Groundwater(anil kumar) complete.docx

8/18/2019 Groundwater(anil kumar) complete.docx

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Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview

Groundwater (or ground water) is thewater present beneathEarth's

surface insoil pore spaces and in thefractures of rock formations. A unit of

rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called anaquifer when it can yield a

usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures

and oids in rock become completely saturated with water is called thewater

table. Groundwater is recharged from! and e entually flows to! the surface

naturally" natural discharge often occurs atsprings andseeps! and canformoases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for

agricultural! municipal! andindustrial use by constructing and operating

e#tractionwells. The study of the distribution and mo ement of groundwater

is hydrogeology! also called groundwaterhydrology.

Typically! groundwater is thought of as water flowing through shallow

aquifers! but! in the technical sense! it can also containsoil moisture!

permafrost (fro$en soil)! immobile water in ery low permeability bedrock !

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porosityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fracturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquiferhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_tablehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_tablehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater_rechargehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(hydrosphere)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seep_(hydrology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oasishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetlandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogeologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_moisturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permafrosthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedrockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porosityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fracturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquiferhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_tablehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_tablehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater_rechargehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(hydrosphere)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seep_(hydrology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oasishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetlandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogeologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_moisturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permafrosthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedrockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water


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and deepgeothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater is hypothesi$ed to

pro idelubrication that can possibly influence the mo ement offaults. %t is

likely that much ofEarth's subsurface contains some water! which may be

mi#ed with other fluids in some instances. Groundwater may not be

confined only to Earth. The formation of some of thelandforms obser ed

on &ars may ha e been influenced by groundwater. There is also e idence

that liquid water may also e#ist in the subsurface ofupiter 's moonEuropa.

Groundwater is often cheaper! more con enient and less ulnerable

to pollution than surface water. Therefore! it is commonly used for public

water supplies. or e#ample! groundwater pro ides the largest source o

usable water storage in the nited *tates and +alifornia annually withdraws

the largest amount of groundwater of all the states. nderground reser oirs

contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reser oirs and lakes in

the *! including the Great ,akes. &any municipal water supplies are

deri ed solely from groundwater.

-olluted groundwater is less isible! but more difficult to clean up!

than pollution in ri ers and lakes. Groundwater pollution most often result

from improper disposal of wastes on land. &a or sources include industria

and household chemicals and garbagelandfills! e#cessi efertili$ers and

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_(geology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_geologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubricationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_(geology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology_of_Marshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_(moon)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater_pollutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitary_landfillhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_(geology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_geologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubricationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_(geology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology_of_Marshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_(moon)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater_pollutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitary_landfillhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizer


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pesticides used in agriculture! industrial waste lagoons! tailings and

processwastewater from mines! oil field brine pits! leaking underground oil

storage tanks and pipelines!sewage sludge andseptic systems.

1.2 Aquifers

An aquifer is a layer of porous substrate that contains and transmits

groundwater. /hen water can flow directly between the surface and the

saturated $one of an aquifer! the aquifer is unconfined. The deeper parts ounconfined aquifers are usually more saturated since gra ity causes water to

flow downward.

The upper le el of this saturated layer of an unconfined aquifer is

called thewater table or phreatic surface . 0elow the water table! where in

general all pore spaces are saturated with water! is the phreatic $one.

*ubstrate with low porosity that permits limited transmission of

groundwater is known as anaquitard . An aquiclude is a substrate with

porosity that is so low it is irtually impermeable to groundwater.

A confined aquifer is an aquifer that is o erlain by a relati ely

impermeable layer of rock or substrate such as an aquiclude or aquitard. %f

confined aquifer follows a downward grade from itsrecharge zone !

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewaterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_sludgehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septic_tankhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phreatic_zonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewaterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_sludgehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septic_tankhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phreatic_zone


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groundwater can become pressuri$ed as it flows. This can createartesian

wells that flow freely without the need of a pump and rise to a higher

ele ation than the static water table at the abo e! unconfined! aquifer.

The characteristics of aquifers ary with the geology and structure of

the substrate and topography in which they occur. %n general! the mor

producti e aquifers occur in sedimentary geologic formations. 0y

comparison! weathered and fractured crystalline rocks yield smaller

quantities of groundwater in many en ironments. nconsolidated to poorly

cemented allu ial materials that ha e accumulated asalley1filling

sediments in ma or ri er alleys and geologically subsiding structural basin

are included among the most producti e sources of groundwater.

The highspecific heat capacity of water and the insulating effect of

soil and rock can mitigate the effects of climate and maintain groundwater a

a relati ely steady temperature. %n some places where groundwate

temperatures are maintained by this effect at about 23 4+ (53 4 )

groundwater can be used for controlling the temperature inside structures a

the surface. or e#ample! during hot weather relati ely cool groundwate

can be pumped through radiators in a home and then returned to the ground

in another well. 6uring cold seasons! because it is relati ely warm! the wate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artesian_wellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artesian_wellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valleyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_heat_capacityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artesian_wellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artesian_wellhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valleyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_heat_capacity


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can be used in the same way as a source of heat forheat pumps that is much

more efficient than using air.

The olume of groundwater in an aquifer can be estimated by

measuring water le els in local wells and by e#amining geologic records

from well1drilling to determine the e#tent! depth and thickness of water

bearing sediments and rocks. 0efore an in estment is made in production

wells! test wells may be drilled to measure the depths at which water is

encountered and collect samples of soils! rock and water for laboratory

analyses. -umping tests can be performed in test wells to determine flow

characteristics of the aquifer.

1.3 Water cycle

Groundwater makes up about twenty percent of the world'sfresh

water supply! which is about 3.728 of the entire world's water! including

oceans and permanent ice. Global groundwater storage is roughly equal to

the total amount of freshwater stored in the snow and ice pack! including the

north and south poles. This makes it an important resource that can act as anatural storage that can buffer against shortages ofsurface water ! as in

during times ofdrought.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_pumphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresh_waterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresh_waterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_waterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droughthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_pumphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresh_waterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresh_waterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_waterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought


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Groundwater is naturally replenished by surface water from

precipitation! streams! andri ers when this recharge reaches the water table.

