles to help government officialsand others responsible for selecting therapeutic products for the treatment of hemophilia fortheir national health system.

Hemophilia treatment products are of two main types, those made from plasma donated byhuman blood donors and those made using recombinant technology. This guide focuses on plasma-derived products. Current processes for manufacturing hemophilia treatment products,when well managed, can produce products with risks as low as most other pharmaceuticals inuse today. However, because hemophilia treatment products sourced from human blood have a well-established history of transmission of blood-borne infectious agents, such as HIV and hepatitis, it is very important to ensure that products being considered for purchase are safe andfree from viral infection. Section 1 of this guide describes the factors contributing to the quality,safety, and efficacy of hemophilia treatment products and, in particular, the provisions made forensuring that they are free of viruses. The impact of blood plasma quality on product safety isexplored in some depth. Viral reduction steps at the manufacturing stage are also covered in detail.

Regulatory systems in the U.S. and the European Union (EU) for regulation and control of pharmaceutical medicinal products are well established, and the approaches used may be helpfulfor countries that want to develop their own framework for assessing and choosing products.North American and European practices are summarized with comment in Section 2. However, it is important to note that these arrangements are very complex, and may not be appropriate ina country that is setting up new regulatory arrangements.

Section 3 provides guidance for regulatory authorities in countries that have no established system for regulating plasma products and that want to develop procedures to ensure the safetyand quality of plasma products. It also explores aspects of finished product testing, and thepotential contribution (and limitations) of such testing to evaluate the safety of individual batches of product with regard to infectious risks.

Drawing on the principles outlined in previous sections, Section 4 offers a model for evaluatingproducts for decision makers in countries without established regulatory agencies. It includesminimum requirements that must be met for a product to be considered, and example scenariosoutlining how products are evaluated.

Many developing countries still use locally produced cryoprecipitate (cryo) to treat hemophilia A.Section 5 looks at measures to assure the safety and quality of locally produced cryo, which aresomewhat different than for concentrates because of the nature of the product.

Guide for the Assessment of Clotting Factor Concentrates 1

The appendices include various useful materials to help authorities assess products. Appendix 1includes the “Registry of Clotting Factor Concentrates” by Carol Kasper and Meirione Costa eSilva, which is a listing of currently available hemophilia treatment products, and includes information on plasma source, serological tests done on donor plasma, and viral reduction procedures. It also provides information on the manufacturers and the regulatory agencies thathave reviewed submissions and granted licences for their distribution.

Appendix 2 is a model questionnaire for assessing hemophilia products, which includes the necessary information to assess the safety and quality of a product. It should be completed bythe manufacturer before any assessment of products begins.

Often the language and acronyms used by regulators and government officials can be difficult tounderstand. Appendix 3 is a glossary defining the processes used in the manufacture and controlof hemophilia treatment products. Appendix 4 is a list of other WFH resources.

This guide was written with hemophilia treatment products specifically in mind but many of thesame principles apply to all plasma-derived medicinal products. The term “fractionated plasmaproducts” is used throughout this guide to include all products derived from large plasma pools(more than 1000 donations) by a process which incorporates subsequent purification steps.

2 Guide for the Assessment of Clotting Factor Concentrates

S E C T I O N 1

FACTORS AFFECTING THE QUALITY AND SAFETY OF HEMOPHILIA TREATMENT PRODUCTS

Introduction – determinants of the viral safety of plasma products

Because hemophilia treatment products sourced from human blood have been responsible fortransmitting blood-borne infectious agents (such as HIV and hepatitis) in the past, it is veryimportant to ensure that products being considered for use are safe and free from viral infection.Since the 1980s, manufacturers and the agencies regulating the manufacture of fractionated plasma products have responded to concerns about transmission of blood-borne viruses by developing a comprehensive set of measures designed to reduce, if not eliminate, infectious risk.These measures are based on the following principles:

1) Selection of appropriate blood and plasma donors2) Screening of the plasma raw material with laboratory tests3) Elimination of any contaminating viruses through the manufacturing process

Of these three principles, the elimination of viruses through the manufacturing process hasenhanced the safety of hemophilia treatment products the most.

Measures to enhance the viral safety of plasma products include:

• Selection procedures which ensure that donors with high-risk behaviour are excluded • Mandatory serological testing on all plasma donations for HIV, hepatitis B, and

hepatitis C• Plasma inventory hold and exclusion based on post-donation information• Nucleic acid testing (NAT) of minipools for HCV-RNA (and increasingly for other

viruses including HIV, HBV, B19, and HAV) and exclusion of reactive donations• Testing start-manufacturing plasma pool samples for viral markers and viral genomic

material• Inclusion of one or more validated specific viral inactivation and/or removal steps

in the manufacturing process• Full traceability of plasma from donors to end products

In addition, some agencies and manufacturers also test finished products for viral markers andgenomic material. The merit of this as a measure of the safety of hemophilia products is discussed in detail in the section on end-product testing in Section 3, page 17.

The combination of appropriate donor selection procedures, screening with the current generationof standard serological tests, and, in particular, the inclusion of measures to inactivate or removeviruses has made fractionated plasma products free from serious known blood-borne viruses suchas HIV, HBV and HCV. Fractionated plasma products manufactured by today’s processes, andmanufactured with attention to good manufacturing practices (GMPs), are among the lowest risktherapeutic products in use today.


Plasma quality

Factors which have an impact on plasma quality and safety include:

1) Plasma handling factors such as separation, storage, and transport, which alsodepend on the methods used for collecting plasma (recovered from whole blood orobtained by plasmapheresis)

2) Donor epidemiology (viral infection, prion disease)3) Donor selection and testing procedures (including NAT) to reduce the window period

for infection with different viruses

All these factors affect the safety of fractionated plasma products with respect to transmissibleinfectious agents. They also affect the yield and specific activity of products.

Donor selection

Donor selection procedures are designed to identify and exclude donors at risk of being infectedwith viruses that can be transmitted by blood transfusion. In developed countries, donor selectionprocedures have reached a high level of sophistication and complexity, and regulators haveincluded these procedures in their assessment of overall safety of material used to manufactureplasma products.

Exclusion criteria for donors used in different regulatory climates include:

• History of blood-borne infections• Intravenous drug use• High risk sexual behaviour (male-to-male sex, prostitution)• Having received blood, tissues, etc.• Risky behaviour (tattoos, piercing, etc.)• Medical procedures, such as certain illnesses, surgery etc.

Like all the measures described in this guide, the ability of different countries to implement thesemeasures may vary. Each regulatory authority must assess a country’s local needs before mandatingspecific measures.

Plasma types

Plasma types may be distinguished based on donor remuneration status (paid or unpaid) andmethod of collection (recovered or source plasma). Recovered plasma is a by-product of donatedwhole blood and is generally procured from unpaid donors. Source plasma is collected fromdonors, most of whom are paid, through a process known as plasmapheresis, which removesonly the donor’s plasma. When collected and processed with steps that exclude and inactivate oreliminate enveloped viruses (HIV, HCV, and HBV), both recovered and source plasma have thesame level of viral safety in the derived products.

In the past, before the introduction of regulation in the blood sector, plasma for fractionationfrom paid donors was considered to be of higher risk of viral infection than plasma from voluntarydonors drawn from the same population. However, nowadays, in the developed blood systems ofNorth America and Europe, this is no longer the case. This is the result of the strict regulatoryregimens found in these areas and the introduction of similarly strict industry standards. Theinclusion of nucleic acid testing (NAT) for plasma for fractionation in these systems has greatly


reduced the viral load for HIV and HCV for all donor types. This equivalence in safety is not necessarily the case in other donor populations, and authorities need to assess each plasmasource for the safety factors described in this guide, whether it is from paid or unpaid donors.

The incorporation of viral reduction steps inactivates or removes this low viral load with equalefficacy for both recovered and source plasma. Furthermore, the introduction of measures by thesource plasma industry (which is mostly drawn from paid donors), such as inventory hold anddonor qualification, has made this plasma, in terms of its safety as a raw material, potentiallysafer than plasma recovered from whole blood for which many of these measures are not possible.

Paid and unpaid plasma sources have to be assessed individually, and evaluated in relation to thewhole range of safety measures outlined in this guide. It is known that in certain source plasmadonor populations in developing countries, the risk from paid donors is high and may be higherthan from unpaid donors, although good data to assess this is lacking. Essentially, authoritiesneed to assess each plasma source on all its merits.

Donor screening

Individual donations of blood are screened to ensure that blood-borne viruses do not enter theplasma pool. Screening is currently available for hepatitis B (HBV), hepatitis C (HCV), and HIV.All plasma donations should be tested for these three viruses.

Tests for detecting viral infection through the immune response of the donor are limited as thereis a “window” period before the body’s immune response generates sufficient levels of theimmunological marker. During this period the donor is infectious but the infection is undetectable.In HBV infection, the serological marker detected in traditional blood screening is an antigen(HbsAg) associated with the virus, rather than an indicator of the immune response, but the window period still exists. With NAT, this period is shortened by the detection of the viralgenome, which appears in the blood before the immunological markers. The recent introductionof NAT has decreased the viral load of plasma pools and therefore increases the margin of safetyshould viral reduction procedures break down. However, it is very expensive and, given the effectiveness of viral reduction procedures, it is not an essential requirement.

