Ground Systems to Connect Small-SatelliteConstellations to Underserved Areas

Christoffel J. Kotze

ContentsIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2The Challenges of the Digital Divide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3The Remote Community Communication Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Internet Access Challenges in Remote Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

The “Last-Mile” Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Satellite Broadband . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Smallsats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Broadband Access for Remote Underserved or Unserved Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8The Basic Broadband Apparatus for Remote Communities (BARC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Augmented BARC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Form as Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

AbstractAccess to broadband Internet is increasingly becoming compulsory in order toparticipate in many aspects of modern economic systems. Currently more thana third of the global population does not have access to any form of Internetconnection and thus by default is excluded from any activity for which it isa prerequisite. One of the primary reasons for the exclusion of any populationfrom Internet access is the lack of available communication infrastructure;this is particularly relevant in remote societies. Satellite technology by its verynature is not geographically constrained making it ideal to deliver broadbandto remote communities. Opportunity presents itself with the recent announcement

C. J. Kotze (*)NOEZ Consulting & Design, Yzerfontein, South Africae-mail: chris@noez.co.za

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019J. Pelton (ed.), Handbook of Small Satellites,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20707-6_31-1

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of mega-constellations featuring hundreds or even thousands of small satellites,which significantly bolster not only the available bandwidth but also the ability toprovide it at low latency as it will operate in lower orbits.

In the world of satellite services, the focus tends to be on the space systems inorbit, but in the case of large-scale LEO constellations, the design and imple-mentation of the ground systems will be of critical importance. The purpose ofthis chapter is to investigate what is practically required at ground level to allowa remote community to successfully engage small-satellite broadband Internet ina reliable, cost-effective, and technically and operationally feasible manner.

KeywordsBroadband apparatus for remote communities (BARC) · Broadband · Digitaldivide · Electrical power supplies · Flat-panel antennas · Last-mile problem ·Mega-satellite constellations · Small satellites · Technical assistance · Electronictracking antennas · Wi-Fi access

Introduction

The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) is a term used to describe the collective effecton society by rapid simultaneous developments across diverse fields. The newcapabilities of this cyber revolution serve as a driver of novel innovation with thepotential to positively affect virtually all aspects of society (Schwab). In addition todrivers such as the evolution of cloud technology, connected sensors, and advanceddata analytics, it is the sustainable and cost-effective availability of broadbandInternet that glues all the components together and enables technology convergence.Though there has been an encouraging acceleration in Internet penetration in recentyears, a significant percentage of the global population has still not been connected.Data released in June 2019 indicates that out of an estimated world population ofjust over 7.7 billion, Internet global penetration is less than 53%. If this estimate iscorrect, this still leaves 3.3 billion people unconnected (InternetWorldStats 2019).Currently not one of the global macro regions has complete Internet penetration,though in most cases the connected portion of the population is significantly higherthan the unconnected; Africa represents the only regional exception (Fig. 1). A 2014study identified four primary conditions that need to be met before a user will adopta broadband Internet, namely, it is readily available, accessible, affordable, andrelevant to the community or the individual concerned.

Considered the primary preventative factor for adoption of broadband is the“availability” of an Internet service to the target population. The availability of thenecessary infrastructure to create the end user community to the connection mesh,often referred to as the so-called last-mile challenge, is the first step in achievingconnectivity. In addition to the communication infrastructure, practical use of theInternet also requires ancillary services such as electricity and the necessary hard-ware to engage the service if it is available. A World Economic Forum studyindicates the absence of infrastructure as the primary reason for Internet access

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exclusion of more than a third of the global population, citing 31% not having 3Gcoverage with 15% without electricity (Biggs 2018a). This chapter aims to exploresome of the challenges faced by remote rural communities when it comes to theimplementation of broadband Internet and how it can be mitigated.

The term “digital divide” is used to generally differentiate between two groups;on the one side, there are the “haves.” This population generally has access to thebest of digital technology and is largely equipped with the relevant skills to use theequipment. The “have nots” represent the other group with limited or no access ofany of the “digital privileges” of the other. This phenomenon has been studiedextensively for many years. The primary causative factors have been found to bea combination of socioeconomic and spatial demographics. A 2016 World Bankreport (World Bank Group 2016) defined the “digital divide” in terms of a userdemographic indicating it is particularly skewed toward poor, rural communitiesas indicated by Fig. 2.

The Challenges of the Digital Divide

The “digital divide” though is a multifaceted concept involving not a single butrather a bouquet of digital technologies. One might today, however, argue that it isthe availability of the Internet which serves as the standard metric by which to gaugethe presence of the digital divide for a specific demographic group. If a community ison the wrong side of the digital divide, it typically means automatic exclusion fromthe e-commerce economy. According to the last UNCTAD Information Economy

Fig. 1 Regional Internet connectivity expressed as % of the population. (Graphic courtesy of theauthor)

Ground Systems to Connect Small-Satellite Constellations to Underserved. . . 3

report, it had already grown to a 25-trillion USD industry as of year-end 2015(UNCTAD 2017).