Groundwater can be a long1term 'reser oir ' of the natural water cycle

(with residence times from days to millennia)! as opposed to short1term

water reser oirs like the atmosphere and fresh surface water (which ha

residence times from minutes to years). The figure97: shows how deep

groundwater (which is quite distant from the surface recharge) can take a

ery long time to complete its natural cycle.

TheGreat Artesian 0asin in central and easternAustralia is one of the

largest confined aquifer systems in the world! e#tending for almost ; million

km; . 0y analysing the trace elements in water sourced from deep

underground!hydrogeologists ha e been able to determine that water

e#tracted from these aquifers can be more than 2 million years old.

0y comparing the age of groundwater obtained from different parts of

the Great Artesian 0asin! hydrogeologists ha e found it increases in age

across the basin. /here water recharges the aquifers along theEastern

6i ide! ages are young.

As groundwater flows westward across the continent! it increases in

age! with the oldest groundwater occurring in the western parts. This mean

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_cycle#Reservoirshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater#cite_note-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Artesian_Basinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogeologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Dividing_Rangehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Dividing_Rangehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_cycle#Reservoirshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater#cite_note-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Artesian_Basinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogeologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Dividing_Rangehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Dividing_Range


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that in order to ha e tra elled almost 2333 km from the source of recharge i

2 million years! the groundwater flowing through the Great Artesian 0asin

tra els at an a erage rate of about 2 metre per year.


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Fig. 1. Flow Diagram of Ground Water Resources

1.4 Mai c! ce"ts !f #r!u $water Use

%ntensi e groundwater e#ploitation! its considerable withdrawal und

mineral deposits mining and different drainage measures! human acti itie

impact on its quality and resources put in the agenda the problem of

groundwater rational use! the main task being to work out scientific bases

and technique of its resources management.

/hen pro ing groundwater rational use! its principle differences from

other natural resources should be taken into account. Groundwater! as a


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natural resource and an element of the en ironment! used in human

acti ities! is of a dual character (0ore sky et al.! 2=>=). ?n one hand! it is

mo ing resource in the earth depths and abstracted out of it! on the other! i

is a part or total water resource of the earth.

As amineral resource, groundwater is a part of the depths and its safe

yield is caused by geologic1hydrogeologic conditions of the territory. As a

part of water resources, groundwater is directly connected with surface

water and atmosphere. 6ue to this! groundwater safe yield depends not only

on geologic1hydrogeologic but also on physical1geographical and huma

induced factors! connected with changes of water consumption and resulting

in changes of groundwater recharge conditions! its quality and abstraction

The fact! that groundwater is a part of total water resources is the most

important in estimating perspecti es of fresh groundwater use. %n spite of t

fact that ground and surface water are separate components of total water

cycle in the globe! they are! at the same time! closely connected. Therefore

when sol ing problems of groundwater use! this interconnection should b

considered and tasks will be the following (@a$ in and onoplyantse2=>B)C


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2. -ro ing the e#pediency of comple# ground and surface water

e#ploitation";. Assessing the impact of surface water runoff changes on groundwater

storage and conditions of its e#ploitation"D. Assessing the changes of surface water runoff under groundwater

withdrawal"B. -ro ing the use of surface water as a source of groundwater artificia

recharge or the use of groundwater in regulating surface water runoff.

6ual character of groundwater is also caused by some peculiaritiesthat make it basically different from other mineral and non1metallic

resources" they are as follows (0ore sky et al.! 2=>=)C

2. +omplete and partial renewability of groundwater! due to its constant

or periodic recharge! resulting from its close contact with surface and

atmospheric water";. +lose connection of groundwater with the en ironment and! as a

consequence! dependence of its storage olume on climatic! including

hydrologic! and human1induced factors and their change in time.

Groundwater is the only resource that is being additionally formed in

the process of e#ploitation due to increased recharge of it caused by

withdrawal"


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D. -ossibility of new groundwater storage formation and its olume

enlarging under water management works or special engineering

measures for artificial groundwater recharge"B. -ossibility to change groundwater quality during e#ploitation under

the impact of natural and human1induced factors! that can de elop

both negati ely (contamination) and positi ely (for instance fresh

water lenses formation under surface water entrapment)"

1.% I&"!rta ce !f #r!u $water f!r Water 'u""ly

Groundwater is widely used in national economy of many countries

for most different purposesC potable water supply of the population an

cattle1breeding farms! industrial water supply! irrigation! balneological us

(mineral water)! as a raw material for e#tracting aluable components! suc

as iodine and bromine (industrial water) and for central heating (thermal

power water).

resh groundwater is of particular importance! as in many countries it

is the main source of public water supply and its role in domestic and

drinking water supply balance is growing e ery year! that is due to

continuing contamination of surface water resources.


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Groundwater! as a source of domestic and potable water supply! has

some ad antages o er surface one. %t is! as a rule! characteri$ed with

higher quality (a ailability of components! necessary for human ita

acti ities) and better protection from pollution and e aporation.

Groundwater resources! due to a ailability of regulating capacity! are

not sub ected to multiannual and seasonal fluctuations. %n some northern a

arid $ones! where surface water flows free$e up or dry up in some periods o

a year! groundwater is the only water supply source. %n many cases! it

possible to abstract groundwater in the direct icinity of a consumer. -utting

well fields into operation can be made gradually with the increasing growth

of consumption! while hydrotechnical constructing! for surface water use

needs usually large one1time e#penditures. All the circumstances mentioned

predetermined a considerable increase of groundwater use for potable and

domestic supply of the population! if compared with surface water

particularly! taking into account its better protection from contamination.

The role of groundwater for public water supply in different countries

and in different periods changed considerably. ?n the hole! at the initial

stages of de eloping a centrali$ed municipal water supply! spring or ri e

water was! as a rule! used as a source of water supply (where it was


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possible). /ith a growing of water consumption! surface water was used

more intensi ely. owe er! increasing surface water pollution in the second

half of the nineteenth century and serious diseases of population as a result

caused the necessity of reconstructing water supplying systems! that

consisted in impro ing quality of water purifying or in groundwater use! as

source of water supply (including springs! e en at a considerable distanc

from a consumer).

