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Journal of Occupational Health Psychology Copyright 2000 by the Educational Publishing Foundation2000, Vol. 5,N o. 1,9 5-1 10 1076-8998/00/$5.00 DO I: 10.1037//1076-8998.5.1.95

E m o t i o n R e g u l a t i o n in t h e W o r k p la c e: A N e w W a yt o C o n c e p t u a l iz e E m o t io n a l L a b o rA l i c i a A . G r a n d e yP e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

The topic o f emotions in the workplace is beginning to garner close r attention by researchers andtheorists. The study o f emotional la bor addresses the stress of managing emotions when the w orkrole demands that certain expressions be shown to customers. However, there has been nooverarching framework to guide this work, and the previous studies have often disagreed on thedefinition and operationalization of emotional labor. The purposes of this article are as follows: torevie w and compare previous perspectives of emotional labor, to provide a definition of emotionallabor that integrates these perspectives, to discuss emotion regulation as a guiding theory forunderstanding the mechanisms of emotional labor, and to present a m odel of emotional labor thatincludes individual differences (such as emotional intelligence) and organizational factors (such assupervisor support).

I n t h e pa s t , e m o t i o n s w e r e i g n o r e d i n t h e s t u d y o fo r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r ( A r v e y , R e n z , & W a t s o n ,1 9 9 8 ; P u t n a m & M u m b y , 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e w o r k p l a c e w a sv i e w e d a s a r a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t , w h e r e e m o t i o n sw o u l d g e t i n t h e w a y o f s o u n d j u d g m e n t . T h u s ,e m o t i o n s w e r e n o t e v e n c o n s i d e r e d a s e x p l a n a t i o n sf o r w o r k p l a c e p h e n o m e n o n . T h i s v i e w i s b e i n gd i s m a n t l e d a s m o r e r e s e a r c h e r s a r e f i n d i n g h o ww o r k p l a c e e m o t i o n s h e l p t o e x p l a i n i m p o r t a n t i n d i -v i d u a l a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l o u t c o m e s ( f o r a r e v i e w , s e eA r v e y e t a l . , 1 9 9 8) . M o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , r e s e a r c h e r s a r eb e g i n n i n g t o e x p l o r e h o w e m o t i o n s a r e m a n a g e d b ye m p l o y e e s t o i m p r o v e w o r k o u t c o m e s . O n e e x a m p l ei s a n e m p l o y e e c h a n g i n g h o w s h e f e e l s , o r w h a tf e e l i n g s s h e s h o w s , i n o r d e r t o i n t e r a c t w i t hc u s t o m e r s o r c l i e n ts i n a n e f f e c t i v e w a y . T h e f o c u s o ft h e p r e s e n t a r t i c l e i s o n t h e m a n a g e m e n t , o rm o d i f i c a t i o n , o f e m o t i o n s a s p a r t o f t h e w o r k r o l e .M a n a g i n g e m o t i o n s f o r a w a g e h a s b e e n t e r m e demot iona l labor ( H o c h s c h i l d , 1 9 8 3 ) .

O v e r v i e w o f E m o t i o n a l L a b o rE m o t i o n a l l a b o r m a y i n v o l v e e n h a n c i n g , f a k in g , o r

s u p p r e s s i n g e m o t i o n s t o m o d i f y t h e e m o t i o n a le x p r e s s i o n . G e n e r a l l y , e m o t i o n s a r e m a n a g e d i nr e s p o n s e t o t h e d i sp lay ru les f o r t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o rj o b ( E k m a n & F r i e s e n , 1 9 7 5 ; G o f f m a n , 1 9 5 9 ;H o c h s c h i l d , 1 9 8 3 ). T h e s e r u l e s r e g a r d i n g t h e e x p e c t a -t i o ns f o r e m o t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n m a y b e s t a te d

Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-dressed to Alic ia A. Grandey, Department of Psychology,Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania16802-1304. Electronic m ail may be sent to aag6@psu.edu.