The digital divide at a macro level can eventually impair trade betweencountries with high levels of digital penetration and those with very low levels ofdigital integration. As alluded to earlier, the basic availability of infrastructure isthe primary exclusion factor for unconnected communities worldwide and thusthe primary driver of the “digital divide.” Yet, even after the infrastructure problemis resolved, there are still additional barriers to overcome before a user communitycan productively engage in broadband Internet services. An International Telecom-munication Union (ITU) study concluded that in addition to a broadband servicebeing physically available, the following three factors need to be satisfied to deter-mine successful adoption (Biggs 2018b):

• Cost – Is the service affordable to the users? An estimated 57% of the globalpopulation could not afford Internet access in 2017.

• Capability – Do users have the means to access the service, i.e., skill andhardware?

• Relevance – Does the user community see a benefit in using the service? Is itapplicable from a cultural and language perspective?

Clearly the mitigation of the challenges surrounding infrastructure is key. Yet itis important to note that all relevant factors need to be satisfied for the installationto have a chance of success.

Fig. 2 Demographic profile of the unconnected. (Graphic courtesy of the author)

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The Remote Community Communication Challenge

As illustrated in the previous section, a person living in a rural area has a muchhigher chance not to be connected to the Internet than one residing in an urbansetting. Sub-Saharan Africa where 63% of the population is based in rural areas hasthe lowest Internet penetration as opposed to the European Union characterized bya very high broadband penetration where only 26% of the population resides in ruralareas. In sociology the “Matthew effect” (Rigney 2010), a term coined by RobertK. Merton, refers to a situation where advantage propagates further advantage, andvice versa this can be applied to Internet access. In short, the more you have, themore you can do with it. Rural areas with little to no access thus will, according tothe Matthew effect, fall increasingly behind urban areas in activities surrounding“connected” living.

Rural areas have got unique challenges when it comes to the rollout of basicinfrastructure which can make these areas more likely not to be included in newtechnology rollouts. Typically it is the product of a number of causative factors.Yet the strongest factors relate to large distances or difficult terrain that needs to benavigated in order to reach these areas. To investigate the unique challenges faced byrural communities, a study was commissioned by the European Union (EU) in 2008.The study identified four main categories of problems plaguing rural areas (Bertoliniet al. 2008):

• Demography – rural areas are typically inhabited by a population overrepre-sented by older people, with a diminishing young populace often leading to anunderperforming local economy.

• Remoteness – this makes it more difficult to provide and maintain good infra-structure, compounded with an underperforming economy, motivating urbanmigration consequently acting as inhibitor to an incentive of improvinginfrastructure.

• Education – typically of a lower level among the rural populace, a causativefactor in a number of problems experienced by such areas, e.g., lower employ-ment and economic opportunity and increased poverty. Due to a lack of infra-structure, the chance to obtain a better education is diminished.

• Labor market – the confluence of the other three factors described limitsemployment opportunities for residents in rural areas; consequently skilled peo-ple leave the area as there is no opportunity, which prevents investment in the areadue to a lack of a capable available labor force.

Though the study was done on developed countries within the EU and EuropeanEconomic Area and therefore is not necessarily applicable directly to developingcountries, it does serve as a point of departure to approach challenges affectingrural development in the developing world. Included in one of the many challengesfaced by rural areas unfortunately is the ready and cost-effective availability ofcommunication systems.

Ground Systems to Connect Small-Satellite Constellations to Underserved. . . 5

Internet Access Challenges in Remote Areas

For a user to interact with the Internet, a number of primary components must allbe available in one place to facilitate the process, namely:

• A communication service to connect the end user to the Internet or the so-calledlast mile

• Hardware and software to facilitate the connection and allow the user to engagethe Internet

• Available electricity to power the Internet-enabling equipment

The requirement to connect to the Internet for a user in a city is in principal thesame for an end user in a remote rural setting; however the availability electricity and“last-mile” options typically can be a real constraint.

The “Last-Mile” Issue

The term “last mile” is a figurative term used in the telecommunications industryused to describe the link between the primary telecoms infrastructure and the enduser, e.g., the cable between the telephone and a house or a “Wi-Fi” hotspot.Bridging the “last mile” remains the principal problem preventing the mass rolloutof broadband Internet services; the more remote the area, the smaller the probabilityof a traditional fixed-line connection. In remote areas it is quite often not econom-ically viable to lay cable infrastructure such as fiber optics; quite often it is not evenphysically possible. Remoteness also impacts the rollout of mobile phone technol-ogy where mass rollout is challenged by accessibility maintenance and securityissues. Cell phone base stations are increasingly the target of opportunistic theft asthieves target the air-conditioning units, copper wire, and especially the backupbatteries; remote isolated towers are especially vulnerable to this kind of theft. AnInternet service provider (ISP) typically is a profit-driven commercial enterprisewhich typically will not willingly deploy to an area where no financial incentiveexists or an area where the infrastructure would be difficult to maintain. Satellitetechnology is particularly well suited to act as the “last-mile” link as it is not boundby physical accessibility, having the ability to connect virtually any area on earth. Yetthere is still the challenge of how the consumer achieves connection to the satellitesystem. This is the key aspect addressed in this chapter.