/ater supplying system of such big city as -aris can be taken as an

e#ampleC in 2>75F2=33 springs on the hills slopes at a distance of >3F25

km from the city were used for public water supply and surface water was

used only for process water supply. amburg is another e#ampleC there! afte

cholera epidemic in the 2>=3s! surface water supply from the Elba ri er wa

replaced by groundwater one. owe er! in the twenty1first century! unde

growing consumption and due to groundwater resources limitedness! surfac

water was mainly got used for water supply of big cities in many regions.

0ut increasing pollution of the latter! and also unpredicted emergency

discharges of contaminants! that become more frequent! put in the agenda ma#imum use of protected from pollution groundwater. ow! it is a

go erning tendency in the strategy of organi$ing potable domestic water

supply.


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At present! groundwater is the main source of domestic1potable wate

supply in most European countries (Water Economy Prospects for 1990 and

2000, 2=>;). Thus! groundwater portion in a general balance of domestic1

potable water supply e#ceeds H38 in Austria! Armenia! 0yelorussia!

0elgium! ungary! Georgia! 6enmark! ,ithuania! *wit$erland and Germany!

and amounts from 53 to H38 in 0ulgaria! %taly! -ortugal! kraine and

rance. Groundwater is a basis for water supplying of rural areas! small and

large towns and in some regions cities with population e#ceeding 2 mln.p.

Groundwater is widely used in municipal water supply in the nited

*tates of America (ur!ey of operating and financial characteristics, 2=HH).

Thus! in the 2=H3s! a portion of groundwater in municipal water suppl

e#ceeds B38. Groundwater is used in H58 of municipal water supplying

systems! that pro ides more than a half of population in the country with

potable water.

Groundwater is of great importance in domestic and potable water

supply in Australia and some countries of Asia and Africa (+hina! the

@emen! *audi Arabia! Tunis! ,ibya! etc.). resh groundwater is also used fo

industrial and process water supply in many countries. %t is ustified wh

potable water is required according to technology (for instance in food


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industry). owe er! drinking groundwater use in industrial process! wher

there are no special high requirements to water quality! particularly! in the

areas with deficit of fresh groundwater! is hardly rightful.

1.( )c! !&ic As"ects !f #r!u $water Use

uman beings in many regions of the world ha e been managing to

draw much F if not the bulk F of their staple water requirement from

subterranean sources since earliest antiquity. /here er an accessible ande#ploitable body of groundwater has been detected! it has been recogni$ed

as a means of bringing large numbers of users within reach of more

e#tensi e and stable resources than might be possible with surface water F

particularly in arid or semi1arid lands where the latter is in scarce or

infrequent supply. Groundwater e#ploitation and use thus ha e a key role in

water economics.

/ays of e#tracting groundwater! benefits arising from its use and its

relati e importance to the water economy may ary! but there are se era

broad socio1economic characteristics common to all groundwater use! whicdistinguish it from that of surface water. These characteristics condition the

potentiality of groundwater as a source of supply.


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Three particular aspects warrant attention. irst! groundwater is open

to e#ploitation by a great many economic agents F land users in aquifer

$ones as a rule F many more than on the banks of watercourses. a ing the

means and right to e#ploit groundwater offers households! farmers!

manufacturers! local authorities and companies in charge of water ser ice

an opportunity to benefit from what they often find to be the least costly!

most con enient and direct source of supply. %ndeed! tapping it calls for fe

if any! collecti e utilities! while surface water! on the other hand! require

di ersion! regulation and transportation work beyond the scope of agent

acting alone. Groundwater is abo e all else a icinity resource.

*o users tend to be far more personally in ol ed in its e#ploitation

than those relying on surface water" and intermediary production1

distribution agents are relati ely less important! sa e for supplying

community drinking water. 0y and large! groundwater is a Iself1ser ice

resource.

As for e#traction1related in estment and running costs! these are

commonly taken care of by the users themsel es or by intermediary

distributors who then pass them on to the IconsumerJ! i.e. chiefly by the

pri ate sector. *urface1water control and engineering pro ects! on the oth


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atural groundwater resources or! more broadly! all regular water

resources! of which groundwater forms the best part (i.e. from the

point of iew of impact on the en ironment).

rom either angle! the relati e importance of groundwater e#ploitation

will differ from one region or country to the ne#t. Generally speaking!

howe er! groundwater is much e#ploited and used in a great many countries

and is crucial to the few for whom it is their chief source of supply (and

where the bulk of natural water resources are being tapped! e en o er

e#ploited).

1.* Ma a+erial a $ a$&i istrative "r!,le&s !f +r!u $water

$evel!"&e t

&any problems associated to groundwater de elopment are not

technical but managerial and administrati e ones! including economical an

legal ones! and knowledge1! ownership1 and regulation1related problem

*ome deri e from technical circumstances! but others are unrelated and refe

to economic! social and cultural circumstances. The management of anaquifer system implies that it is possible to carry out decisions by some kind

of management agency. These decisions are directed to modify the e#tracted

flows and olumes! the location of wells and other groundwater winning


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works! and how they are constructed and operated! considering economical

social! en ironmental and political goals. There is a wide range of

possibilities! from full administrati e regulation to doing nothing! to modif

the trend.

This management not only refers to sustainable groundwater flow

(quantity aspect)! but to the preser ation of water quality as well. This

means decisions on groundwater e#ploitation and on land use! such as

regulations and limitations to the use of agrochemicals! establishing

wellhead protection areas or setting the limits of areas in which the aquifer i

sub ected to specific regulations to protect water quantity and quality

*pecific situations appear in coastal aquifers! since the e#ploitation pattern i

a key sub ect of management. &anagement ob ecti es include analy$ing t

positi e and negati e aspects of each alternati e to adopt the right decision

instead of trying to correct the negati e effects F often labeled groundwate

problems F once they ha e been produced. owe er! unfortunate decision

are often made under poorly informed public opinion pressure and when

emotions dominate.

*ince aquifer e#ploitation means groundwater head changes and fluid

displacement! as e#plained before! management rules ha e to specify


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whether these changes affect e#isting groundwater rights and which

modifications ha e to be supported to get full use of aquifer storage capacity

after defining en ironmental goals to be respected. This is difficult to

understand for untrained managers and may become a groundwater problem

if regulations do not contain pro isions or if there is not a general agreemen

on e#ploitation rules and cost sharing.