TABLE 1: Donor screening tests for blood-borne viruses

TEST RECOMMENDED MANDATORY

Anti-HIV Yes Yes

Anti-HCV Yes Yes

HbsAg (hepatitis B) Yes Yes

HIV RNA1 (NAT) Yes No

HCV RNA (NAT) Yes No

HBV DNA (available soon) Yes No

B192 DNA (available soon) Yes No

HAV3 RNA (available soon) Yes No


1DNA = Deoxyribonucleic Acid; RNA = Ribonucleic Acid. These constitute the essential elements of the genetic code.2B19 = Human Parvovirus B193HAV = Hepatitis A Virus

Inventory hold

Inventory hold is the holding of plasma in (frozen) storage before it is processed into concentrates.A plasma donation is held until testing of the donor ensures that the donation was not collectedwhile the donor was in the window period of disease. The use of inventory hold pending qualificationof plasma donors further enhances safety and is an attractive, although not mandatory, feature.This measure is generally only possible for source plasma, as apheresis donors can donate morefrequently which may result in more donations during the infectious window period. The particularfeatures of an inventory hold vary across the organizations which practice it. It is most effectivewhen donations which are not re-tested are not used, whether the donor returns or not. This isnot always the case, and the particular features of a plasma supplier’s inventory hold should bekept in mind in assessing the relative safety merits of paid and unpaid plasma sources.

Ensuring the safety of raw materials

Donor selection procedures that exclude high-risk donors, combined with serological screeningof plasma donations are the mainstay of ensuring safe raw material for the fractionation process.The safety of the raw material can only be ensured by the fractionator through the use of suppliersthat exclude high-risk donors and use good quality viral screening tests. Further guidance onhow regulatory authorities can make certain of the safety of raw material used for blood productsis provided in Sections 2, 3, and 4. Some fractionators may purchase plasma from the open or so-called “spot” plasma market, rather than obtain it from their own centres or from centres subscribing to their own standards. The use of such “spot” plasma will not be subject to the samelevel of safety and regulatory control as the use plasma from well-accredited centres, and authoritiesshould not consider using products manufactured from this type of plasma.

Viral reduction processes

There are two types of viral reduction processes: inactivation (viral kill) and removal of virusthrough purification of protein. Viral elimination procedures in the manufacturing process havehad the greatest impact on enhancing the safety of hemophilia treatment products. While all thecomponents of the blood safety chain described in this guide are required for product safety,manufacturing processes can have an especially significant role. For example, solvent-detergenttreatment made pooled hemophilia treatment products safe from hepatitis C before the introductionof testing for the virus increased the safety of normal blood transfusion and single-donor cryoprecipitate from HCV transmission. Authorities tasked with assessing which measures areessential for ensuring safe products – as opposed to those which, while enhancing safety, are notessential – need to keep in mind the features of plasma derivatives, such as hemophilia products,relative to the hospital products of mainstream blood banking.

While donor selection and screening of donations, combined with appropriate NAT testing (and inventory hold where it can be achieved), have significantly reduced the risk of blood-borneviruses entering the fractionation pool, we must presume that any plasma pool for fractionationmay contain levels of virus capable of transmitting infection. The inclusion, in the fractionationprocess, of one or more steps with validated capability to inactivate and/or remove relevantviruses, primarily enveloped viruses (HIV, HBV, and HCV), results in plasma products that areessentially free from risk of these viruses. However, current inactivation and removal processesare less effective for non-enveloped viruses (mainly HAV and parvovirus B19, and the concerncan be extended to “unknown” viruses and infectious agents also).


There are a number of different viral reduction methods available, including solvent-detergent,heat treatment (pasteurization, dry-heat, or steam heat), and nanofiltration. The advantages andlimitations of these are outlined in Table 2.

Failures in testing, processing, or critical quality systems are more likely to result in the release ofa batch of product with increased risk of infection than any fundamental deficiency in processdesign or competence. Because of the importance of viral elimination in the ultimate safety ofplasma products, there is no room for failure in the process steps upon which viral eliminationdepends. Process validation, and those systems at the heart of good manufacturing practices–traceability, segregation of product manufacturing steps to avoid cross-contamination, training,documentation, change control, deviation reporting – are the keys to the reliable manufacture ofsafe, effective plasma products.

Non-enveloped viruses

Current viral inactivation and/or removal steps are effective for enveloped viruses but less effectivefor non-enveloped viruses. While some viral elimination steps, notably nanofiltration, have beenshown to offer at least a partial reduction of the viral burden from non-enveloped viruses duringproduct manufacture, other strategies, particularly vaccination when possible (for HAV, for example)of people receiving plasma concentrates on a lifelong basis, should be used. For known non-enveloped viruses, several manufacturers have established schemes involving limit testing of theplasma pool using NAT in which a maximum level of viral contamination, rather than anabsolute elimination, is the aim. In the absence of validated viral reduction in-process steps, thisoffers probably the current best general approach for reducing the viral burden of the plasmapool and, therefore, for reducing the transmission potential for viruses tested using this methodology.

Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD)

Donor screening and viral reduction processes have limited applicability to reducing the risk ofvariant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) from blood products. This risk has not been confirmedin any human recipients of blood products, including people with hemophilia. Nevertheless,until more is known about the epidemiology of this disease, a precautionary approach is advisable.There is currently no blood-screening test available for the vCJD agent, and no established manufacturing steps to inactivate it. The only way to minimize risk has been through the exclusion of at-risk donors4. At the moment, the only established risk factor is residence in countries that have had bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in the cattle population,notably the U.K. and France. Because of the high number of BSE cases, the U.K. has stoppedusing its plasma for the production of plasma derivatives, and many other countries havedefined U.K. residence as a criterion for excluding blood and plasma donation. North Americanauthorities have also excluded donors who have resided in some parts of Europe.


4for more guidance on this issue see the WFH TSE Task Force documents on www.wfh.org


Table 2: Advantages and other points worth considering for selecting viral reduction treatments of factor concentrates

TREATMENT ADVANTAGES POINTS TO CONSIDER

Solvent-detergent • Extremely efficient against enveloped • Requires a subsequent viruses (HIV, HCV, HBV) manufacturing step to eliminate

• Relatively simple equipment the solvent-detergent agents• Non-denaturing effect on proteins • Not effective against• High recovery of protein functional non-enveloped viruses,

activity e.g. B19 or HAV

Pasteurization • Potential to inactivate enveloped and • Protein stabilizers may protect non-lipid enveloped viruses, including HAV viruses

• Relatively simple equipment • Does not inactivate B19 • Low recovery of fragile

coagulation factors• Potential generation of

neoantigens

Steam (vapour) heat • May inactivate enveloped and • Possible risk of transmission of non-enveloped viruses, HCV and HGVincluding HAV • Does not inactivate B19

Terminal dry heat • May inactivate enveloped and • Does not inactivate B19non-enveloped viruses, including HAV • Viral kill sensitive to exact

• Treatment applied on the final container conditions of temperature, etc.10 to 20% loss of coagulation factor activity

• Requires strict control of residual moisture content

Nanofiltration on 15 • Elimination of viruses based on • Not applicable to high nm membranes size-exclusion effect. molecular weight protein

• Eliminates all major viruses including concentrate, i.e., factor VIII HAV and B19. (without significant protein loss)

• May possibly eliminate prions • Sensitive to conditions used • Filter’s integrity and removal capacity is for filtration

validated after use • High recovery of protein activity• Non-denaturing for proteins• Risks of downstream contamination are

limited when filtration is performedprior to aseptic filling

• Filters are commercially available; no royalties

Nanofiltration on 35 • Similar to 15 nm membranes • Elimination of small viruses not nm membranes • Applicable to some factor VIII total, and strict control needed

and von Willebrand factor concentrates to ensure HCV and HBV removal

Adapted from: Ala F, Burnouf T, and El Nagueh M, Plasma Fractionation Programmes for Developing Countries, WHO RegionalPublications, Eastern Mediterranean Series, No. 22, 1999, and Burnouf T and Radosevich M, “Reducing the risk of infectionfrom plasma products; specific preventative strategies,” Blood Reviews, 2000, 14: 94-110.

Authorities faced with making a decision on excluding donors at risk of vCJD need to assess carefully the effect of such deferral measures on the overall blood supply. In many developingcountries, blood is in short supply and these countries cannot afford to lose donors because ofpossible vCJD risk. Also, in areas of high prevalence for other more established risks, such as HIVand HCV infection, the deferral of well-accredited repeat donors because of possible vCJD riskmay mean that new donors with a higher prevalence of these established infections are usedinstead. New donors always have higher viral marker rates than repeat donors, and authorities indeveloping countries, where selection and screening procedures may not be optimized, need toensure that unproven risks are not replaced by real ones.

Although the nature of the vCJD agent makes it not susceptible to inactivation procedures thatdestroy viruses, many of the purification steps used in the manufacture of plasma productsappear to remove contaminating vCJD-type agents from the product. For more information onvCJD risk as it pertains to hemophilia products, see the WFH’s TSE Task Force Bulletin 2 (revised2001), Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease and Haemophilia: A Risk Assessment of Plasma-derived Products.

In summary, it is important to reiterate that there is no established risk of transmission of vCJDby plasma products – measures in place remain strictly precautionary.