Satellite Broadband

Satellite technology by its very nature has to have many layers of redundancy built-in due to the fact that maintenance for the spacecraft is virtually impossible, whichpractically translates into a highly reliable service. Traditionally satellite broadbanddelivered by geosynchronous spacecraft has been plagued by cost, capacity, and

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particularly the problem of latency issues. In recent years technological developmentacross the space industry has benefited the satellite industry. High-throughput GEOsatellites can provide a cost-effective broadband service able to compete withterrestrial broadband services in terms of capacity and cost. New standards nowinclude the use of spoofing techniques and larger delay windows to avoid GEO delaynot to be mistaken for system congestion. These adjustments and new standardto address GEO satellite latency concerns have increased the ability of these systemsto support networked services. Yet latency remains an issue.

Latency is largely determined by the round-trip distance the signal has to travelbetween source and destination. There can be other factors such as processing times.The transmission round-trip distance will be primarily determined by the orbit thesatellite orbits in, which is one aspect that in some cases serves as an exclusion factorfor broadband services using geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO). Broadband satel-lites using GEO orbits have the distinct advantage that it can use a stationary antennaat the user end as opposed to low (LEO) and medium earth orbit (MEO) wheretracking is required. However this comes at the price of high latency. The lower orbitconstellations can produce very competitive latency performance albeit with therequirement for more sophisticated user antenna tracking arrangement which comesat a cost. Substantial reduction in cost per unit has made satellite broadbandincreasingly affordable and is expected to continue as additional capacity is addedespecially in view of a number of small-satellite-based mega-constellations that havebeen announced and with many now being implemented. Unlocking the true poten-tial of these new mega-constellations which will be operating in the lower orbitsegments will depend how well the market can develop the ground equipmentnecessary to optimally connect to these constellations.

Smallsats

In the past decade, rapid development in the information and communicationtechnology (ICT) sphere has led to significant increases in the capability andcapacity of hardware and the software able to exploit it. These developments havefiltered down into all aspects of modern industry including satellite developmentin the form of small satellites commonly known as “smallsats.” These are highlycapable functional units featuring a small footprint and are relatively cheap toproduce and less costly to launch. This emerging class of satellites can range fromvery small “cubesats” (weighing as little as 1 kg) to larger units with a mass typicallyin the 150–500 kg range. The lesser weight translates into lower launch costs,coupled with the availability of cheaper launch option now becoming available.Between 2008 and 2018, more than 1200 “smallsats” have already been launched,a figure dwarfed by the many thousands of additional units planned for launchby 2028.

The increasing market for spaced-based services to provide communication andremote sensing is expected to continue to drive demand upward for low earth orbit(LEO)-based services leading to increased competition and a decrease in cost for

Ground Systems to Connect Small-Satellite Constellations to Underserved. . . 7

these services and the space and ground systems. Decreased launch costs makeshorter technology cycles of space-based assets feasibly relative to terrestrial pro-viders. “Smallsats” are particularly well suited for broadband provision, and as sucha number of “smallsats” mega-constellations are now being implemented such asthe OneWeb (Dean) network backed in part by Google and the Starlink (Coldewey2019) system backed by SpaceX; many systems have been announced such asAmazon’s “Kuiper” (Henry 2019). The large number of small-satellite constellationsto provide broadband networking services and remote sensing services – nowexceeding over 20,000 of such new types of satellites – has raised concernedabout a glut of such types of satellite services, large price wars, and serious concernsabout orbital debris.

Electricity

Without the availability of electricity at an end user’s location, the availability ofa satellite broadband signal will not mean much as all digital devices need a certainamount of electricity to drive its components. Though the minimum power require-ment of the end user hardware is normally quite minimal, it still needs to be availableto enable a practical engagement with the Internet (see Table 1).

For urban users the availability of electricity normally is not a problem in mostareas of the world where, on average, 96.4% of the urban population has access,as opposed to 73% of the rural population across the globe (SE4ALL 2018). Ona regional scale, the difference between urban and rural can be much more pro-nounced. One such example is sub-Saharan Africa, the region with the fastestgrowing population in the world. This region which will by 2035 also have theyoungest population in the world has a pronounced difference in electricity penetra-tion, where 79% of urban dwellers has access and less than 23% of the ruralpopulation has such access (Bello-Schünemann 2017).