The main groundwater management problem stems from the ery large

number of actors in ol ed and the ery different interests they ha e. Thes

actors are the persons! enterprises! societies! agencies and public

organi$ations holding groundwater rights and wells! as well as those who ar

the users of groundwater! people li ing in the territory who are the possibl

sub ect of water ta#es! restrictions and conditions of the acti ities! or wh

may suffer some water quantity and quality impairment! and the agencies in

charge of land management! public works and transport. +omple#ity is

generally much greater for groundwater than for surface water. The public o

pri ate character of water ownership has some influence on the way to cop

with this comple#ity! but in real terms probably there is not much differenceThis character affects the way in which decisions are to be implemented! bu

not their foundations.


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The problems caused by the large number of actors seem ery difficult

to sol e when there is no e#perience! when there is no training for using

a ailable managerial instruments and when they are dealt with by

unprepared personnel. The situation worsens when decisions are taken with

arrogance or when they are the result of hectic mo es yielding to pressure

for sol ing as fast as possible situations that need a ripping time! training

public education! the rising of confidence between the actors! and the

definition of widely consented goals. ?ften all this leads to consider

groundwater as a too hot and unmanageable issue! a source of conflicts tha

result in personal loss of prestige! of obs! or in political troubles. Thus

common reaction is to forget groundwater! lea ing it to its own fate and

applying only una oidable policy regulations to apparently comply with

what is mandated by law! and to cool down noisy or uncomfortable conflict

raised by the users or by pressure groups. The consequence is fostering large

in estments for surface water control and interbasin transfers! desalination

or treated sewage water reuse! as now happens in *pain. ew water

managers! often taken from other obs! who fa or e#otic and e#pensi

solutions! which are easier to grasp by ine#perienced persons lacking a

prepared staff or good assessors! currently promote this. 0esides! these

solutions are politically well marketed and appro ed by mass media. They


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are less comple#! more docile and more easily sub ected to easyto1enforc

centrali$ed decisions. owe er! often they are not the most appropriate one

from a technical! economic and social point of iew! or they imply detractin

economic resources from other more needed sectors! or hea y capita

borrowing. nder these circumstances con uncti e use is out of

consideration since groundwater is neglected or down alued. This is a new

loss of opportunities and of aluable alternati es. /ater management

decisions should deri e from the study of all logical alternati es! weighe

with technical! economical! social! en ironmental and legal consideration

used to support a political decision! but not by pondering on none#istent or

created problems! speculation and opportunism.

1.- #r!u $water Res!urces a $ Water uality

/ater quality is a term! which e#presses the suitability of water for

arious uses. These uses may be human or ecological. Terms such as IsafeJ

IpureJ and IpollutedJ ha e been widely used to describe water quality. &ore

precise descriptions are based on criteria and standards for arious types o

water use.

Groundwater has long been regarded as the best water resource for all

types of use. The stresses on groundwater! both in terms of quality and


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quantity! are growing rapidly. ? er the past two decades there has been a

growing worldwide concern about water quality issues and this has lead to

an increased emphasis on a better understanding of groundwater

contamination and groundwater quality management.

0roadly based scientific ad ances in the field of water resource

quality includes new theoretical and practical concepts on the occurrence of

contaminants in the sub1surface. I+ontaminant ydrogeologyJ addresses the

problems of contamination by nonaqueous phase liquids ( A-,s) and

&ultiple fluids in general (6ominico and *chwart$! 2==>). +ontaminant

ydrogeology! e#amines also the issue of risk assessment as a basic tool for

decision making about the management of contaminated sites.

+ontaminant transport in groundwater systems is an issue which has

recei ed special attention in the past two decades. +ontaminant transport is a

special application of mass transport in groundwater flow. Thermodynamic

concepts are essential for the understanding of mass transfer. The rate at

which transfer occurs is kinetic rather than a state of equilibrium and is

influenced by the rate of groundwater flow.

6uring the 2=>3s and nineties there has been a continued interest in

transport processes! which include mass and heat transport in groundwate


24/57

systems. Groundwater dissol es solids! liquids and gases in the subsurface

%norganic constituents in groundwater are classified according to the

concentrations as ma or constituents (greater than 5 mgKl! minor constitue

(3.32F23 mgKl) and trace constituents (concentrations less than 3.3l mgKl).

?rganic constituents are typically present in groundwater in minor or

trace quantities. The natural en ironment pro ides the characteristics o

groundwater composition. The natural base line should! therefore! be define

to distinguish natural from man1made hydrogeochemical changes

6eficiency or e#cess in certain trace element such as fluorine! selenium and

arsenic! causes health problems! and serious problems in this conte#t were

obser ed in Africa! +hina and Arabian -eninsula. 6eficiency in iodine may

also be a ma or problem in some areas. igh salinity is often the main resul

of natural processes! particularly in arid and semi1arid $ones! and is usuall

the main limitation to potability and use.

*ignificant geochemical processes that control and modify

groundwater contamination comprise solution! olatili$ation! precipitation

hydrolysis and comple#ion. Acid1base reactions are also important in

groundwater because of their influence on p .


25/57


26/57

groundwater. The simplest case of groundwater contamination is the

de elopment of a plume of dissol ed constituents without nonaqueous phas

liquids ( A-,s). +ontamination by A-,s (oil! gasoline) results in a

comple# situation because contaminants can migrate as a separate liquid

phase! apor phase and dissol ed phase. The introduction of dense

nonaqueous phase liquids leads still to a more complicated situation. %n th

case! contamination can occur as a pure organic liquid and a apor in the

adose $one! displace water in the saturated $one and accumulate within th

pores or on low1permeability layers. owe er it is worth noting that

attenuation processes in the adose $one can constitute an important barrie

to the passage of contaminants to the saturated $one.