Purity versus safety

Purity refers to the percentage of the desired ingredient (e.g., factor VIII) in concentrates, relativeto other ingredients present. Concentrates on the market vary widely in their purity (see“Registry of Clotting Factor Concentrates” in Appendix 1, page 31). Generally, products whichare produced at higher purity tend to be associated with low manufacturing yields, due to lessvon Willebrand factor (the natural carrier protein of factor VIII), and are therefore costlier.

In some products, higher purity leads to clinical benefit. For example, high purity factor IX concentrates lacking factors II, VII and X are preferable for the treatment of hemophilia B to theso-called prothrombin complex concentrates made of a mixture of these factors, as the risk ofthrombo-embolic complications is decreased. The purity of factor VIII concentrates has not beenconvincingly demonstrated to enhance the safety of these products, as long as adequate viralelimination measures are in place. However, concerns regarding the currently unknown risk ofvCJD have stimulated manufacturers to validate their processes for the potential to eliminatevCJD-like agents from the final product. These studies have shown that several processes formanufacturing factor VIII and factor IX products are capable of eliminating significant levels ofcontaminating vCJD-like agents. Generally, the more purified the product, the higher the level of such elimination.

Conclusions

Since the 1980s, various measures have been introduced to reduce the risk of viral transmissionby fractionated plasma products. Not all practices are considered as mandatory standards by regulatory agencies, and their use by different fractionators must be assessed in the overall context of safety, availability, and cost. For example, donor source can be significant but otherpractices, such as NAT to narrow the window period and inventory hold, reduce the risk of infectious units being pooled. Some measures may have only limited benefits for users of hemophilia products, and may possibly affect the yield and financial viability of fractionationprocesses. For example, limiting donor pool size can reduce the risk of viral transmission, butprobably only for infrequent users of plasma products. These possibilities must be kept in mindwhen making decisions about purchasing products.


Donor selection procedures that exclude high-risk donors and serological screening of plasmadonations are the mainstay of ensuring safe raw material for the fractionation process. However,it is in-process inactivation that has had the most profound impact on the safety of fractionatedplasma products. Even allowing for limited effectiveness against non-lipid enveloped viruses (forwhich NAT may be used to limit plasma pool viral burden), in-process viral inactivation orremoval has made the risks of receiving an infected product extremely low – assuming adherenceto validated process conditions. Establishment and maintenance of good manufacturing practices(GMPs) and licence-compliant (i.e., validated) conditions are critical to eliminating these areas of risk.

SUMMARY

• Fractionated plasma products have a history of transmitting blood-borne viruses(HBV, HCV, and HIV).

• Plasma products manufactured by today’s processes, and manufactured with attentionto good manufacturing practices (GMPs), rank among the lowest risk therapeuticproducts in use today.

• Product safety is the result of efforts in several areas:- Improved donor selection (exclusion of at-risk donors)- Improved screening tests of donations (including NAT)- Type and number of in-process viral inactivation and/or removal steps

Of these, in-process viral inactivation is the single largest contributor to product safety.

• Plasma types are distinguished based on:- Donor remuneration status (paid or unpaid), which, when regulated to current

standards, are similar in the safety of manufactured products - Method of collection. In practice, all will yield safe, effective products if

processes are properly optimized and GMPs are observed.

• The inclusion, in the fractionation process, of one or more steps with validated capability to inactivate or remove relevant viruses, primarily enveloped viruses (HIV,HBV, and HCV), results in plasma products that are essentially free from risk of theseviruses. Inactivation and removal processes are less effective for non-enveloped viruses (mainly HAV and B19).

• Currently, there is no screening test for vCJD, and no established manufacturingsteps to inactivate the agent. vCJD in the U.K. donor population made it necessary to exclude plasma for fractionation from U.K. donors and has led to exclusion of perceived at-risk donors from other donor populations. There is no established risk of transmission of vCJD by plasma products.


S E C T I O N 2

LICENSING, REGULATION, AND CONTROL OF HEMOPHILIA TREATMENT PRODUCTS IN EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA

Introduction

Arrangements for the licensing, regulation, and control of medicinal products have been developed and formalized to ensure that the risk-to-benefit relationship, which is involved inany medical intervention, may be optimized to assure patient safety. The responsibilities ofnational regulatory authorities (NRAs) under such arrangements include:

• Establishing and maintaining a system of licensing and control, including- Dossier review and pre-approval inspection- Facility and product registration- Facility and product inspection and enforcement

• Providing standards and guidelines• Requiring that licence holders adopt and maintain appropriate quality systems• Providing arrangements for post-marketing surveillance of products

Regulatory systems in Europe and North America are highly evolved and very complex, and arebeyond the capacity of most healthcare systems in developing countries with limited resources.However, it is beneficial if authorities in developing countries are aware of the approaches usedby the main regulatory agencies, which may help them to develop their own framework forassessing and choosing hemophilia treatment products. The approaches of the Food and DrugAdministration and the European Medicines Evaluation Agency (EMEA) are outlined in this section, along with other approaches aimed at harmonization.

FDA regulations and guidelines

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the largest regulatory body, with wide responsibilitiesfor assuring the quality of foodstuffs, medicines, and medical devices manufactured for sale andsupply in the U.S. Regulations to be observed in the manufacture and supply of pharmaceuticalsare defined in Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations (21CFR) and in sections 1-999 of theUnited States Pharmacopoeia (USP). The parts of 21CFR with specific relevance to plasma products are:

• Parts 210 and 211, which describe current good manufacturing practices (cGMPs)5

• Parts 600 to 680, which set out the requirements for biological products6


5Available from http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_01/21cfr210_01.html andhttp://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_01/21cfr211_01.html6Available from http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_01/21cfrv7_01.html

Additional guidance (distinct from regulations) is provided to manufacturers (and inspectors) ina range of paper and web-based publications7, including:

• FDA draft guidelines• FDA inspection guides• USP sections 1000 et seq.

Biologics, including plasma products, are presently overseen by the Center for BiologicsEvaluation and Research (CBER), with the following broad areas of oversight:

• Regulatory oversight, which addresses all aspects of licensing and enforcement• Product evaluation and research, including standardization• Acquisition and evaluation of new information, including surveillance

EMEA regulations and guidelines

Regulatory provisions in Europe is defined through a comprehensive set of “directives”, publishedby the European Union (EU) and through the European Pharmacopoeia (EP), published by theCouncil of Europe (CoE) – an entity with wider membership than the EU. Individual memberstates of the EU are required to incorporate EU directives into national legislation for implementation.The key directive8 relevant to plasma products manufacture is 2001/83/EEC, which summarisesand supplants the previous directives: (65/65/EEC, which provides the basis for regulation of proprietary medicinal products; 75/318/EEC, which provides standards for products regulatedunder 65/65/EEC; 75/319/EEC, which establishes administrative procedure for use with65/65/EEC; 89/381/EEC, which extends the above to cover blood products.)

The specification of medicinal products in Europe is achieved through the EuropeanPharmacopoeia Monograph 853 “Human Plasma for Fractionation”, the only EP monographspecifying a source material. Other monographs cover all plasma products supplied to the EU bytwo or more manufacturers. These monographs represent only the minimum specification forthe product described. Products must comply with the relevant pharmacopoeial specificationthroughout their in-date period.

Standards for the manufacture and supply of pharmaceutical products for the EU are described ina nine-volume compendium, “The Rules Governing Medicinal Products in the European Union”.Volume 4, entitled “Good Manufacturing Practices”, sets out the minimum GMP requirementsfor compliance. Annex 1 (Sterile Products) and Annex 14 (Blood Products) have special relevancefor hemophilia treatment products.

The EMEA’s Biotechnology Working Party (BWP) also publishes, through its Committee forProprietary Medicinal Products (CPMP), Guidelines on several aspects of plasma derivativeswhich reflecte best practices in the field (available on www.emea.eu.int)


7Many of the FDA’s blood-related documents are accessible from http://www.fda.gov/cber/blood/bldpubs.htm8Search for the relevant documents by entering the directive number in the search field at http://europa.eu.int/geninfo/query_en.htm. The first two digits of a directive’s designation corresponds to the year the directive was drafted.

Plasma master file concept

Another source for guidelines is the plasma master file (PMF) concept, which is under developmentwith EMEA oversight9. The purpose of the PMF is to specify plasma for different plasma productsto establish a rapid and simplified way to assure adequate levels of quality and safety in the plasmaraw material. Key elements in the plasma master file are:

• Requirement for a formal contract governing purchase and supply of plasma• Description of the quality assurance system applying to plasma supply and use• Arrangements for donor selection (including population epidemiology)• Requirements for testing of samples of donations and pools• Arrangements for communication and review of post-donation information

The plasma master file will replace that part of the marketing authorization application (MAA)describing the raw material plasma (annex IIC), and will make the arrangements for movementof plasma, intermediates, and products across member state boundaries more transparent.

The key tenets of the plasma master file include:

• Exclusion of at-risk donors• Mandatory serology on all plasma donations• Exclusion of donations on the basis of post-donation information• Traceability from donor to product

While the PMF has been developed and proposed for the European environment, it is an excellentmodel for assessing the safety of plasma, and can be adapted for other countries to be a stand-alonedocument tailored to the needs of particular countries. It includes all the information nationalauthorities need to have on plasma as a raw material to ensure its quality and safety. The modelproduct assessment questionnaire in Appendix 2 includes elements drawn from the PMF guideline.