e x p l i c i t l y i n s e l e c t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g m a t e r i a l s , o rk n o w n b y o b s e r v a t i o n o f c o w o r k er s . M a n y w o r kr o l e s h a v e d i s p l a y r u l e s r e g a r d i n g t h e e m o t i o n s t h a te m p l o y e e s s h o u l d s h o w t h e p u b l i c ( B e st , D o w n e y , &J o n e s , 1 9 9 7 ; H o c h s c h i l d , 1 98 3) . F o r e x a m p l e , t h o s ew h o w o r k i n c u s t o m e r s e r v i c e m a y e n c o u r a g e r e p e a tb u s i n e ss b y s h o w i n g s m i l e s a n d g o o d h u m o r , w h e r e a st h o s e w h o w o r k a s b i l l c o l l e c t o r s o r i n l a we n f o r c e m e n t m a y f in d th a t a n a n g r y d e m e a n o r r e s u lt si n t h e b e s t " c u s t o m e r " r e s p o n s e ( H o c h s c h i l d , 1 9 8 3;S u t t o n , 1 9 9 1 ; V a n M a a n e n & K u n d a , 1 9 8 9 ) . F o rt h e ra p i s ts o r j u d g e s , a l a c k o f e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n d i n gm a y b e n e e d e d w h e n l i s te n i n g to c l ie n t s. I n e a c h c a s e ,t h e e m o t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n ( o r s u p p r e s s i o n ) r e s u l t s i nm o r e e f f e c t i v e w o r k p l a c e i n t er a c t io n .

A l t h o u g h e m o t i o n a l l a b o r m a y b e h e l p f u l t o t h eo r g a n i z a t i o n a l b o t t o m - l i n e , t h e r e h a s b e e n r e c e n tw o r k s u g g e s t i n g t h a t m a n a g i n g e m o t i o n s f o r p a y m a yb e d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e e m p l o y e e . H o c h s c h i l d ( 1 9 8 3 )a n d o t h e r s h a v e p r o p o s e d t h a t e m o t i o n a l l a b o r i ss t r e s s fu l a n d m a y r e s u l t i n b u r n o u t. T o d a te , h o w e v e r ,t h e s p e c i f ic m e c h a n i s m s i n u n d e r s ta n d i n g t h e r e l a ti o no f e m o t i o n a l l a b o r w i t h s t re s s o u t c o m e s h a v e b e e nu n c l e a r . I n f a c t , t h e p r e v i o u s w o r k s h a v e n o t e v e na g r e e d o n w h a t i s m e a n t b y e m o t i o n a l l a b o r . I n t h i sa r t i c l e , I f i rs t r e v i e w p r e v i o u s t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e sa n d t h e n p r e s e n t a c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f e m o t i o n a ll a b o r t h a t i n t e g r a t e s t h e s e i d e a s . I n t h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n ,I i n t r o d u c e e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n a s a g u i d i n g t h e o r y f o ru n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e m e c h a n i s m s b y w h i c h e m o t i o n a ll a b o r m a y b e s t r e s s f u l t o i n d i v i d u a l s b u t s t i l l b e u s e f u lt o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . F i n a l l y , I s p e c i f y a n t e c e d e n t s a n dc o n s e q u e n c e s o f e m o t i o n a l l a b or , b a s e d o n t h i st h e o r y , a n d p r e s e n t i n d i v i d u a l a n d s i t u a t i o n a l

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96 GRANDEYvariables that may have implications for the relation-ships and human resource processes.

P r e v i o u s P e r s p e c t i v e s o n E m o t i o n a l L a b o rThree conceptualizations of emotional labor that

have greatly influenced the field also demonstrate theconfusing nature of the definition of emotional labor(Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Hochschild, 1983;Morris & Feldman, 1996). Each of these assume thatemotions are being managed at work in order to meetthe display rules stated by the organization andsuggest either individual or organizational outcomesof emotional labor. These articles provide usefulgroundwork for future studies. However, they containcontradictions in terms of how to define andconceptualize emotional labor. Such contradictionscreate difficulties for future researchers, as discussedby Brotheridge and Lee (1998). These previousarticles are discussed below in terms of theircontributions to understanding organizationally man-dated emotion management, and their limitations.