Chapter-2


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28/57

contained a list of 2D> flow models and D= mass transport models in 2

countries.

aymik (2=>H) presented a systematic re iew of BB technicall

ad anced articles on mathematical modeling of solute transport in the

subsurface system. is re iew co ers the period 2=>312=>5 only. Anothe

comprehensi e re iew paper on modeling of solute transport in groundwate

was presented by Abriola (2=>H). *he re iewed models reported upto 2=>7

Angelakis et al (2=>H) described simultaneous transformation and

transport of two solutes with different dispersion coefficients by two

onedimensional partial differential equations. They used the linear

equilibrium adsorption1desorption relationship for both solutes and

irre ersible microbial first1order kinetics as an o erall transformationa

mechanism. Analytical solutions were obtained using ,aplace

transformation for $ero initial conditions! pulse input conditions! and semi

infinite media.

assani$adeh and ,ei inse (2=>>) worked on modeling of brine

transport in porous media. They discussed certain important physical and

mathematical differences between low and high concentrations situations

They sol ed a set of two nonlinear coupled partial differential equations


29/57


30/57

and pollutant flu#es to an urban unconfined aquifer system. The authors

e#plained how an integrated approach (in ol ing analysis of ariou

thematic maps and other attribute information of a urban area using the

abo e desktop G%*1based recharge pollutant flu# model could help

assessing the amount of groundwater recharge and pollutant flu#es

(currently a few chosen pollutant species such as nitrate! chloride! and

0TEM compounds) reaching to the groundwater of the 0irmingham area.

Tedaldi and ,oehr (2==;) made a comprehensi e assessment of the

en ironmental impact of a full1scale! operating o erland flow (?, ) land

treatment system at the +ampbell *oup (Te#as)! %nc. facility in -aris! Te#as

The system treats o er 27!333 mDKd of waste water and has been

operation for o er ;5 years. ield samples of soil! waste water! ?, runoff!

and ground water collected during the study and detailed long1term proces

records maintained by +ampbell *oup were used as part of the e aluation.

Geochemical data indicated that sulfate1chloride facies were dominant fo

the ground water collected at the ?, site. ield data and calculations

indicated that the e apotranspirati e concentration of salts in the appliedwaste water would be insufficient to produce the measured concentrations in

the ground water. A pattern of increasing ionic concentration o er time

(2=7> to 2=>=) with small changes in ionic ratios suggested a trend towar


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the dissolution and concentration of naturally present minerals (such as

gypsum and sodium chloride) in the slow mo ing ground water. -redictions

made with the aid of &% TENA;! a thermodynamic equilibrium model

indicated that precipitation of carbonates and simultaneous ion e#change on

clays could represent a significant mechanism for the remo al of calcium

and magnesium from solution and the addition of sodium. The de elopmen

of a slightly saline! semiconfined aquifer was strongly suggested by the

ground1water geochemical data! soil data! the estimated rate of infiltration

field hydraulic conducti ity! &% TENA; model predictions and the

magnitude of the olume of waste water applied.

%t was reported by Goode (2==;) that during unsteady or transien

ground1water flow! the fluid mass per unit olume of aquifer changes as th

potentiometric head changes! and solute transport is affected by this change

in fluid storage. Three widely applied numerical models of two1dimensiona

transport partially account for the effects of transient flow by remo ing

terms corresponding to the fluid continuity equation from the transport

equation! resulting in a simpler go erning equation. owe er! fluid1storagterms remaining in the transport equation that change during transient flow

are! in certain cases! held constant in time in these models. or the case o

increasing heads! this appro#imation! which is unacknowledged in these


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models' documentation! leads to transport elocities that are too high and

increased concentration at fluid and solute sources. %f heads are dropping

time! computed transport elocities are too low. sing parameters that

somewhat e#aggerate the effects of this appro#imation! an e#ample

numerical simulation indicates solute tra el time error of about 2B percen

but only minor errors due to incorrect dilution olume. or hori$ontal flow

and transport models that assume fluid density is constant! the product of

porosity and aquifer thickness changes in timeC initial porosity times initi

thickness plus the change in head times the storage coefficient. This formula

reduces to the saturated thickness in unconfined aquifers if porosity is

assumed to be constant and equal to specific yield. The computational cos

of this more accurate representation is insignificant and is easily

incorporated in numerical models of solute transport.

/ilson et al (2==7) applied G%* based solute transport modeling to

study the scale effects of soil and climate data input. The weather generator

(/GE ) and chemical mo ement through layered soils (+&,*) computer

models were modified and combined with two sets of soil and climate inputto e aluate the impact of input data map resolution on model predictions

The basic soil and climate inputs required by /GE and +&,* were

acquired from either" (i) the *6A1


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(*TAT*G?) database" (ii) the *6A1


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from $ero at the 3.32 significance le el" and (ii) +&,* identified numerous

(small) areas where the mean center of the picloram solute front was likely

to leach beyond the root $one when the county soils information was used

This last measure may help to identify areas where potential chemical

applications are likely to contaminate groundwater.

Gregorauskas et al (2===) carried out a model on groundwater flow

and contaminant transport at laipeda oil terminal! ,ithuania and found that

water table aquifer in the area of laipeda oil terminal is polluted with

hydrocarbons (oil products) dissol ed in water. Abo e this aquifer! there is

layer containing oil and reaching 3.5 m in thickness. These pollutants do not

threaten drinking water sources! but oil can enter the lagoon of ursiu

&arios and the 0altic *ea. Groundwater monitoring has been organi$ed!

shallow groundwater in estigations ha e been done! filtration and migratio

models of the terminal and ad acent areas ha e been consulted. &odelin

results showed that the flow of hydrocarbons to the lagoon could be

efficiently barred by a hori$ontal drain.

&oreno and *inton e#plained about groundwater model flow

calibration1comparison of a decision tree approach and automated paramete

estimation for a practical application with limited data. Groundwater


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modeling calibration can often result in multiple plausible results! especially

in a case with limited data. *ensiti ity analysis arying single parameters

may be unsuccessful in testing the en elope of possible calibrated solutions

The authors considers alternate approaches to simulating the effects of

de eloping a new groundwater supply on water le els and ri er flow rates i

a ri er alley in the desert *outhwest. A B33 square mile model of thre

aquifers was prepared. or this application! a range in model predictions

from Iworst reasonableJ to Ibest reasonableJ predictions was required in

order to assess potential long1term en ironmental impacts. Two alternat

approaches were testedC a decision tree approach in which parameters wer

applied in worst or best combinations based on the combined e#perience of a

modeling committee! and an automated parameter estimation approach

*e eral measures of model calibration and beha ior were used in assessing

the model simulations of current conditions! and the accumulation of

Ihidden errorsJ in long1term transient simulations was also e aluated. &os

likely predictions and estimated uncertainty were compared for each

approach.