Broadband Access for Remote Underserved or UnservedCommunities

With technological development making satellite broadband an increasingly viablesolution for mass rollout, the question is how can it and other emerging technologybe utilized to make broadband rollout a practical solution for the unconnected inremote areas. A product that can bridge the “last mile” while also providing theability to address the other barriers of broadband adoption to effectively present

Table 1 User-end broadband power requirement (Energy Use Calculator 2018)

Broadband “user-end” power requirement

Access device “Feature phone” Notebook PC Smartphone Tablet

Consumption 2–6 W 20–100 W 90–350 W 2–6 W 2–6 W

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broadband is presented and analyzed here. This is called for this discussionand analysis a broadband apparatus for remote communities (BARC). Such aBARC must have the ability to deliver broadband Internet to any remote communitywithout the need for power or additional communication infrastructure to be alreadyavailable at the proposed site. Ideally such a product should be designed to beintegrated into the daily lives of the user population in such a way that fullacceptance of the technology is achieved to the maximum benefit of all stakeholders.Table 2 presents the basic expected features, advantages, and benefits (FAB) of sucha product.

The features, advantages, and benefits (FAB) of such a product can furtherbe translated into requirements to define it more clearly as presented below.

A successful product in one way or another is the result of a sound requirementanalysis, which can be based on information obtained from various sources and onobserved trend data and recommendations and ideally should include some degreeof user consultation. This process is generally known as the requirements definition,and arguably the most important phase of the product lifecycle, literally being thefirst make-or-break point (Daniels 2000). Requirements are typically split intofunctional and nonfunctional requirements. Functional requirements are basedon “feature” or “what” the product must achieve typically described as singlerequirement. Nonfunctional requirements are the criteria used to assess the system,i.e., the “how.” Defining “how” the system should deliver the “what” is also referredto as the “quality requirements” and will typically include a set of “acceptancecriteria.”

In the case of a product that will serve the remote underserviced market, the basicrequirements are determined to a large degree by an acceptance model based on thecriteria of availability, accessibility, affordability, and applicability. Such an accep-tance model is based on research by various international institutions such as theInternational Telecommunications Union (ITU), the United Nations (UN), and theWorld Bank Group among others. Product requirement thus must have as its primarygoal the elimination of these four barriers preventing the successful adoption ofbroadband services in unconnected communities. A product deployed in a remotearea where access is not easy nor necessarily guaranteed will also have to offer a veryhigh degree of reliability.

Table 2 Features, advantages, and benefits of a broadband apparatus for remote communities(BARC)

Broadband access for remote communities (BARC)(Features, advantages, and benefits (FAB) analysis)

Features Self-contained broadband Internet system, using satellite communication andrenewable energy technology, with the ability to provide additional wirelessservices such as Wi-Fi connectivity to villages

Advantages Can be deployed in most remote areas, not dependent on any existinginfrastructure, and provide all required supporting services for practicalbroadband Internet use

Benefits Allows the community to benefit by being able to use broadband Internet in apractical and costeffective manner

Ground Systems to Connect Small-Satellite Constellations to Underserved. . . 9

Low-maintenance requirements augmented by a robust remote managementand monitoring abilities constitute important considerations. It is also desirableto involve a degree of training to establish a certain community knowledge baseto carry out basic maintenance and building community ownership. To ensureadditional “buy-in” into the use of the product by the local community, it might bebeneficial to add extra features to the product which falls outside of just communi-cations device. Such additional features could be a direct service, i.e., provide lightat night in an area where electricity is not available or collect data to serve thecommunity indirectly down-the-line.

The quality requirements can be split into two main groupings, namely, the basicuser acceptance requirements and performance requirements. Typical requirementsfalling under the ambit of performance requirements will relate to product perfor-mance, reliability, supportability, and usability. The four generic conformancecriteria for community acceptance of broadband serve as the “acceptance criteria.”These are very important design considerations as they will determine the product’sacceptance rate (Sprague et al. 2014).

These acceptance requirements must importantly include a component to createa “desire” in the target user to “want to” use the product which in turn can beinfluenced by the design.

The Basic Broadband Apparatus for Remote Communities (BARC)

In its basic form, a BARC needs to deliver the means to practically engage broad-band Internet to a user in an underserviced remote community anywhere in theworld. To achieve this it needs to perform four “foundation” functions, namely,engage two-way communication with a broadband constellation, generate and storeelectricity, and provide a practical user interface – all delivered in a single unit. Thissection explores the basic architecture with some notes on enabling technology.

Architecture

The foundation architecture required to deliver the basic purpose can be viewed as aninterrelationship between four integrated functional modules, namely, structure,power, communications, and user interface. In this configuration the product shouldbe able to provide all that is required for an end user to engage a space-basedbroadband signal. The architecture can be modelled analogously to the concept ofa “biological cell,” where the environment for all functional components to interactand enable the cell to function as a single unit is created within the boundaries ofa “cell wall” – in this model represented by M1 the “Structure Module” (see Fig. 3).