H o c h s c h i l d ' s ( 1 9 8 3 ) P e r s p e c t i v eOne of the earliest works to bring this facet of

organizational life to the public's attention was thebook The Managed Heart: The Commercialization ofFeeling, by sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild.Hochschild (1983) coined the term emotional labor torefer to "the management of feeling to create apublicly observable facial and bodily display" (p. 7).Hochschild's work stemmed from the dramaturgicalperspective of customer interactions, where thecustomer is the audience, the employee is the actor,and the work setting is the stage (Goffman, 1959;Grove & Fisk, 1989). In this perspective, theperformance involves impression management ofservice employees where "actors may employexpressive devices" in order to achieve this goal(Grove & Fisk, 1989, p. 430). In other words,managing emotions is one way for employees toachieve organizational goals. If an employee were toexpress a depressed mood or anger toward a coworkeror customer, that would ruin the performance.Hochscbild's (1983) dramaturgical perspective of-fered two main ways for actors to manage emotions:through surface acting, where one regulates theemotional expressions, and through deep acting,where one consciously modifies feelings in order toexpress the desired emotion.

One of Hochschild's (1983) major tenents is thatthis management of emotions requires effort. Hochs-

child's book raised public and academic conscious-ness that managing emotions in the work settingexisted and may be detr imental to the employee. Notonly are the processes of surface and deep actingeffortful, but as Hochschild (1979) stated, "whendeep gestures of exchange enter the market sector andare bought and sold as an aspect of labor power,feelings are commoditized" (p. 569). This commoditi-zation, where the organization controls something aspersonal as emotions, is suggested to be unpleasant tothe employee. Because of this unpleasantness and theeffort i t takes to maintain a smiling face while copingwith difficult customers, emotional labor is proposedby Hochschild to relate to burnout and job stress.A s h f o r t h a n d H u m p h r e y ' s ( 1 9 9 3 ) P e r s p e c t i v e

Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) defined emotionallabor as the act of displaying appropriate emotions,with the goal to engage in a form of impressionmanagement for the organization (Gardner & Mar-tinko, 1988). In comparison with Hochschild's (1983)perspective, Ashforth and Humphrey were moreconcerned with emotional labor as an observablebehavior than as a management of feelings. Ashforthand Humphrey (1993) downplayed the importance ofthe internal management of emotions through surfaceand deep acting and suggested instead a broader arrayof factors that affect the emotional expression ofemployees. In addition, they argued that emotionallabor does not necessarily require conscious effort. Infact, they suggested that surface and deep acting maybecome routine and effortless for the employee, ratherthan sources of stress.

In terms of outcomes, Ashforth and Humphrey(1993) focused mainly on the relationship betweenthese observable expressions and task effectiveness orperformance. They proposed that emotional laborshould be positively related to task effectiveness,provided that the customer perceives the expressionas sincere. Ashforth and Humphrey agreed withHochschild that if employees are not showinggenuine expressions, emotional labor may be dysfunc-tional to employees by creating a need to dissociatefrom self (particularly if deep acting). However, theydo not provide a way of understanding how this mayhappen within the individual.

Thus, there are two main differences between thisperspective and Hochschild's. The definition ofemotional labor suggested here focuses on observablebehaviors, not feelings, including emotional displaysthat are effortless or genuine. And second, they focuson the impact of emotional labor on task effective-ness, rather than on the individual'shealth or stress.