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Chapter-3

MAT)RIA/ AND M)T OD'

4.1 Met !$s f!r assessi + +r!u $water safe yiel$

#$1$1 "eneral aspects

According to +hapter ;! olume of groundwater safe yield! is the

criterion for its use. %n some countries this is understood to be groundwat

discharge that is obtained at a certain part of an aquifer! using geologically

and economically pro en well fields e#ploitation conditions! water quality

groundwater use! and considering protecti e measures to nature (0ore sky

et al.! 2=>=).

Groundwater safe yield assessment is a combination of

hydrogeological predictions! which are made to pro e the possibility of

groundwater e#ploitation in combination well fields. %n this case! th

assessment can be made both for a certain well field and for a large

hydrogeological structure or administrati e1territorial comple#.


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*o! the notion of Igroundwater safe yieldJ! as gi en abo e! means tha

assessment consists of determining the possible producti ity of the wel

fields under an assigned water le el decline or prediction of le el decline

under an assigned producti ity of the well fields. %n this case! the possibili

should be pro en for groundwater e#ploitation based on geologically and

economically based well fields for a certain time period! pro ided that wate

quality is acceptable! and the predicted changes of different components in

the en ironment are within the limits set up. 0ased on the abo e! the

assessment of groundwater safe yield includes the following set of

estimationsC

2. assessment of groundwater safe yield from different formation sources

(natural and artificial resources! groundwater storage! etc.)";. +alculation of well field producti ity and groundwater le el decline"D. +alculation of the interaction with other well impacted fields"B. -rediction of possible groundwater quality changes and determination

of the boundaries of well field sanitary protection $ones"5. Assessment of geological1hydrogeological changes! including

estimation of changes in surface runoff"7. Technical1economical assessment of groundwater use and well field

operations.

6epending on the purpose! peculiarities of the planned ground1water

use! and the hydrochemical and sanitary situation! different aspects of the lis


38/57

gi en abo e can be considered with a different degree of detail while some

aspects may be fully e#cluded. +alculation of the well field producti ity is

the key element for groundwater safe yield assessment. +alculation of all the

other elements is actually dictated by calculating the producti ity of well

fields and is directly connected with them.

6ue to the fact that in most cases a consumer must be supplied with a

certain olume of water! the well field calculation in ol es the dynami

depth le el and the corresponding alues of drawdown by the end of the

e#ploitation period. The alue of admissible drawdown is determined by

hydrogeological! ecological and technical1economical factors in e ery case.

Assessment of groundwater safe yield is made! in most cases! for an

unlimited term of e#ploitation. owe er! as was indicated in +hapter ;! well

field e#ploitation! rated as groundwater storage depletion during the period

assigned in ad ance! is permitted in specific hydrogeological and social

economical conditions. sually! this term is long enough (;5F53 years) to

compensate for in estments to search for other water supply sources.

%n all cases of groundwater safe yield assessment! the impact shoul

be estimated for a planned well field and single wells in the area under study


39/57

consumers! when operating well fields and wells! are shut down as a resul

of o er e#ploiting the well field.

#$1$2 "eneral characteristics of methods for assessing groundwater safe

yield

To make hydrogeological predictions! when assessing groundwater

safe yield! the following methods should be usedC hydrodynamic! hydrauli

balance! hydrogeological analogues and e#pert estimations (0ore sky et al.

2=>=" 0indeman and @a$ in! 2=H3" @a$ in! 2=>B). A choice of a metho

prediction depends on the comple#ity of hydrogeological conditions! olum

of information! water demand! purpose of calculations made and e#perienc

in e#ploitation of operating well fields. /hen making hydrogeological

predictions for separate elements of groundwater safe yield assessment! on

of the methods listed can be used as well as their combination. %t depends o

both the theoretical basis of the methods for prediction and the required

reliability and detail of the predictions.

%ydrodynamic methods are based on the solution of differential

equations for groundwater filtration. *olution of these equations is made in

the form of analytical calculations for simple hydrogeological conditions. %

a more general case (including comple# conditions)! methods of


40/57

mathematical modelling on computers are used. %f analytical solutions ar

made for heads or le el decline in separate points of a water1bearing laye

then modelling is made relati e to the le el changes within the whole

filtration area.

6ifferential equations for groundwater flow simultaneously consider

both resistance to its filtration in the layer and water balance in any infinitely

small element of the flow! and when integrating the equations! they are

considered in the flow on the whole within the assigned boundaries.

Therefore! these equations are simultaneously dynamic and balanced! and

the predicted calculation! made by sol ing these equations under the

assigned initial boundary conditions (0ore sky et al.! 2=>=)! account fo

groundwater balance. *o! when the initial boundary conditions and

parameters in the filtration area are assigned correctly! then pro ision of saf

yield with balanced formation sources are simultaneously considered in

predicting groundwater le el decline.

The second ad antage of hydrodynamic methods in mathematical

modelling! is that the comple#ity of the hydrogeological conditions are no

restricted (heterogeneity of filtration and storage properties of water bearing

rocks! geometric outline and character of the layer boundary! number o


41/57

aquifers in a multilayered system! ariability of groundwater recharge and

discharge conditions! changeability of water withdrawal! etc.).

According to the groundwater flow structure during e#ploitation!

using hydrodynamic methods! predictions of groundwater quality changes

can be made.

*ome disad antages of hydrodynamic methods limit their application

for estimating groundwater safe yield. This is due to the fact! that the

accuracy of the safe yield estimation! depends on the accuracy of

determining the initial hydrogeological parameters and the boundary

conditions. %n natural conditions these characteristics are determined an

then considered in a calculated filtration scheme with more or less errors

That is why it is natural that hydrodynamic calculations gi e appro#imate

results.