Common strengths of U.S. & EU regulatory provisions

• Review of data in marketing authorization application:- Commitments on plasma source – “plasma master file” - Process/batch consistency including effectiveness of viral inactivation/viral

removal steps- Review data on safety and efficacy and of pharmacokinetics

• Inspection and enforcement of:- Plasma donor base, collection facilities, and quality systems- Manufacturing facility, process, and quality systems

• Control agency batch review and release- Batch specific review of protocols and testing of samples- Availability of trend information on batch performance over time

• Post-marketing surveillance – mandatory follow-up

Source: Snape T, “Assessment of Products Not Licensed by the FDA and the EMEA,” WFH Global Forum,January 21-22, 2002.


9The latest draft of the relevant guideline and associated discussion points are available athttp://www.emea.eu.int/pdfs/human/bwp/205301en.pdf

Harmonizing established regulatory requirements

A program is in place to facilitate harmonization of the requirements for manufacture and supply of pharmaceutical medicinal products in the U.S., EU, and Japan, the three trade areaswhere requirements are most formally established. This program, under the auspices of theInternational Conference on Harmonisation (ICH), has made some progress with respect to definitions, but much remains to be done in terms of implementation. Guidances10 presentlyestablished include:

• ICH Common Technical Document (format for registration submissions)• ICH quality guidelines (testing and validation of test methods)• ICH efficacy guidelines (good clinical practice)

SUMMARY

• Arrangements for regulation, licensing, and control of plasma products are wellestablished under U.S. and EU legislative procedures.

• The plasma master file concept allows safety assessments and facilitates the movement of plasma, intermediates, and products across national boundaries.

• Attempts are being made to harmonize the requirements for the manufacture andsupply of pharmaceutical medicinal products in the U.S., EU, and Japan.


10Guidances are available from www.ifpma.org/ich5.html.

S E C T I O N 3

ESTABLISHING LICENSING, REGULATION, AND CONTROL PROCEDURES IN COUNTRIES WITHOUT WELL-ESTABLISHED REGULATORY SYSTEMS

Introduction

National regulatory authorities (NRAs) operating without well-established systems for licensing,regulation, and control of plasma products must act – and must be seen to act – in a way whichsafeguards public health without artificially restricting the availability of products and withoutunnecessarily escalating the cost.

The establishment and maintenance of a complex regulatory environment is beyond the capacityof most health care systems in the developing world. However, despite the lack of such an infrastructure, most countries can develop an appropriate decision-making framework for assessingand choosing hemophilia treatment products.

There are some obstacles that may get in the way when assessing and choosing products, including:

• Limitations of the NRAs themselves- Lack of experience- Lack of resources

• Plasma products supply is not a level playing field- Several generations of product (e.g., for protein purification and viral elimination

methods) are typically still available and the benefits of a particular product arenot always clear

- Variability in the quality of the plasma used for manufacture- Variability in manufacturing standards employed- Local distributors may lack sufficient information on product specifications

• Decision makers need to respond to changing circumstances- Product availability and price will be driven by events elsewhere

• Perceptions of quality may not reflect reality

Recommended measures and pitfalls to avoid

To ensure the most control over the selection of treatment products, NRAs should try to incorporatesome or all of the following measures into their approach:

• Build alliances with other purchasers to maximize resources • Build a direct, managed relationship with suppliers or manufacturers, where possible• Whenever possible, select products licensed with an established NRA• Get information on plasma and the manufacturing process in advance using a

pre-contract questionnaire (See model product assessment questionnaire in Appendix 2)• Audit potential suppliers who meet the NRA’s safety and quality requirements,


focusing on plasma supply (especially donor selection, testing, and traceability) and manufacturing and distribution processes

• Use pre-shipment samples to support selection, but not as the basis for choice (available test methods are unlikely to be validated for the product, and batch pre-selection limits the time to expiry of selected batches)

Potential pitfalls decision makers and regulators should avoid include:

• Allowing the supplier or product to be selected on the basis of price alone. For example,low product price may be a result of non-conformance with (expensive) qualitymeasures, such as ensuring that donors are coming from low-risk populationsthrough appropriate selection procedures. If a manufacturer is able to access largevolumes of plasma from paid donors of low socio-economic status, strict selectionmeasures are mandatory to ensure the product’s safety.

• Allowing supplier and product selection to be driven by political expediency. • Creating dependence on third-party suppliers (brokers/agents), which can limit

communication on key quality matters.• Relying on finished product testing to assure fitness-for-purpose.

Using distributors of imported products

Since many countries attempting to access hemophilia products lack a domestic plasma fractionationcapacity, local distributors or agents for the manufacturer are often used. They undertake a sponsorship role for the product and organize its presentation to the government authorities,arrange its distribution once products are approved, and handle liability issues, etc. Using agentsis generally less preferable than dealing directly with manufacturers, because they are rarelyfamiliar enough with the specialized products used for hemophilia treatment. As agents tend tochange periodically, and sometimes represent more than one manufacturer, it can be difficult tomaintain a level of continuity and consistency in product choice processes. This is particularlythe case when there is no established NRA, because then there is similar instability on both sides.

If distributors are used, NRAs should establish procedures to ensure that distributors offer the following minimum standard features in their procurement of hemophilia products:

• Evidence that the distributor is the sole agent for that particular manufacturer in thecountry in question, through a statement from the relevant manufacturer

• Demonstrated capacity to provide the required infrastructure, particularly adequatevolumes of refrigerated storage

• Demonstrated capacity to ensure product traceability to the end-users, and to carryout product recalls or withdrawals when required

• All other features specified in the requirements of the model product assessmentquestionnaire included in Appendix 2 of this guide

Whether the government agency interacts with a manufacturer directly or through an agent, it isextremely desirable to establish a contact at the manufacturer, preferably with the regulatoryaffairs department. All details regarding such a contact including records of all past correspondenceshould be included in the documentation generated for each procurement, in order to maximizecontinuity.


The role of end-product testing

Manufacturer testing of end product to a pre-determined specification is an essential feature ofproduct quality control leading to release on the market. Regulatory authorities such as the FDAand EMEA generally conduct some form of independent oversight of this process by routinelyreviewing manufacturer test release results and/or conducting tests themselves in official medicinecontrol laboratories (OMCL). This testing of products before official release is called batch releasetesting (BRT). It is not a universal practice among regulators, some of whom consider that thereis little value added to assuring product quality by duplicating the manufacturer’s release testing.Product quality depends on ensuring that testing methods and release criteria are approved aspart of the overall review process and are subject to all the requirements of good manufacturingpractice. It is important to emphasize that the overall process is what builds quality and safetyinto a product; it is not possible to ensure product quality by testing in the absence of these features.

If national authorities feel that end-product testing allows them a level of assurance on qualityand safety, they should use (or adapt) the approach used by established regulators or the batchrelease protocol from the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines (EDQM)11. However,end-product testing should not be a mandatory requirement to measure the safety of hemophiliaproducts for the authorities to whom this guide is directed. Whatever approach is adoptedregarding end-product testing, it should not replace the review process detailed in this guide.

It is important to note also that end-product testing cannot be used to assure viral safety. Thetesting used for screening plasma for viral agents, whether performed on donations or pools, andwhether serologic or molecular, is not designed or validated for testing end products. Using thesetests for end products is highly inappropriate and adds nothing to the assurance of safety to theproducts. Its application may lead to incorrect assessments of product quality and safety andhold up product release.

SUMMARY

• Regulatory agencies in countries with no established arrangements for regulation of plasma products should ensure the safety and quality of plasma products by:

- Forming alliances with similarly placed NRAs- Working directly with manufacturers, not through brokers or agents- Considering products licensed through established NRAs first- Establishing arrangements for pre-selection and audit of suppliers- Focusing on evidence of plasma quality and secure manufacture rather than

on testing finished product- Consult with independent institutions or experts.


11Accessible from http://www.pheur.org/site/download.php.


S E C T I O N 4

EVALUATING HEMOPHILIA TREATMENT PRODUCTS

Introduction

When it comes to assessing which product to purchase, there is no universally right answer.There are certain minimum requirements that should be met, but authorities must assess eachproduct on its own merits and weigh carefully the relative features of each product in making adecision. This section focuses on the evaluation process, first outlining the key information thatmust be gathered from the manufacturer, and second summarizing the basic requirements thatmust be met for a product to be considered safe. Several scenarios are given in this chapter toprovide examples of the assessment process.

Product information from the manufacturer

To properly assess a product, national regulatory agencies must have information on:

1. The quality of plasma raw material, including: • Regulatory status of the plasma supplier• Donor epidemiology• Donor exclusion criteria• Screening tests done on the blood/plasma• Quality assurance measures• Inventory hold • Plasma pool size• Testing of the plasma pool

2. The manufacturing process, including:• Crucial manufacturing steps and related in-process controls • Viral inactivation and/or removal steps• Process consistency• Batch release specification

3. The final product, including:• Potency of the product and shelf life• Other markets where product is available• Product history• Clinical studies demonstrating the product’s efficacy

This information can be gathered from the manufacturer using the model product assessmentquestionnaire in Appendix 2.


Basic requirements

There are a number of requirements which should be met in a satisfactory fashion for a productto be considered safe. These include:

1. The manufacturer must have full confidence in the safety and quality of the plasma rawmaterial through adequate contractual arrangements with the plasma supplier.