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SPECIAL SECTION: EMOTION REGULATION N THE WORKPLACE 97Morris and Feldman 's (1996) Perspective

Morris and Feldman (1996) defined emotionallabor as "the effort, planning, and control needed toexpress organizationally desired emotion duringinterpersonal transactions" (p. 987). This definitioncomes from an interactionist approach, where emo-tions are expressed in, and partially determined by,the social environment. This perspective is similar tothose of Hochschild (1983) and Ashfot~th andHumphrey (1993) in that it acknowledges thatemotions can be modified and controlled by anindividual, and the broader social setting determineswhen that happens. These authors proposed thatemotional labor consists of four dimensions: (a)frequency of interactions, (b) attentiveness (intensityof emotions, duration of interaction), (c) variety ofemotions required, and (d) emotional dissonance.Emotional dissonance was discussed by Hochschild(1983) as a state wherein the emotions expressed arediscrepant from the emotions felt. Surface and deepacting, focused on by Hochschild (1983) anddiscussed by Ashforth and Humphrey (1993), arediscussed as a minor facet within the dimension ofattentiveness. Job dissatisfaction and emotional ex-haustion are proposed as outcomes of the dimensionof dissonance, although again, the mechanisms bywhich these outcomes would occur are vague.

This definition of emotional labor includes theorganizational expectations for employees in theirinteractions with customers (how long, how intense,how often), as well as the internal state of tension thatoccurs when a person must display emotions that arediscrepant from his or her true feelings (emotionaldissonance). The problem with this conceptualizationis that a good case is not made for how frequency,duration, and variety define emotional labor. Theexplanation provided by Morris and Feldman (1997)for the dimensions as components of emotional laboris circular: "Emotional labor can best be described interms of frequency of emotional labor" (p. 257).Other researchers (Kruml & Geddes, 1998; Zerbe,1998) have used the dimension of dissonance as adefining dimension of emotional labor, but thisdefinit ion has some difficulties as well. One, it is astate of being, rather than an effortful process, whichdoes not fit the authors' definition of emotional labor.Two, experiencing dissonance does not comprehen-sively cover all the ways one may manage emotionsat work. In short, I suggest that the four proposeddimensions do not completely define the emotionmanagement process of the employee.

Emotional Labor as Managing Expressionsand Feel ings: Surface a nd D eep Act ing

Thus, emotional labor has been defined as thecharacteristics of the job (as defined by Morris andFeldman, 1997) and the observable expressions ofemployees (as defined by Ashforth and Humphrey,1993). However, isn' t it conceivable that the formercontributes to the situation that invokes emotionallabor, and the latter is the proximal goal of emotionallabor? The more distal goal is to gain loyal customersfor the organization (the focus of Ashforth andHumphrey, 1993). Other ancillary outcomes mayinclude negative attitudes and poor health for theemployee (the focus of Hochschild, 1983, and Morrisand Feldman, 1997). In order to understand all ofthese components, an integrated definition andtheoretical model are needed.

For the definition, one can look at the similaritiesacross the three studies. Although these previousworks stem from different perspectives, defineemotional labor differently, and focus on differentoutcomes, they all have the same underlying theme:Individuals can regulate their emotional expressionsat work. Emotional labor, then, is the process ofregulating both feelings and expressions for theorganizational goals. Specifically, each perspectivediscusses surface and deep acting as a way ofmanaging emotions. The processes of surface acting(managing observable expressions) and deep acting(managing feelings) match the working definition ofemotional labor as a process of emotional regulation,and they provide a useful way of operationalizingemotional labor.

Thinking of emotional labor as surface and deepacting is beneficial for several reasons. First, surfaceand deep acting are not inherently value laden.Although dissonance is a negative state of being,surface and deep acting are processes that may havepositive or negative results. This allows researchers toexplain negative outcomes such as individual stressand health problems, and positive results such ascustomer service. Second, conceptualizing surfaceand deep acting as emotional labor has utility. If thereare differences in how these two processes of emotionmanagement relate to the outcomes, suggestions canbe made for organizational training and stressmanagement programs. Finally, seeing emotionallabor as surface and deep acting ties directly into anestablished theoretical model. Although models havebeen proposed, they do not clearly explain whymanaging emotions should relate to the proposedoutcomes. I suggest that the concepts of surface and

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98 GRANDEYdeep acting map onto well-established emotionregulation theory. Hochschild (1983) discussed gen-eral emotion theory, but it is not explicitly applied tothe relationships she proposed. A broad emotiontheory can help organize and make predictions aboutthese mechanisms of emotional labor. In the follow-ing section, I review the theory of emotion regulationas it applies to emotional labor.