To increase the accuracy of calculations by hydrodynamic methods!

mathematical modeling methods should be used. %n this case! comple

conditions of safe yield formulation in a real hydrogeological situation can

be considered more completely and thoroughly than in calculations by

analytical formulae. 0esides! the reliability of the initial calculated filtration

scheme can be substantially impro ed by sol ing the in erse problems. 0u


42/57

in the case of applying mathematical modelling methods! computations are

appro#imate due to insufficient pre ious information on boundary

conditions! filtration and storage properties of water1enclosing rocks! i.e. du

to appro#imation of natural conditions in the model.

As was already mentioned! the use of mathematical modelling

methods is reasonable in comple# hydrogeological conditions. /hen

hydrogeological conditions are simple! analytical functions accurately

enough for most applications.

%ydraulic methods for estimating groundwater safe yield are based on

the immediate use of well pumping data or e#perience in e#ploiting acti e

well fields. %n this case empirical formulae! that are based on the test dat

are widely used. Actually! a well field calculation by the hydraulic method i

in an e#trapolation of the test data by yield cur es (graphs for the yield

dependency on the le el decline) or by graphs of the drawdown dependence

on time. ydraulic methods can also be used for predicting groundwater

quality changes if data on the rate of contaminated water front mo ement

and (or) changes in minerali$ation or separate components content were

obtained under natural conditions. The range of possibilities to e#trapolate

test e#periments should always be strictly limited.


43/57

The main ad antage of using hydraulic methods for well field

calculations is that there is no need to calculate hydrogeological parameters

and to quantitati ely describe boundary and initial conditions. i#ed alue

of yield and water le el decline under test and pumping conditions that

generally consider filtration properties of the water enclosing rocks.


44/57

is calculated by the oint use of hydraulic and hydrodynamic or balanc

methods.

Another disad antage of hydraulic methods is the limited possibilities

for e#trapolating the test data. This is caused by the fact! that in the proces

of e#ploitation! e en with a constant withdrawal! and a growing cone o

depression! the boundary conditions for groundwater discharge can

significantly change when compared with conditions under acti e pumping

Therefore! empirical dependence between yield (debit) and le el decline o

le el decline and time under e#ploitation conditions can differ and are

determined by the test data.

The essence of water balance methods! used for estimating

groundwater safe yield! lies in calculating groundwater balance in the area o

operating well fields. /ell field e#ploitation yield is formed due to

groundwater storage depletion! entrapment of dynamic resources and inflow

of induced groundwater resources from additional recharge sources! caused

by the formation of a cone of depression (for instance! water filtration from

surface water streams and reser oirs).

/ater le el decline in specific pumping wells cannot be determined

with the balance method! but a mean alue of water le el decline can be


45/57

estimated in a balance area (inputKoutput) or in a particular balance site at th

end of an estimated period of well field e#ploitation. At the same time! only

water balance methods make it possible to obtain safe yield calculated by

other methods (for instance! hydrodynamic or hydraulic). This allows us to

treat water balance methods as independent in many cases. %t is possible

assess the limit of common e#ploitation potential for groundwater

withdrawal at one or other sites using this method. %t also can gi e

qualitati e assessment of the reliability of predictions! made by other

methods.

ydrodynamic! hydraulic and water balance methods! considered

abo e! possess their own ad antages and disad antages! as has already bee

mentioned. Therefore! either one of these methods or all of them! or thei

different combinations can be used for assessing groundwater safe yield. A

choice of the method depends on specific hydrogeological conditions and

pre ious in estigations.

Thus! a combination of hydraulic and water balance methods is often

used in hydrogeologic conditions! when parameters of the e#ploited aquife

which are necessary for a hydrodynamic method (due to their considerable

ariability o er the area) are difficult to determine.


46/57

&ethod of hydrogeological analogy is based on transferring one or

another aquifer characteristics and other factors of groundwater safe yield

formation from more studied sites (analogies) to less studied ones. The

method requires data similarity in the two studied areas relati e to the

characteristics transferred (analogous boundary conditions! hydrogeologica

cross section! conditions of recharge! regularities in water transmissi ity

changes! etc). *imilarity of compared sites by absolute alues for particula

factors is not necessary! as their relation can be considered with coefficients

or scales of similarity.

The analogy can be complete (integral) or partial. The identity of

hydrogeological conditions for the compared areas can be determined by

se eral factors. 6etermining the alue of groundwater safe yield should be

obser ed under complete analogy. ?nly particular factors are considered

under partial analogy. ?nly data that can be transferred from the site1

analogue are used for calculations. The other data! necessary for estimating

the reser es! are determined! using other methods. The use of the

hydrogeological analogy method is particularly effecti e if operating welfield sites can be used as a site1analog! and the groundwater safe yield

module (groundwater discharge! that can be obtained by well fields at 2 km;

of aquifer) can be used as an analogy indicator.


47/57

&any factors used in determining safe yield (aquifer recharge! leakage

of water from other aquifers! etc.)! affect yield! le el decline and wate

quality under e#ploitation. These factors are not commonly manifested at a

full scale and it is difficult to estimate them by only pump test data or

sometimes e en by the first period of well de elopment data.

0ased on the method of hydrogeological analogies! the following

problems can be sol edC 2) assessment (or reassessment) of groundwat

safe yield in an operating well field! thus determining the possibility to

increase or necessity to decrease water withdrawal" ;) identify new areas for

e#ploring and e#ploiting groundwater" D) obtaining more reliable data fo

assessing groundwater safe yield in newly e#plored sites! where conditions

are analogous to e#ploited or e#plored ones.

&ethod of e'pert assessments$ Groundwater safe yield assessment is a

kind of prediction! the reliability of which! necessary to take up a solution! i

not high in many cases. %t is mainly caused by impossibility to get all th

necessary information during e#ploration! as the most part of this

information is not possible Ito measureJ! it should be estimated. &ethod of

e#pert assessments is used in science and technology for sol ing problem

when information reliability is not sufficient.


48/57

E#pert assessments! in this case! are probabilistic! based on the ability

of a person to gi e useful information in conditions of uncertainty. nknown

quantitati e characteristics of a studied phenomenon (in our case it is

potential yield of a well field! le el decline! water quality changes! surfac

runoff decrease! etc.) is considered! in these conditions! as a random alue

indi idually assessed by an e#pert and concerns the reliability or

significance of one or another e ent. %f these assessments are prepared by

group of e#perts! then it is supposed! that a ItrueJ alue of unknown quantit

is within a range of suggested alues and that a generali$ed opinion of an

e#pertsJ group is more reliable! than the opinion of one specialist.