Structure Module (M1)This module not only provides the physical structure to anchor all the necessaryequipment but also provides the means to integrate and control all the modules into

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a single workable unit. As the “heart of the system,” it is the central point of failurefor the system, and the design should be robust enough to minimize risk of failure.Typically it will contain at least the following functionalities:

• Anchor points• Central control distribution and connections• Power distribution and connections• Physical structure to accommodate all required hardware and software• Reticulation conduits and connectors• Telemetry

Power Module (M2)This module is responsible for the generation and storage of electrical power forthe BARC system. It will need to utilize a form of renewable energy appropriateto the area of deployment, e.g., photovoltaic panels, which is then stored in batteries.Power generation for any device in a remote area will have to rely on a type ofrenewable energy which can easily be integrated into a BARC, currently dominatedby two types, namely:

• Photovoltaic (PV) technology generates electricity through the interaction ofa semiconductor material and sunlight. PV is widely used in multiple applicationsin diverse settings, from powering satellites in space to the pumping of water inthe desert and powering of a plethora of personal equipment (NREL 2018). Newtechnology using non-silicon-based materials allow for ever-increasing applica-tion allowing PV materials to be directly applied on different shapes and surfaces(Energy.gov). PV technology is by far the most popular technology for rapid

Fig. 3 BARC foundation architecture. (Graphic courtesy of the author)

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rollout of power at underserviced areas and is widely used to power equipment inmarine craft such as sail yachts.

• Wind power, arguably the oldest form of renewable energy, started out propellingboats in ancient Egypt then gradually evolved into more sophisticated applica-tions with wind-powered water pumps believed to be in use in China as early as200 BCE (USEIA). Generating electricity by converting the rotational force ofwind has therefore been a logical evolution with large windfarms already pro-ducing 597 GW by the end of 2018 (WWEA). Small wind generators (SWGs) areless efficient albeit not as complicated as the large commercial systems but canbe deployed effectively in remote areas with frequent windy conditions. CompactSWGs have become a popular proven technology and can often be seen ongantries with security cameras and on most oceangoing sail yachts.

Table 3 provides an overview of the key choice considerations for deployment ofPVor SWG.

Albeit lesser known than solar and wind and not currently quite a practicalconsideration yet for a BARC are fuel cells (Kurtz 2016), yet worthy of a mentionas potential future power generator for a remote setting. Generating electricity usingthe electrochemical reaction between oxygen and hydrogen, an extremely energy-efficient process (80–95%) and only producing water as effluent, it presents anattractive prospect. An additional advantage of the technology is that, it beingessentially a battery running on “fuel,” it does not require the major storage overheadin the form of batteries normally associated with small-scale PV and SMG. Currentvirtually all portable versions need recharging of its fuel source which might notbe a practical arrangement for remote communities where distance plays a role.Globally a number of commercial initiatives are driving fuel cell development,for example, the platinum mining sector, in search of additional applications forits product, which may ultimately lead a practical unit for remote communities(Minerals Council South Africa).

Table 3 Renewable energy PV and SWT (Fong)

Solar cells – photovoltaic (PV)

Advantages Very loweco-impact

Low operationalexpense

Ease of use Portability

Disadvantages Limited powersupply

High capitalexpense

Day only –needs storagesystem

Efficiencydetermined byenvironment

Small wind turbine (SWT)

Advantages Cost-effective –depending onlocation

Can produce poweras long as the windblows

Relativelyportable

Smallinstallationfootprint

Disadvantages Highoperationalexpense

Mechanical failure Spare partavailability inrural areas

Efficiencydetermined byenvironment

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In the future a combination of photovoltaic (PV) cells, small wind generators(SWGs), and fuel cell each complementing the other might be the best option, and inreality it has already been practically demonstrated by the Energy Observer (Stewart)an oceangoing catamaran which uses all three technologies to power its planned6-year odyssey around the globe.

In the case of any renewable power, the issue of storage always needs to be takeninto account to ensure a consistent power supply when the renewable source is notavailable, i.e., the sun sets or the wind does not blow. Lithium-ion battery technologyis currently the preferred choice as the source of backup power for electronic signalequipment, for example, cell phone base stations, where deep-cycle lithium-ionunits have been proven as a reliable choice. With low internal resistance (BatteryUniversity), high cycle life, low charge time, self-discharge protection, low toxicity,low mass, compactness, and virtually maintenance-free, it is the best current optionfor a BARC. On the downside it is still relatively expensive although costs have beenpushed down driven by the development in mobile electronics and recently increas-ingly the electric car market. The technology relies on a flammable non-water-basedelectrolyte, a potential fire hazard (Ribière et al. 2012), which can be mitigated bybuilding a suppressant system capable of dealing with lithium-ion fires into thedesign especially important in remote locations (Maloney 2013). Redundancy is animportant consideration in any battery installation that the design should alsoaccommodate.