Emotion Regulation Theory Appliedto Emotional Labor

Strangely, perspectives on emotional labor havenot specifically considered emotion theory sinceHochschild. In the emotions literature, there is littleagreement on what is meant by emotions (Arvey etal., 1998), but the term usually refers to physiologicalarousal and cognitive appraisal of the situation. Byregulating the arousal and cognitions that defineemotions, individuals can control their emotionalexpressions to fit the display rules of the situation(Goffman, 1959). Similarly, employees regulate theirarousal and cognit ions in order to display theappropriate emotions at work. Emotion regulationtheory, defined as "the processes by which individu-als influence which emotions they have, when theyhave them, and how they experience and expressthese emotions" (Gross, 1998b, p. 275), provides avery useful guiding framework for emotional labor.Not only that, but emotion regulation research hasexplicitly considered the role of physiological arousalmuch more closely than emotional labor theoristshave in the past. Understanding the effect thatprolonged arousal and suppression of this arousalhave provides the literature with the mechanisms bywhich emotional labor may lead to burnout and stress.

General M odel o f Em ot ion Regula tionRecent works by Gross (1998a, 1998b) propose a

process model of emotion regulation that may bespecifically useful for the emotional labor topic. Inthis input-output model, individuals receive stimula-tion from the situation and respond with emotions.The situation acts as a cue to the individual, and theindividual'semotional response tendency (physiologi-cal, behavioral, cognitive) provides information tothat individual and the others in the social environ-ment (Freud, 1936/1961; Frijda, 1986).

Gross's (1998b) model proposes that emotionregulation can occur at two points in this process. Atthe first point, called antecedent-focused, an indi-vidual can regulate the precursors of emotion such as

the situation or the appraisal. At the second point,response-focused, the individual modifies the physi-ological or observable signs of emotions. These twoprocesses of emotion regulation correspond to theemotional labor concept of deep acting and surfaceacting. Application of general emotion theory toemotional labor can help explicate these processes ofemotion management and form predictions aboutconsequences as well. According to both emotionallabor theorists and emotion researchers, the manage-ment of emotions through acting may have detrimen-tal outcomes for individuals. In the next two sections,I discuss the two methods of emotion regulation,antecedent-focused and response-focused, and howthey apply to the concepts of deep acting and surfaceacting. In the following section, I propose generalpredictions for these processes based on emotionregulation theory and previous research.Antecedent-Focused Emotion Regulat ion

According to emotion regulation theory proposedby Gross (1998a, 1998b) the individual can regulateemotions at two points. At the first intervening point,an individual can engage in antecedent-focusedemotion regulation, where the individual modifies thesituation or the perception of the situation in order toadjust emotions. Gross (1998b) stated that differenttypes of antecedent-focused emotion regulation aresituation selection, situation modification, attentiondeployment, and cognitive change. The first two typesinvolve adjustments in the emotion-inducing situa-tion. As interactionist theory discusses, people oftenchoose the situations in which they act, including thesituations that may create emotions (Buss, 1987).Employees may choose their jobs, but for serviceemployees there may be little opportunity forsituation selection beyond that as a method to regulateemotions. To enact situation modification, an em-ployee may choose to leave the work floor if a certaincustomer approaches (Bailey, 1996), but this lack ofavailability is not quali ty customer service (Parasura-man, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985) and may result inconsequences for the individual. With the lack ofoptions to choose or modify the situation, emotionregulation may take the form of the employee leavingthe organization. In short, service employees may nothave the breadth of situation modification that isavailable outside of a work role.