/hen using the method of e#pert assessment! it is necessary to

consider not only the alue of the assessment! gi en by one or anothe

e#pert! but also the sub ecti e peculiarities of an e#pert making a

assessment. Thus! when using the method of e#pert assessments! it is

e#tremely important to thoroughly form the staff of e#perts! from indi idual

who ha e significant authority in sol ing a specific problem. Any e#pert ca

be gi en a specific coefficient of significance! determined on the basis of hi pre ious estimations! his e#perience! qualification! etc.


49/57

All the methods mentioned abo e! e#cept the hydraulic method! can

be used both for groundwater safe yield assessment in specific sites and fo

the regional assessment of groundwater safe yield. The hydraulic method is

used only for estimating reser es in separate sites. A detailed e aluation o

the methods used for assessing groundwater safe yield and the peculiarities

of their use in different natural and man1made conditions! is gi en in th

work by (0ore sky et al.! 2=>=" 0indeman and @a$ in! 2=H3" @a$ in! 2=

Chapter-4

'UMMAR AND CONC/U'ION

%t should be once again noted that the problem of groundwater use is

composite part of a common problem of rational natural use and

en ironmental protection. ?nly a oint consideration of all the aspects of

interaction between the groundwater and other en ironmental components


50/57

can make it possible to elaborate on a long1term program for rational

groundwater use and protection.

atural protection restrictions for groundwater withdrawal must be

considered and possible changes in groundwater resources under the impac

of engineering and economic acti ities must be in estigated. %t

particularly important to work out predictions of increased groundwater

pumping for centrali$ed water supply of a population and for industry and

agriculture. %t should again be stressed that the task of specialists at presen

is not only to calculate the water olume that can be pumped out of an

aquifer in specific hydrogeological conditions during a certain time period

but also to assess the possible changes in different en ironmental

components that may be caused by the withdrawal of groundwater. As a

result! specialists must pro e and recommend! if necessary! special measure

to minimi$e possible negati e consequences of groundwater withdrawal

particularly when e#ploiting large well fields.

6etermining the function of groundwater in a total water resource

program and in calculating the water balance of separate regions F ri e

basins! lakes! and seas F is a separate! but no less important! problem.


51/57

*ol ing the problems mentioned will absolutely pro ide for increased

effecti eness and rationality of groundwater use and will make it possible

for decision makers to pro e modern and prospecti e pro ects for the wat

supply of separate regions.

Thus! in conclusion! it is reasonable to briefly formulate the main

tasks of further scientific and practical in estigations on the problem

considered. These tasks are the followingC

To impro e the a ailable and to de elop new methods for assessing

groundwater resources accounting for natural measures"To de elop and put into practice nature1protecting criteria determining

the acceptable impact of groundwater withdrawal on other

components of the en ironment! and also the acceptable effect of

anthropogenic acti ities on ground1water resources and quality"To perfect the a ailable and to de elop new methods for predicting

changes in groundwater resources and quality under intensi e

anthropogenic acti ities and possible climate changesCTo substantiate the principles of conducting groundwater monitoring

in different naturalclimatic and anthropogenic conditions as acomponent of the general monitoring of water resources and the

en ironment"


52/57

To impro e methods of assessing groundwater ulnerability to

pollution in the main aquifers used for water supply"To perfect methods of artificial groundwater recharge and to use them

more widely in acti e well fields"To de elop mathematical models of interaction between ground1 and

marine water in different geologic1hydrogeologic conditions of the

coastal $ones and also methods for predicting marine1water intrusion

into the aquifers under intensified groundwater withdrawal by coastal

well fields"To de elop and to put into practice legislati e norms emphasi$ing

preferred use of fresh groundwater of high quality primarily for

drinking and domestic water supply.

*ol ing these problems will considerably increase the effecti e use of

groundwater.


53/57

R) )R)NC)'

2. A0E,,!


54/57

D. A6A&*! 0. A 6 A. &A+6? A,6 (2==5). . diagnostic approach

to the determination of aquifer susceptibility to e'ploitation side

effects$ %nternational Association of ydrogeologists. ;7th

%nternational +ongress! Edmonton! Alberta.B. A%B pp.H. A,,E H). 78. (+ 5 a standardized system for e!aluating


55/57

groundwater pollution potential using hydrogeologic settings . .*.

En ironmental Agency! Ada! ? ! E-AK733K;1>H13D7! B55 pp.=. A,,E@! /.&.! A 6 -. +? E (2==2). A *cientifically 0ased

ationwide Assessment of Groundwater Nuality in the nited *tates.

En!ironmental "eology and Water ciences ! Lol. 2H! o. 2! pp. 2HF

;;.23.A,,%*? ! G. 0." G E*! &. /. (2=H>). The use of en ironmental

chloride and tritium to estimate total recharge to an unconfined

aquifer. .ustralian -ournal of oil 8esearch ! 27! pp. 2>2F=5.22.A,,%*? ! G. 0." G E*! &. /. (2=>D). The use of natural tracers

as indicators of soil1water mo ement in a temperate semi1arid region

-ournal of %ydrology ! 73! pp. 25HFHD.2;. .llocation and use of groundwater a national framewor* for

impro!ed groundwater management in .ustralia (2==7). Agricultural

and


56/57

2B.A,T* , A.! . T?&% A! L. *E ? A 6 ,. @APL% (2=>7).

&ain aspects of rational groundwater use in countries6members of

the ouncil for &utual Economic .ssistance : &E.; . 0ull. of

+&EA! &oscow! 2! pp. HF25.25.A 6EH). Applicability of

ulnerability maps. %nC.A--,E@A


57/57

2=.A7). rigin and geochemical e!olution of saline

groundwater in the /risbane coastal plain, Australia. +atena! 2D! pp.

;5HFH5.;3.A

Argentina! 0ah a 0lanca! B5= pp.22. A*?+%A+%S ,AT% ? A&E

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