The plasma supplier should be licensed by the relevant national health authority. The manufacturer must specify the measures used to ensure that donors are selected on the basisof low risk for the transmission of blood-borne viruses, including questionnaires that identifyhigh-risk behaviour, exclusion of collecting sites from high-risk areas such as prisons, andattempting to build up a base of repeat and accredited donors. While plasma inventory holdand repeated donor qualification are viewed as very desirable features, they are not always possible, particularly when the plasma is recovered from whole blood donations. The manufacturer’s confidence can best be acquired by performing audits of the collection centresbased on these and other features of good manufacturing practices. These audits should beperformed by the manufacturer, although reference to audits performed by a national regulatoryauthority are satisfactory, as long as they occur within the period of contract between the supplier and the manufacturer.

Under no circumstances should authorities accept product where the source of the rawmaterial is unknown and unspecified, even if the manufacturer claims that the blood hasbeen tested or the product is viral inactivated. In this regard, the use of uncharacterizedplasma from the “spot” market is not recommended.

2. Blood testing should include screening at the individual donation level for the serologicalmarkers of HIV, HBV, and HCV.

Screening should be done using test kits for the latest generation of the relevant test, preferablyin a format registered by a licensing authority. While the technologies used for detecting infectionduring the serological window, such as NAT, are also desirable to increase viral safety margins,it is improbable that they will be critical to ensure the viral safety for products sourced fromserologically screened plasma which are subjected to robust viral inactivation steps. This alsoapplies for serological and/or NAT testing of the plasma pool by the manufacturer. Confidencein the quality of the serological screening tests is therefore crucial. For this reason, a qualityassurance system for ensuring the performance of viral screening tests is essential.

3. Viral inactivation and/or removal in the form of deliberate, well-validated manufacturingsteps is essential for the safety of hemophilia products.

While a number of viral inactivation steps have been shown to enhance greatly the safety ofhemophilia products, solvent-detergent treatment is the current gold standard for safetyfrom the highly infectious enveloped viruses, and should be seriously considered as theoption of choice when assessing products. Similarly, nanofiltration is the option ofchoice when considering non-enveloped viruses, and also has the potential to decreasethe risk of vCJD.

Solvent-detergent treatment is not effective at inactivating non-enveloped viruses, which arealso resistant to other viral inactivation techniques, and therefore additional steps specificallytargeting such viruses are highly advisable. Nanofiltration is an option for factor IX and othersmaller plasma proteins; however, it may not be the best option for factor VIII concentrates


until new membranes are introduced and validated. For factor VIII concentrates, heating insolution and, to a lesser extent, dry-heat treatment have been shown to contribute to theelimination of non-enveloped viruses.

Another advantage of the solvent-detergent and nanofiltration procedures is the low risk ofinduction of protein neoantigens.

Any incidental elimination of viruses during the manufacturing procedure that contributes to the overall safety of the product should be welcomed. However, any such contributionsthrough the manufacturing process should be viewed as supplementing rather than substitutingfor a deliberate viral elimination step.

Given the repeated demonstration that enveloped viruses including HCV, HIV, and HBVare the biggest threat to the hemophilia population, authorities should focus on productswith proven safety records against these viruses through well-validated and controlledviral inactivation mechanisms.

4. Other measures to enhance safety from non-enveloped viruses, including vaccination ofpeople receiving blood products where such vaccines are available (e.g., for hepatitis Avirus) and decreasing the viral load of the plasma pool to levels not associated withinfection through testing (e.g., NAT) are recommended.

NAT has been shown to contribute to enhancing the safety from infection by human parvovirusB19. Manufacturers have started to incorporate such testing, and authorities may want torequire NAT for specific viruses, known to be prevalent in the donor population contributingto the product. With validated viral inactivation procedures for disease-causing envelopedviruses, such plasma pool testing is probably more beneficial for unscreened non-envelopedviruses. In combination with nanofiltration, NAT may reduce the risk of small non-envelopedviruses such as B19 in the plasma pool, although this has yet to be confirmed in clinical studies.

Whenever possible, people who are going to receive plasma concentrates on a lifelongbasis should be vaccinated against blood-borne viruses.

5. People receiving factor IX for the treatment of hemophilia B should be given concentratesspecifically enriched in this factor and purified to remove other coagulation factors.Highly purified concentrates of factor VIII and factor IX are preferable, when possible, aslong as the manufacturing processes are secure in relation to known viral agents and donot cause products to form inhibitors, and as long as purchase of such concentrates doesnot result in restriction of treatment due to excess cost.


Example scenarios

To illustrate the application of these principles, examples of the types of choices facing authoritiesare provided.

Example 1

As a result of a tendering process, the following factor VIII products have been offered:

Product A: A concentrate made from plasma about which the manufacturer has little knowledgeexcept the country of origin. The manufacturer claims to test for the serological markers of thetransfusion transmitted agents HIV, HCV, and HBV on the plasma pools after plasma has beenthawed for manufacture. The manufacturer also performs NAT testing for HCV on these pools,and the final product is viral inactivated with solvent-detergent and dry-heat treatments. Limitedviral inactivation studies have been generated by the manufacturer for the conditions and plasmasource specific to the product. The product is the cheapest of those offered.

Product B: A concentrate made from plasma which is characterized by a fully documented qualitysystem incorporating the tenets of the European plasma master file concept. The product is subjected to solvent-detergent treatment. The manufacturer has validated this process for inactivation of viruses in accordance with the requirements of the EMEA’s Committee forProprietary Medicinal Products (CPMP).

Product C: A concentrate made from plasma which is characterized by a fully documented qualitysystem incorporating the tenets of the European plasma master file concept. The product is highlypurified on monoclonal antibody affinity columns and solvent-detergent treated. The product isstabilized with albumin; the cost of the product is double that of the next most expensive product.

Product D: A concentrate made from plasma collected by centres under contract to the manufacturer.A full quality system is not evident but the manufacturer has data on donor viral epidemiologyand selection protocols to exclude high-risk groups. The product is manufactured using two ion-exchange purification steps which have been demonstrated in literature studies to eliminatesignificant levels of infectious material including vCJD-like agents. The product undergoes twoviral inactivation steps: solvent-detergent and pasteurization. The manufacturer has limited clinical studies and has offered literature-based evidence for efficacy.

Product E: A concentrate made from plasma which is characterized by a fully documented qualitysystem incorporating the tenets of the European plasma master file concept. The product is anintermediate-purity concentrate incorporating terminal dry heat at 80oC for 72 hours in its manufacture. The plasma pool is tested for HCV and HIV using NAT. The product as manufacturedby the company has a long history of safety with appropriately designed clinical studies.

Some of the considerations when evaluating the products in this scenario should include:

1) There is a total lack of knowledge about the plasma quality of Product A. The manufacturer’suse of pool testing is not an acceptable substitute for a fully documented quality system. Despitethe use of well-accredited viral inactivation steps, the manufacturer’s limited ability to validatethese is a deficiency. This product, despite its favourable price, should not be considered further.

2) Product B is singly inactivated using solvent-detergent treatment, the best method for eliminating the most highly infectious viruses. However, the lack of any other viral inactivationstep is a disadvantage, and regulatory authorities should further consider other products.


3) Product C is very highly purified and is solvent-detergent treated, two attractive features.However, its cost-effectiveness against the other products is probably low. Other productsshould be considered.

4) Product D has attractive features but the manufacturer should perform its own validation studieson the elimination of the infectious agents from which it claims product safety. The company’scontract for plasma supply should be rigorously assessed for its adherence to the crucial featuresof the plasma master file requirement. Although a full clinical trial may not be required, someevidence of normal pharmacokinetics and efficacy would be desirable.

5) Product E is satisfactory in all features except in the lack of a second viral inactivation step.This does not reflect best practice, but the product’s good clinical safety record makes it worthyof consideration. Some evidence exists that dry heating may decrease the risk of transmissionof non-enveloped viruses. The manufacturer should be asked for details of its validationprocess for the inactivation of viruses other than HCV, HIV, and HBV. It should also be askedto comment on the capacity of the manufacturing process to eliminate vCJD-like agents, andfor details regarding its plans to move to a double viral-inactivated product.

Example 2

As a result of a tendering process, the following factor IX products are offered:

Product X: A prothrombin complex concentrate manufactured from plasma which is characterizedby a fully documented quality system incorporating the tenets of the European plasma masterfile concept. The product is subjected to dry-heat treatment at 80oC for 72 hours as the sole viralinactivation step.

Product Y: An intermediate-purity concentrate specifically enriched in factor IX by affinity chromatography. It is viral inactivated by solvent-detergent treatment and nanofiltration. Theplasma source is satisfactorily characterized and the plasma pool is NAT tested for HCV and HIV.

Product Z: A concentrate made from a satisfactorily characterized plasma source containing factorIX purified to biochemical homogeneity (100% purity) by monoclonal antibody chromatographyand treated with solvent detergent as the sole viral inactivation step.

Some of the considerations when evaluating the products in this scenario should include:

1) Use of prothrombin complex concentrates for the treatment of hemophilia B is unacceptablein current medical practice. Furthermore, the single purification step is not an effectivemethod for eliminating vCJD-like agents. A single viral inactivation step can have some effecton the risk of viruses, but any TSE elimination has to come from the purification process, andmay therefore be expected to be more effective with multiple purifying steps. The productmay be considered for treatment of indications not associated with hemophilia, such as warfarin-reversal, etc.