Communication Module (M3)Functionally this module is responsible for all communication services; practicallyit serves two distinct purposes, namely, taking care of the “last mile” via a suitableantenna and serving as portal to local users via a medium, e.g., Wi-Fi.

Key to this module is the use of satellite ground antennas to communicate to thechosen constellation. The ubiquitous fixed parabolic antennas are universally asso-ciated with satellite communications and as with the writing of this chapter stillremain the most popular option to provide broadband Internet in remote areas. Fixedparabolic antennas by its nature receive service from GEO satellites and are suitablefor broadband applications where latency is not an issue, and therefore currently it isthe most widely rollout technology to provide satellite broadband to remote areas.Successfully engaging a broadband constellation operating in lower orbits – wherethe individual satellites will travel faster and cover a much smaller area than is thecase with GEO constellations – a fixed parabolic system will not suffice necessitat-ing the use of a user-end antenna capable of “tracking” the constellation.

A new generation of flat-panel antennas (FPAs) with no moving partsusing electronic “steering” with the ability to engage LEO, MEO, and GEO con-stellations has entered the market already albeit still on the high-end of the market.Incorporating technology such as phased array allows communications trackingby using a RF beam focused at the target constellation using software controllingantenna emissions. Technological advances in a variety of fields have allowedcompanies to overcome traditional challenges relating to cost and performance toproduce antennas feasible for the mass market. Cost is of particular importance when

Ground Systems to Connect Small-Satellite Constellations to Underserved. . . 13

considering penetrating a market dominated by low-income consumers for which anestimate of USD 100 for a complete kit is considered the target “affordability” pricepoint for the “poor” demographic (Werner 2017). It is important to note that tariffsand installation costs can easily double when antennas are actually put in place.

FPAs do have an added design advantage as they offer more freedom to beintegrated into a BARC design as they do not have the design constraints thatcomes with a parabolic antenna.

Since Apple, the first major mainstream manufacturer to adopt the technologyinto its product lineup, introduced Wi-Fi in its “AirPort” in 1999 (Apple 1999),Wi-Fi has become the “face” of pervasive wireless connectivity, with over ninebillion (WorldWiFiDay) devices shipped as of the end of 2017. Providing easeof use, this well proven technology is easy to integrate into virtually any design.Typical considerations are coverage area, distance, capacity, and security. Securityis increasingly an important factor in relation to cybercrime and privacy issues.Introduced into the market in 2018, WPA3(Wi-Fi Alliance WPA3™) offers compli-ance to more strict data security requirements with stronger cryptographic strengthwhile at the same time allows the use of less complex passwords.

User Interface Module (M4)The purpose of this module is to provide the end user with the utility to translatethe available services into a practical reality. In unserviced remote areas, end userswill need to have the means to charge the intended access device such as a tabletcomputer provided to them. The interface must provide an easy-to-use physicalinterface, providing utility in the form of charge points featuring a variety of industrystandard connectors, e.g., USB 3. It might also be used to house biometric authen-tication devices if so required. At face value it is not as technically complex as theother modules; it is however the most crucial from the perspective of the end user. Asdesign consideration it is the only truly user-facing component with direct physicaluser engagement, i.e., the “face” of the product. Should it fail to serve the usercommunity, it will render the BARC practically useless to its intended user base;therefore it should be robust enough to survive the rigors of daily use in a challeng-ing environment and should offer a high degree of redundancy all translating intoa very low mean time to failure.

Augmented BARC

Though the basic BARC design will achieve the goal of connecting the“unconnected,” a design that allows to easily add additional features, beneficial todifferent types of communities, will present a distinct advantage. Different commu-nities might identify different additional needs, and a design that will also allow fornew features to be added with relative ease in the future will be highly desirable.

This section presents a number of modules that will not only enhance the utilityof the BARC for on-site users but also present the BARC to be of value to othernonlocal stakeholders. Figure 4 presents an expanded model of the BARC; inaddition to the four basic modules, an additional four utility modules marked

14 C. J. Kotze

U1–U4 are shown. These are modules accommodated by the structure module(M1) in a similar fashion to the foundation modules (M2–M4) and may use featuresof these modules as required.

Utility Control Module (U1)The purpose of this module is twofold: firstly it should provide a unique identitytoken (UIT) to the BARC, and secondly it must provide the means for remotemanagement. The UIT token can be used among others for remote managementand data encryption. Remote monitoring and management of a BARC can be used toproactively identify impending problems, conduct routine maintenance, and applyupgrades among others. Where the BARC is part of a third-party sponsored system,it can also serve as an asset control mechanism.