However, more relevant for this article are theother two techniques of antecedent-focused emotionregulation. In these, employees can modify how theyperceive the situation in order to adjust theiremotional response to the situation. With attentional

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SPECIAL SECTION: EMOTION REGULATION N THE WORKPLACE 99deployment and cognitive change, the regulationinvolves the employee managing emotions by chang-ing the attenfional focus and appraisal of the situation.Attentional deployment. Attentional deploymentis done by thinking about events that call up theemotions that one needs in that situation, known as"method acting" in theatre (Gross, 1998b, p. 284;Stanislovsky, 1965). The concept of deep acting, in itsoriginal form by Hochschild (1983), is very similar toattentional deployment. An example of this form ofemotion management is an aspiring opera singer Iknew whistling arias while serving customers in acoffeehouse. Doing something she loved helped herto focus on feeling good and to express positiveemotions at work. One employee in a pilot study bythe author wrote an example of attentional deploy-ment: " Som eti mes ... I have to change my mood andboost my energy to teach . . . . I have to focus on beingpositive and maintaining hat" (Grandey, 1998).Cognitive change. The other antecedent-focusedmethod is cognitive change, where one perceives thesituation so that the emotional impact is lessened(Lazarus, 1991). For example, Hochschild (1983)described flight attendants who were trained tocognitively reappraise passengers as children so thatthey would not become angry with passengers'potentially infant ile behaviors. Reappraising workevents as challenging, rather than stressful, can alsohelp buffer against stress reactions (Folkrnan &Lazarus, 1991; Lazarus, 1991). This type of emotionregulation is also "deep," in that the internalprocesses (thoughts and feelings) are modified withthe goal to make the expression more genuine. Thedifference is that attentional deployment focuses uponchanging the focus of personal thoughts, andcognitive change focuses on changing appraisals ofthe external situation.

Response-Focused Emotion RegulationAt the second intervention point, according to the

process model by Gross (1998b), an individual couldengage in response-focused emotion regulation, orresponse modulation. In this process, the person has atendency toward an emotional response, but manipu-lates how he or she shows that emotional response by"directly influencing physiological, experiential, orbehavioral responding" (Gross, 1998b, p. 285).Rather than adjusting the situation or the perceptionof the situation, the individual manipulates theemotional expression of his or her reaction to thesituation. This could be done with exercise or drugsthat induce the appropriate state (which helps explain

why organizations may want to provide free coffee totheir front-line employees). An individual may alsoadjust the intensity of the displayed emotion, or fakethe expression entirely.

Response-focused emotion regulation correspondswith the process of surface acting. An employee maypaste a smile on her face though she is feeling "blah"(adjusting intensity) or may put on a empathic"mask" in order to remain polite toward the customerwho is annoying (fake the display). In a pilot study bythe author, employees wrote about such experiencesin their jobs: "I had to be very accepting andempathetic to a client who I did not at all like" and "Iwas worried about a personal matter, but had to bepolite to other workers" (Grandey, 1998). Response-focused processes have also been found in descriptivestudies of service workers (Hochschild, 1983; Van-Maanen & Kunda, 1989). In this emotion manage-ment technique, employees work to display moreemotion than they feel, or to suppress true feelingsand show acceptable expression. This emotionalregulation technique is concerned with modifyingexpression, not the internal feelings, as in deep acting.

Mechanisms of Emotion RegulationAccording to emotion regulation theory, individu-

als may regulate their emotions at several points inthe emotion process. If we apply this to the worksetting, we can think of the process generally in thefollowing way. The job environment or a particularwork event may induce an emotion response in theemployee (e.g., anger, sadness, anxiety), and behav-iors may follow that would be inappropriate for theencounter (e.g., verbal attack, crying, complaining).Because the display rules state that such reactions arenot appropriate, emotional labor regulates his or herresponse. This regulation involves modifying feelingsby "thinking good thoughts" or reappraising theevent (deep acting), or modifying expression byfaking or enhancing facial and bodily signs ofemotion (surface acting).