2) Purity to the level of biochemical homogeneity of factor IX has not been demonstrated tohave an effect on the safety of hemophilia B products.

3) Because nanofiltration partitions viruses from proteins of the molecular weight of factor IX, itis a recommended step for eliminating non-enveloped viruses, as well as contributing to theelimination of enveloped viruses.


SUMMARY

• National regulatory authorities (NRAs) must assess each product on its own meritsand weigh carefully the relative features of each product in making a decision.

• To properly assess a product, NRAs must have information on:- Quality of the plasma raw material- Manufacturing process- Final product.

• Certain minimum requirements should be met:- The manufacturer must have full confidence in the safety and quality of the

plasma raw material.- Individual donations of plasma should be screened for serological markers of

HIV, HBV, and HCV.- Manufacturing process must include deliberate, well-validated viral inaction

and/or removal steps.- Other safety measures to enhance safety from non-enveloped viruses, such as

vaccination of people who receive concentrates on a lifelong basis and decreasingthe viral load of the plasma pool, are recommended.

- Use of highly purified concentrates of factor VIII and especially factor IX arerecommended, as long as it does not result in the restriction of treatment dueto excess cost.


S E C T I O N 5

SAFETY ASPECTS OF LOCALLY MADE SMALL POOL HEMOPHILIATREATMENT PRODUCTS (CRYOPRECIPITATE)

Introduction

Some blood centres with links to the local hemophilia community produce coagulation factorconcentrates in-house. This practice has largely ended in developed countries since large pharmaceutical plants have started manufacturing concentrates. However, it is still done indeveloping countries and provides the main source of product for treating hemophilia A in anumber of countries, including Cuba and Thailand. For this reason it is relevant to assess suchproducts in terms of the quality and safety issues which authorities need to be aware of. Itshould be reiterated that the products of choice for the treatment of hemophilia are concentratesmanufactured by accredited pharmaceutical fractionators subject to the full range of regulatoryand quality control measures.

Products available

The most important product in this category is small pool cryoprecipitate for the treatment ofhemophilia A. The technology required to produce this product is relatively modest, although itcan become more complex and demanding as refinements are introduced. Cryoprecipitate formswhen frozen plasma is thawed at temperatures which do not exceed approximately 4oC. Underthese conditions, a proportion of the plasma proteins remains insoluble and can be separatedfrom the rest of the thawed plasma. The insoluble protein is called cryoprecipitate (cryo) and ismostly composed of the cold-insoluble proteins fibrinogen and fibronectin. When the plasma isfrozen under conditions which preserve factor VIII activity, the cryoprecipitate is also enriched infactor VIII. This process is still used by pharmaceutical companies to extract factor VIII for thelarge-scale manufacture of factor VIII concentrates.

Cryoprecipitate produced in blood centres may be used for therapy without further modification.However, to make its use more convenient for patients, it may be subjected to further processing,such as freeze-drying. The production of cryoprecipitate is summarized in Figure 1. Whole bloodand plasma collected by plasmapheresis can be used to produce cryo.

The production of cryo has been studied for many years. The variables which influence theamount of factor VIII present in the cryo (the yield) are well understood. With careful attentionto maximize the amount of factor VIII in the cryo, about 600 units of factor VIII can be harvestedfrom one litre of plasma. The final product is a freeze-dried concentrate which people withhemophilia can store in household fridges and reconstitute and administer themselves.


Figure 1: Production of cryoprecipitate

Quality and safety issues

Cryo is still manufactured in developed countries in small amounts, mostly for its fibrinogencontent, but it is subject to different regulatory oversight processes than those to assure the qualityand safety of concentrates produced on a large scale. However, if cryo is the mainstay of hemophilia A treatment, measures to assure its quality and safety are very important and shouldengage authorities in the same way as the oversight of concentrates.

Because of the nature of the product, some aspects of the assessment process regarding cryo aredifferent than those for concentrates:

• Since cryo is produced using relatively low levels of processing, it is a crude productwhich will not meet many of the commercially acceptable criteria for high-purityplasma concentrates, such as potency, purity, and solubility. However, this is not asignificant problem in terms of its safety.


• Since cryo is produced from small donation pools generally resulting in one or twovials of product from a pool, the ability to characterize the product through representativebatch sampling is limited. In other words, it is not possible to label a vial of freeze-driedcryo for potency.

• Viral reduction techniques described in this guide are not easily applied to the manufacture of cryo. This is because they are based on technology not easily adaptedto blood centres, and because the product’s low purity prevents inactivation through heat.

Proposed approach to ensure the safety of small pool cryo

In spite of these limitations, it is possible to produce cryo of a sufficient standard of safety andquality in blood centres if the following principles are recognized and followed:

1) Although convenient and desirable, product purity is not a crucial safety issue for factor VIIIconcentrates. As long as dried cryo can be reconstituted in a volume which allows adequatereplacement therapy, the purity levels achievable by blood centre production are entirely adequate.Imposing potency and purity standards of developed countries in this context is inappropriate.

2) Since the assessment of potency on final product is not possible, quality assurance for theseproducts depends on rigorous process validation before the product is introduced into thetherapeutic environment. This validation must show, through analysis of product through different stages of the process, that the process is capable of delivering, in a consistent manner,product which falls within certain specified limits of crucial parameters, such as potency. Sincethe assurance of these limits will not be possible through actual assay in the production phase,substitutes for measurable in-process controls which are known to affect quality must bedeveloped. For example, the production laboratory must be able to deliver, with each batch ofdried product, temperature data showing that the freezing of plasma, the thawing of plasma,the freeze-drying, etc., were all done within limits which are known to be associated with theoptimal preservation of factor VIII as confirmed by assays done in the development phase.

This validation process is laborious and will result in the consumption of valuable productwhich cannot be used to treat patients. However, it is important that producers and authoritiesalike recognize the importance of this process if a consistently good quality product is to bedelivered. The WFH will provide advice to individual producers of freeze-dried cryo on theoptimization and validation of their processes.

3) Because of the limitations specified above, cryo cannot be subjected to the same level of viralelimination as concentrate. Modifications to the production method may allow dried cryo tobe subjected to heat treatment. However, in the blood centre setting, heat treatment cannotexceed 60oC, a temperature which will not inactivate HCV. It may be possible to adapt othertechnologies to the treatment of cryo, and the WFH will assess examples of these over thecoming years.

In the immediate future, however, the mainstay for cryo safety must be the appropriate selectionand testing of low-risk blood or plasma donors. These are of course, mandatory principles for the safety of any blood product, but with cryo they are all the more important as viralinactivation – the safety measure which has, above all others, made concentrates safe – is oflimited applicability. Therefore, the producer and the overseeing body alike must optimizeselection and screening procedures to minimize any viral contamination of the starting plasma.


Some measures which should be included in a program are:

• Donors should be selected from low-risk populations. This can only be done usingthe kind of epidemiological data that can be obtained using tools such as the plasmamaster file model (see page 13).

• Once collected, plasma should be quarantined until the donor has been recalled andre-tested for markers of infection. All such testing should be done with the most sensitivetests possible. If the donor does not return for re-testing the plasma should not beused. Re-testing should be done using intervals which allow donors to seroconvertfor the transfusion-transmitted viruses in case they were infected at the time of donation.The quarantine period should be related to the window period of infection for therelevant virus. This will depend on whether NAT screening is used.

• Testing for viruses using molecular technology should be introduced. Using nucleicacid testing (NAT), the viral window period for the important viruses can be substan-tially decreased. This measure probably has minimal effect on the safety of plasmaderivatives in developed countries because of the effect of viral inactivation; however,its use on products, such as cryo, which cannot undergo such inactivation wouldenhance safety considerably.

• Producers and authorities may be able to further enhance the safety and quality ofproduct through other means. For example, optimization of factor VIII yields mayallow some level of viral inactivation to be achieved, since the loss of yield due toviral inactivation may be tolerated if production yields are high. Pools of dedicatedplasma donors, carefully selected and repeatedly tested, can in time become a sourceof very safe raw material, compared to first-time donors. The pharmacological stimulation of donors to produce more factor VIII may be worth considering as ameans of improving yields.

Conclusion

The production of safe cryoprecipitate is a feasible option for countries without access to plasmaconcentrates. It requires a high level of commitment both in the generation of safe raw materialand in the technical production of the product. It should be pointed out that the safety featuresoutlined in this chapter require policies and investment which would benefit all aspects of bloodsafety. This level of investment will increase the cost of cryoprecipitate. The technical expertisegained in optimizing cryo production should also be viewed as a long-term benefit for when thecountry’s economic development makes plasma fractionation more feasible

SUMMARY

• Small pool freeze-dried cryoprecipitate is a viable option for the treatment of hemophilia A for countries lacking access to fractionation facilities.

• Careful attention to technique can allow sufficient product to be generated to dealwith most everyday treatment requirements.

• Safety of the product cannot be assured through viral inactivation; therefore, donorselection and screening measures are all the more important.


C O N C L U S I O N

Choosing appropriate products for the treatment of hemophilia is not an easy task. It dependson the resources and unique circumstances of each country. However, the principles and information given here can provide guidance to regulatory authorities when making decisionsabout the purchase of hemophilia treatment products.