Light (U2)The purpose of this module is to provide light and alleviate “light poverty,” a termused to describe communities without the benefit of “decent light” at night. Typicallythis problem is a function of not having access to electricity; it introduces a numberof constraints to the community after dark including but not limited to movement,productivity, and security. Globally an estimated 17% of the population spends upto 1000 times more money on a “unit of light” than their “on-grid” compatriots.The situation impacts the environment as the “light poor” are forced to burn fuel toprovide light which is estimated to be equal to the greenhouse gas emissions of30 million (Mills) cars. LED technology comes in a variety of forms and is easy tointegrate into any design and provides high lumens output at a low power consump-tion. Coupled with low cost and a superior longevity compared with other lightingtechnologies, LED illumination is ideal as a supplementary utility service ofa BARC.

Fig. 4 Expanded BARC architecture model. (Graphic courtesy of the author)

Ground Systems to Connect Small-Satellite Constellations to Underserved. . . 15

Sensor (U3)The purpose of this module is to host a number of sensors which can be used forcollection of data and meta-data for a variety of reasons. It is said that the FourthIndustrial Revolution is “powered by data,” data collected from “new” areas such asthe intended deployment of BARC might be of particular value which could bemonetized to assist the community. In remote unserviced communities, such collec-tion of data may thus be of benefit to any number of stakeholders. A vast variety ofsensors are already available on the market in the form micro-electromechanicalsystems (MEMS) (MEMSnet) which can be used for reliable data acquisition forvirtually any mainstream application. This module can also be used to encrypt thecollected data using the BARC UIT (refer U1) which can be deployed as part of anattribute-based encryption scheme (ABE) (Sahai and Waters 2005). The module canalso collect meta-data; the communications module (M3) will be used to transfer theencrypted data to its destination.

BARC-2-BARC (U4)This utility module enables additional BARC units to be added at a location shouldthe need arise to expand the coverage of the system or for redundancy purposes.

Form as Consideration

Whereas not the only, “uncertainty” is cited as one of the main reasons people willresist the change typically associated with the introduction of a new product into achosen demographic. Severe resistance to change can result in the complete failureof a novel product introduced into an environment where the purpose is not clearlyunderstood (Sørensen 2013). Rosabeth Kanter (2012) stated that a target demo-graphic will often “remain mired in misery than to head toward an unknown,” whenfaced with the “excess uncertainty” introduced by a novel product. The productideally therefore needs to overcome inherent resistance to change, by clearly pre-senting itself in a beneficial way to the intended demographic, i.e., a product that isperceived useable, useful, and “desirable to use.” When planning Disneyland orig-inally the question “How will it provide the customer with a magical experience?”(Thomke and Reinertsen 2012) was used with great success in order to make theeventual product desirable from a user perspective. The more intuitively the designcan accomplish this, the greater the chance of success. Product desirability must beachieved within the constraints of what is possible and what is affordable. The idealproduct design can be illustrated as a virtual “point” where product desirability,feasibility, and viability intersect while satisfying the basic generic acceptancerequirements (refer to Fig. 5). This needs to be created within all relevant constraintswhich could take many forms be it cultural, economic, regulatory, or technological.

Introducing broadband Internet into an unconnected community that does notnecessarily perceive a benefit with regards to Internet use, will have to follow adifferent strategy than engaging one with an existing desire to use broadband

16 C. J. Kotze

Internet. This could be achieved through using the form of the design to offer theuser community some obvious other function that the community will find of“immediate value” and as such will accept the presence of a BARC.

A BARC integrated into a functional form such as a structure providing shelterduring the day from sun and rain and at night providing illumination to the areamight have a better chance of being accepted than an abstract structure dedicated tojust providing a broadband signal. Another example could be to integrate the BARCinto a water tank, as water plays such an important role in any community, in thedeveloping world especially. According to data from UNICEF (2016), daily morethan 200 million hours per day is spent in collecting water mostly by women.Providing a facility to store water locally while providing light at night might bevaluable for communities where such a facility does not exist (refer to Fig. 6).

This concept can be explored further as discussed by way of the following threeexamples exploring three basic themes starting with the idea presented above, awater tank.

The design (Fig. 7) is dominated by a large water tank acting as center piece, withthree distinct flat trapezoidal roof frame sections extending outward from the tank.As with the aforementioned design concepts, the roof sections feature PV materialon the outside and LED for the ground-facing part. A FPA and sensor pack aremounted on top of the tank; additional sensors are mounted in a utility “ring”mounted lower on the tank also containing the Wi-Fi. A round utility base surroundsthe tank, in which the batteries are housed.