The WFH will be updating this guide regularly, and welcomes comments for improving it. Please send any suggestions to:

World Federation of Hemophilia1425 Rene-Levesque Boulevard West, Suite 1010Montreal, Quebec H3G 1T7CanadaTel.: (514) 875-7944Fax: (514) 875-8916E-mail: [email protected]: www.wfh.org



A P P E N D I X 1

REGISTRY OF CLOTTING FACTOR CONCENTRATES2003 EDITION

by Carol K. Kasper and Meirione Costa e Silva

Introduction

Concentrates are distributed widely around the globe through sales and through formal andinformal donations. Purchasers of imported products and recipients of donated products askinternational agencies to characterize these concentrates. To aid identification of various brands,a registry of clotting factor concentrates intended for treatment of congenital clotting factor deficiencies was begun by the Factor VIII and IX Subcommittee (Scientific and StandardizationCommittee, International Society on Thrombosis and Hemostasis) in 1997 and was distributed as a paper document and on the Internet (www.wfh.org) by the World Federation of Hemophilia.It is updated every year or two in order to include information on new concentrates, on changesin old ones, and on changes in pharmaceutical company names or mergers.

Methods

Known fractionators were asked to submit data in 1997-8 and again in 1999, 2000, 2001 and late2002. All fractionators whose products are listed herein responded to the request for an update ofdata as of late 2002. Information was sought on national origin of donors, payment of donors,method of obtaining plasma (“source” apheresis plasma versus “recovered” plasma from wholeblood donations), serologic tests on donors, direct testing of mini-pools of plasma for virusesusing nucleic acid amplification (“NAT” such as PCR), location of fractionation facilities, methodsof fractionation, methods of viral inactivation or filtration, levels of purification, identity of distributor and manufacturer, and intended area of distribution (domestic or export).

We appreciate the helpful suggestions of several fractionators. Certain respondents note, and the authors agree, that fractionation processes themselves often inactivate viruses to a markeddegree. Physical separation (at times, with concomitant inactivation) of viruses is listed under“viral inactivation” if achieved by nanofiltration and under “fractionation” if achieved byprocesses intended primarily to increase levels of purification. Physical and chemical methodsintroduced specifically to kill viruses (such as solvent-detergent treatment, or heat-treatment) are listed under “viral inactivation”.

Fractionators were asked to indicate purification level as specific activity (S.A.), i.e., the amountof the desired clotting factor per mg of total protein. We asked them to subtract any added albuminfrom the total protein in this calculation. In the tables, level of purification is called “S.A. s alb”,i.e., specific activity without albumin.

Listing herein does not constitute endorsement by WFH or ISTH. Readers are referred to theirnational regulatory agencies for guidance about reliability of procedures and safety of specific products.


Results

Over 85 brands of current clotting factor concentrates, intended for treatment of congenitalbleeding disorders, made or distributed by 26 companies, from 15 countries, were listed. An exactcount of brands is difficult because one fractionation plant may make a given product using agiven method using plasma from different sources for different distributors or markets, sometimeswith different brand names. A given recombinant product also may be marketed by multiple distributors under the same or different brand names.

In the USA, the American Red Cross distributes concentrates made from “recovered plasma” from unpaid whole blood donations. The large “commercial” fractionators in the USA (Alpha,Aventis Behring, Baxter Bioscience, Bayer) use “source plasma” from paid plasmapheresis (apheresis) donors for products to be marketed in the USA. In Europe, several national fractionationcenters produce concentrate from plasma recovered from unpaid whole blood donations in theirown countries, targeted for domestic use. Plasma used by European commercial fractionatorsvaries, but may include recovered plasma from unpaid donors in western Europe and the USAand source plasma from paid donors in western Europe and the USA. A few large fractionators,notably Octapharma in Austria and CSL in Australia, offer “contract fractionation” (“toll” fractionation), that is, they will convert the domestic plasma of another country into concentrate for return to, and exclusive use by, that other country. A few contract-fractionedconcentrates are listed in the tables.

Table 1-A lists the serologic tests on blood or plasma of individual donors. Tests for HIV 1-2-Ab,HBsAg and HCV-Ab are universal; ALT tests are very common. In some areas, regular donors aretested for syphilis or HTLV 1-2-Ab only at the first donation. (The syphilis spirochete does notsurvive freezing or prolonged refrigeration.)

Table 1-B lists plasma quarantine duration and direct virus detection by nucleic acid tests (NAT,such as PCR.) Most source plasma is sequestered for a period of time until the donor returns andhis serologic tests again are negative. NAT is performed on plasma “mini-pools” (plasma samplespooled from several donations) and on manufacturer’s pools (in the USA, pools of plasma from amaximum of 60,000 donors, to be made into one lot of a product). Rapid improvement in theautomation of NAT testing is making it feasible to test more pathogens. In the USA and Europe,NAT mini-pool tests were used first for hepatitis C (HCV), a relatively common contaminant witha long window period between initial viremia and sero-positivity. NAT was used next for HIV,nowadays a rare contaminant in this donor group but a pathogen of great public concern. NATfor HIV is beginning to supercede p-24 antigen testing. Since the 2001 edition of this registry,most fractionators have added NAT testing for hepatitis B (HBV) and the largest companies alsotest for HAV and B-19 parvovirus.

Tables 2 and 3 list plasma-derived and recombinant factor VIII concentrates. We note the presence or absence of albumin stabilizers in the final product. Many plasma-derived productsnow are treated with two methods of viral inactivation, usually a solvent-detergent method plusheat in the final container, a process informally called “dry heat”, because the product has beenlyophilized and is not exposed to added moisture during heating. Stronger heat-treatment methods,such as dry heat at high temperatures, or heating in solution (called “pasteurization”) or heating in hot steam vapor, usually are not combined with a second method.

Table 4 lists prothrombin complex concentrates; a single viral inactivation method is used formost such products. Table 5 lists purified factor IX concentrates, most of which are treated with astrong heat method or with solvent-detergent plus nanofiltration.


Table 6 lists concentrates of other clotting factors. Concentrates for congenital deficiencies predisposing to thrombosis, such as anti-thrombin III deficiency or protein C deficiency, werenot included.

The following changes, since 2001, in company names or involvement in fractionation are noteworthy:

“Baxter Bioscience” was formerly “Baxter Hyland Immuno”. Its headquarters has relocatedfrom Glendale, California to Westlake Village, California.

“Octapharma AB” now also operates in Sweden, having taken over “Biovitrum” concentrates(previously “Pharmacia”) made in Stockholm. Other plants are in Vienna, Austria andLingolsheim, France.

“Benesis Corporation” has taken over the concentrates made in Osaka, Japan, recentlyunder “Mitsubishi Pharma Corporation” and previously “Welfide”.

“Wyeth Pharmaceuticals” was formerly known as “Wyeth/ Genetics Institute”.

“Statens Serum Institute” of Denmark no longer makes concentrates.

This Registry is to be updated periodically. New or corrected information is welcome and shouldbe submitted to the first author. We are most grateful for the generous help of many people fromthe companies concerned, who continue to answer our requests for updates.



TAB

LE 1

-A: S

ERO

LOG

IC T

ESTS

ON

IN

DIV

IDUA

L D

ON

OR

PLAS

MA


TAB

LE 1

-B: P

LASM

A Q

UARA

NTI

NE

AN

D N

AT T

ESTI

NG

OF

MIN

I-PO

OLS


TAB

LE 2

: FAC

TOR

VIII

CON

CEN

TRAT

ES M

AD

E BY

PRE

CIP

ITAT

ION

(PP

T), G

EL P

ERM

EATI

ON

OR

ION

EXC

HA

NG

E C

HRO

MAT

OG

RAPH

Y


TAB

LE 3

: FAC

TOR

VIII

CON

CEN

TRAT

ES, H

EPA

RIN

LIG

AN

D, I

MM

UN

OA

FFIN

ITY

CH

ROM

ATO

GRA

PHY

OR

RECO

MB

INA

NT


TAB

LE 4

: PRO

THRO

MB

IN C

OM

PLEX

CO

NC

ENTR

ATES


TAB

LE 5

: HIG

HLY

PU

RIFI

ED F

ACTO

R IX

CO

NC

ENTR

ATES


TAB

LE 6

: OTH

ER C

LOTT

ING

FAC

TOR

CON

CEN

TRAT

ES

A P P E N D I X 2

MODEL PRODUCT ASSESSMENT QUESTIONNAIRE

This questionnaire includes the minimum information needed to assess a product with a view toallowing it on the market. The manufacturer should be asked to provide all the informationrequested before any assessment of products begins.


INFORMATION SUMMARY FROM CANDIDATE SUPPLIERS OF HEMOPHILIA PLASMA PRODUCTS

1) PLASMA RAW MATERIAL

(A) PLASMA SUPPLIER

Name of supplier Source or recovered % first time donors % repeat donors

(B) DONOR EPIDEMIOLOGY

Name of supplier HIV antibody positive donations HCV antibody positive donations HbsAg positive donations

per 10000 repeat per 10000 new per 10000 repeat per 10000 new per 10000 repeat per 10000 newdonors donors donors donors donors donors

(C) REGULATORY STATUS OF PLASMA SUPPLIERS

Name Frequency of internal audits Frequency of Frequency of external audits Any other certificationperformed by supplier, if any external audits performed by government by a competent body

performed by authority, if anymanufacturer, ifany

(D) DONOR SELECTION – EXCLUSION CRITERIA (WHETHER CHECKED FOR AND WHAT ACTION)

Name History of Intravenous High-risk Recipients of Risky Medicalblood-borne drug abuse sexual behaviour blood, tissues, behaviour – proceduresinfections (male to male sex, etc. tattoos, (hepatitis/HIV, prostitution, etc.) piercing, etc.Etc.)