Featuring shelter as a central design theme, the second design concept (Fig. 8)aims to provide the end users a shelter to use where they can charge their accessdevices sheltered from the sun. The roof is clad with material featuring integrated PVcollectors; the inside roof ceiling is in turn clad with material featuring integrated

Fig. 5 Conceptual design framework linking basic acceptance criteria with design focus. (Graphiccourtesy of the author)

Ground Systems to Connect Small-Satellite Constellations to Underserved. . . 17

ultrathin LED providing light at night. The design is dominated by a conical roofstructure with a FPA mounted at the apex, supported by a number of pillars whichapart from their obvious structural duty also host the additional BARC functionalmodules, housing batteries, housing data collection sensors, and providing inte-grated charge points.

The third featured concept (Fig. 9) resembles a cantilever garden umbrella. Thisconcept places emphasis on portability; this could be of particular use to remotecommunities leading a nomadic existence. Center to the design is a collapsible roofsuspended from a cantilever frame anchored to a modular base housing the battery

Fig. 7 BARC modules using water tank for enhanced function. (Graphic courtesy of the author).Copyrighted by the author and licensed to the publisher for this publication

Fig. 6 Function augmented through form. (Graphic courtesy of the author). Copyrighted by theauthor and licensed to the publisher for this publication

18 C. J. Kotze

packs. The collapsible roof is made from a material with integrated PV on the top“sun-facing” layer with the inside layer of the “umbrella” featuring flexible LEDmaterials. This design features both a FPA and parabolic satellite antennas. Sensorsand Wi-Fi components are housed in a weatherproof enclosure mounted on the topof the frame and the charge points integrated into the frame.

In addition to the immediate acceptance, practical value demonstration of broad-band will have to be demonstrated to enhance community acceptance of the productand willingness to explore the potential of the broadband service. The evolution of

Fig. 8 BARCmodules featuring shelter as the enhanced function. (Graphic courtesy of the author).Copyrighted by the author and licensed to the publisher for this publication

Fig. 9 BARC modules integrated into a collapsible design. (Graphic courtesy of the author).Copyrighted by the author and licensed to the publisher for this publication

Ground Systems to Connect Small-Satellite Constellations to Underserved. . . 19

satellite navigation as a product is a good example; in 1997, very few people sawthe value of a handheld GPS receiver providing the user navigation information inthe form of numerical coordinates. Yet the same information is still used today; thedifference is that it is presented in a practical way. Take a person using a map-basednavigation system on a smartphone, the software takes the same information that waspresented in 1997 from essentially the same service; the difference is now it comes ina converged form, the user association is not with the coordinates but rather withfinding their destination, i.e., the “what” as opposed to the “how.”

The design needs to be augmented by a suite of applications relevant to the targetcommunity which is “readily available” to be rolled out and installed. Thus there isa need for easy-to-use applications that allow farmers’ access to market informationin a practical way. This needs to keep into account skill levels and accessibility innative languages. These features will have an immediate impact. The users must beequipped and trained with the relevant skills to practically use these applications.In organizations the ability of the user pool to recognize the value of new externalinformation, assimilate it, and then find ways to apply it to the benefit of the usercommunity is known as the “absorptive capacity” (Tsai 2001). In the long run thetrue benefit of deployment such as BARC will lie in the ability of the user commu-nity to identify new opportunities the broadband ecosystem can bring to theirimmediate socioeconomic environment which is bound to resonate further up thevalue chain.

Conclusion

The aim of this chapter was to provide a brief overview of practical approachesto provide broadband Internet delivery systems to remote unserviced areas by useof integrated functional modules, i.e., BARCs. The motivation to develop such aproduct is fairly straightforward; in 2019, more than three billion people globally arestill unconnected, a large portion of which is due to the lack of infrastructure.Opportunity is presenting itself through a very large number of small-satellite-based broadband constellations which will present a significant increase in availablebandwidth in the next couple of years. The technology to construct such a product isavailable in the market in the form of flat-panel antennas, renewable energy, andreliable storage systems.

Broadband can only be of benefit to a community if it leads to some improvementin the socioeconomic status quo. Key to this process is getting the community to usethe service and importantly to continue using the service; acceptance of the productby the user community is as important as the product itself, and care must be taken to“up-skill” the potential users adequately. True economic benefit can be achieved bybroadband implementation into a community. This is possible only when the recip-ient community has the capacity to fully exploit the capabilities offered by theservice, leading to increased use of the system and a widening circle of benefitsachieved.

20 C. J. Kotze

There is a tendency to focus on the satellite technology and even the satelliteground systems, but to provide effective connection to rural and remote areas and theentire system that links the end users and address their needs must be considered.An end-to-end capability that meets local consumer needs is essential to success.

Cross-References

▶Economic and Manufacturing Trends for Ground Systems to Support FutureSmall Satellite System

▶ Flat Panel Antennas and Phased Array Earth Stations for Small SatelliteConstellations

▶Tracking Parabolic Antennas Versus Phased Array Earth Stations to SupportSmall Satellite Constellations

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