(E) BLOOD/PLASMA SCREENING

Screening test Name of kit – manufacturer Regulatory status (USA/Europe)HbsAgHCV antibodyHIV antibodyHCV NAT (if any)HIV NAT (if any)

(F) QUALITY ASSURANCE OF TEST KITS

Describe any internal and external QA used by the collection agencies for their screening tests

(G) PLASMA MEASURES BY MANUFACTURER

Any Inventory hold measures, etc. Maximum number of Testing of the Estimate of viral load in plasma pool donations in plasma pool plasma pool – from viral incidence data

serology, NAT, HIV HCV HBVetc.

2) MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The manufacturer is to include a copy of the licence to manufacture issued by the country where the facility is located and any other authority

(A) CRITICAL STEPS

Here insert a flow chart of the manufacturing process, identify the crucial manufacturing steps and list their related in-process controls (IPCs)

(B) VIRAL REDUCTION

List dedicated viral reduction stepsValidated log10 elimination for

1. HIV (actual virus)2. HCV (specify model, e.g., BVDV, etc.)3. HBV (specify model)4. HAV (actual virus or specify model)5. Parvovirus B19 (specify model)

Estimated residual risk per vial of product from plasma pool viral load and validated viral elimination data, for

1. HIV2. HCV3. HBV

(C) PROCESS CONSISTENCY

List in-process controls (IPCs) identified in 2(a) for three chronologically sequential batches of the product manufactured at the scale used for the marketed form manufactured within the last 18 months.In-process controls Batch – 01 Batch – 02 Batch – 03IPC-1IPC-2IPC-3IPC-4IPC-5


(E) STABILITY AND SHELF LIFE

Include the data for the potency (FVIII or FIX) of the product measured during the requested shelf life, at the temperatures sought in the application.Potency IU/mL (mean+sd) At release 3 months 6 months 12 months 24 months

Include the data for the product’s potency after reconstitution as specified, at 2, 8, and 24 hours after reconstitution

3) FURTHER PRODUCT INFORMATION

(A) OTHER MARKETS

List the other markets where the product is available, its history in these markets, volumes supplied, and related marketing authorizations from licensing bodies.

(B) CLINICAL STUDIES

Summarize clinical trials used to demonstrate product efficacy, referring to the authorizations from other markets listed in 3(a). Manufacturers should comment on their endorsement or otherwise on the EMEA’s Note for Guidance on the clinical investigation of plasma derived FVIII and FIX products, accessible from http://www.emea.eu.int/pdfs/human/bpwg/019895en.pdf.

(C) ADVERSE EVENTS

Describe manufacturer’s system for receiving and reporting adverse events related to the product.


A P P E N D I X 3

GLOSSARY

Batch release testing: Testing of end products by regulatory authorities before official release toensure that the product specification is met.

Characterization: Analytical measurements which allow detailed understanding of the compositionand other attributes of a product.

Donor screening: Individual donations of blood are screened to ensure that blood-borne virusesdo not enter the plasma pool. Screening is currently available for HBV, HCV, and HIV.

Donor selection: Procedures designed to identify and exclude donors at risk of being infectedwith viruses that can be transmitted by blood transfusion.

Enveloped/lipid enveloped viruses: The common transfusion transmitted viruses HIV, HCV,and HBV, which are all characterized by a lipid viral envelope and are highly infectious.

Finished product testing: Testing done on final product to allow manufacturers to characterizetheir products and to demonstrate compliance of every batch with the licensed specification.

Fractionation: The process of separating and processing human blood plasma into a range ofproducts for therapeutic use.

Good manufacturing practices (GMPs): All the elements in established practice that will collectively lead to final products that consistently meet expected requirements as reflected inproduct specification. These include traceability, segregation of product manufacturing steps toavoid cross-contamination, training, documentation, change control, deviation reporting.

Inventory hold: The retention in storage of plasma for fractionation while processes designed toassure donor safety are undertaken.

Limit testing: Testing of the plasma pool using NAT in which a maximum level of viral contamination, rather than an absolute elimination, is the aim.

Lyophilization: The process of isolating a solid substance from solution by freezing the solutionand evaporating the ice under vacuum. Freeze-drying.

Marketing authorization: “The formal permit from a regulatory authority allowing a manufactur-er to market a product following that authority's scrutiny”.

Minipools: Plasma samples pooled from several donations, and then tested for viral markers.

Nanofiltration: A process whereby protein solutions are passed over small pore filters which canremove viruses while allowing therapeutic proteins to pass through.

Non-enveloped /non-lipid enveloped viruses: Pathogenic viruses (for example, HAV or parvovirus B19) which lack a lipid envelope and therefore are not susceptible to viral inactivationtechniques such as solvent-detergent treatment.


Nucleic acid testing (NAT): Testing for viral nucleic acid, thus allowing detection of a viruswhich may cause disease before the development of immunological markers of infection.

Pharmacokinetics: The action of drugs in the body over a period of time, including the processesof absorption, distribution, localization in tissues, biotransformation and excretion.

Plasma master file: A dossier of information compiled according to European guidelines, whichallows the manufacturer of plasma derivatives to fully describe the source material.

Plasma pool: Plasma from a number of donors to be used to make one lot of product.

Plasmapheresis: A method of collecting plasma from donors whereby only the donor’s plasma isremoved. This method allows a donor to donate a larger volume of plasma per donation anddonate more frequently than is possible when donating whole blood.

Potency: “The biological activity which may be measured in the laboratory which is best relatedto a product's actual therapeutic effect”.

Product specification: The properties of a product. They can be measured in the laboratory,allowing a manufacturer to assess and demonstrate fitness of purpose.

Purity: The proportion of the desired ingredient (e.g., factor VIII) in concentrates, relative toother ingredients present.

Quality assurance system: A mechanism for achieving, sustaining, and improving product quality.

Recovered plasma: Plasma collected as a by-product of donated whole blood. Recovered plasmais generally procured from unpaid donors.

Shelf life: The period of time during which a product may be stored under specified conditionsand retain its characteristics.

Source plasma: Plasma collected from donors through a process known as plasmapheresis,which removes only the donor’s plasma. The majority of this plasma is obtained from paiddonors.

Validation: The action of proving that any material, process, procedure, activity, system, orequipment used in manufacture or control can and will reliably achieve the desired and intendedresults.

Window period: The period between when a donor is infected with a virus or disease-causingagent and when infection can be detected by an immunological marker. During this period thedonor is infectious but the infection is undetectable. With nucleic acid testing (NAT), the window period is shortened.


A P P E N D I X 4

WFH RESOURCES

WFH Task Force on TSEs Bulletin 2: Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease and Haemophilia: A RiskAssessment of Plasma-derived Products (also in Spanish and French). Albert Farrugia. Revised 2001.

WFH Task Force on TSEs Bulletin 3: Donor Deferral Measures (also in Spanish and French). AlbertFarrugia. 2001.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease and Hemophilia: Assessment of Risk (Spanish title: La EnfermedadCreutzfeldt-Jakob y la hemophilia: Evaluación del riesgo). Bruce Evatt. The Treatment of HemophiliaMonograph Series, No. 15. 1999. Revised 2000.

Predicting the Long-term Risk of HIV Exposure by Cryoprecipitate (Spanish title: Estimación del riesgo a largo plazo de exposición al VIH por el críoprecipitado). Bruce Evatt et al. The Treatment ofHemophilia Monograph Series, No. 20. 1999.

Key Issues in Hemophilia Treatment. Part 1: Products. Part 2: Organizing a National Programme forComprehensive Hemophilia Care (Spanish title: Temas clave en el tratamiento de la hemofilia:Productos y atención). Facts and Figures Monograph Series, No. 1. 1998.

The Preparation of Single Donor Cryoprecipitate (Spanish title: La preparación de crioprecipitado de unsolo donante). Shân Lloyd. Facts and Figures Monograph Series, No. 2. 1997.

Small Pool Heat Treated Intermediate Purity Factor VIII Concentrate. I. P. Petersen and A. R. Bird.Facts and Figures Monograph Series, No. 3. 1997.

Contract Fractionation (Spanish title: Fraccionamiento por contrato). World Federation ofHemophilia. Facts and Figures Monograph Series, No. 5. 1998.

Registry of Clotting Factor Concentrates. Carol K. Kasper and Merione Costa e Silva. Facts andFigures Monograph Series, No. 6. Fourth Edition, 2003.

Transmissible Agents and the Safety of Coagulation Factor Concentrates. (Spanish title: Los agents transmisibles y la seguridad de los concentrados de factores de la coagulación). Jerome Teitel. Facts andFigures Monograph Series, No. 7. 1999 (revised edition of Facts and Figures Monograph Series No. 4).


World Federation of Hemophilia1425 René Lévesque Boulevard West, Suite 1010

Montréal, Québec H3G 1T7CANADA

Tel.: (514) 875-7944Fax: (514) 875-8916E-mail: [email protected]

Web site: www.wfh.org

Documents

Guide About Hemophilia