But how does regulating emotions result inburnout, job dissatisfaction, or "emotional estrange-ment," as proposed by Hochschild (1983) and others?To answer this question regarding the mechanism ofemotional labor, one must go to general theories ofemotion and stress (see Lazarus, 1999). The experi-ence of both emotions and stress are known to beaccompanied by a physiological state of arousalinvolving he endocrine system (release of hormones)and the autonomic nervous system (increased heartrate, breathing, blood pressure, skin conductance).While in this arousal state, the body is converting its

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l ~ GRANDEYresources to energy to respond to the current crisis.This means that energy is not available for other tasks,such as the immune system. For the past 30 years orso, psychologists have found that emotions and themanagement of emotions are associated with healthproblems such as cancer and heart disease (Gross,1989, 1998a; Pennebaker, 1990; Steptoe, 1993).

Generally, individuals experience a physiologicalstate of arousal or emotion (anger or fear), and theythen have an emotional tendency (attack or flee). Thiscorresponds with Frijda's (1986) idea of "actionreadiness," and Freud's (1936/1961) idea that emo-tions provide cues about the environment. Thearousal state from emotions informs them and getsthem in a bodily state to respond to the situation. Butin today's society, people learn to regulate thatemotional tendency, so that their emotional reactionsto other people don't result in "fight or flight" (Cannon,1932). So, these "action tendencies" to respond toemotion-producing stimuli are overridden by copingor regulatory processes so that people do not actinappropriately in social settings (Lazarus, 1991).

In order to show the appropriate emotion for asituation, sometimes individuals must inhibit orsuppress feelings. Research on deception has foundthat people are able to inhibit expressions with onlyslight observable signs of the deception taking place(Ekman & Friesen, 1975). However, this regulationfor the social interaction may tax the system.Inhibiting feelings and emotional expression lowersbehavioral activity, but has actually been found toincrease autonomic nervous system activity (Gross,1998a; Pennebaker, 1985). Thus, "it is reasonable topredict that long-term inhibition would be associatedwith overall heightened physiological activity" (Pen-nebaker, 1985, p. 85). This physiological activity, or"bottling up" of emotions, taxes the body over timeby overworking the cardiovascular and nervous systemsand weakening the immune system. As evidence ofthis process, research has linked the inhibit ion ofemotions to a variety of physical illness, includinghigher blood pressure and cancer (Blackburn, 1965;Gross, 1989; King & Emmons, 1990; Smith, 1992).In fact, inabili ty o express negative emotion is one ofthe strongest predictors of cancer (Cox & McCay,1982; Derogatis, Abeloff, & Melisaratos, 1979).

emotions for social situations, but regulation ofemotions may be stressful to their health. Emotionallabor, or regulating emotions for the work role, maybe successful in the impression management sense,but may be detrimental to the employee's health.Specific studies from this paradigm are instructive inhow deep acting and surface acting, two proposedprocesses of emotional labor, would relate toorganizational and individual outcomes.

Deep Act ingEngaging in deep acting through reappraisal or

self-talk has been called a "good faith" type ofemotional labor because it shows the employee hasgoodwill toward the organization (Rafaeli & Sutton,1987). However, the effect of this regulatory processon the individual is uncertain. The emotion regulationwork in one lab study suggested that encouragingparticipants to interpret verbal harassment in a moredetached, nonthreatening way decreased physiologi-cal arousal to that stimulus (Stemmler, 1997). This"cognitive change" modified participants' actualemotional arousal state in response to this negativesituation. But emotion is a complex construct. Gross(1998a) found mixed support for the effect of deepacting on arousal in another study. Using self-reportsof emotion, multiple physiological measures such asfinger temperature and heart rate, and rater's observa-tions of emotion expressions, he measured theresponses of participants to a video designed to elicitdisgust. Individuals who were told to engage inreappraisal reported lower levels of self-reportedemotion and lower observable signs of emotions thanthose who were not told to reappraise the situation.These two taken together would suggest an actualchange in feelings had occurred, or that deep actingwas successful. Interestingly, however, the reap-praisal group did not have lower physiological signsof emotion than the other group. Although deepacting in this form may regulate observable signs ofemotions and even the individual' s perception of hisor her own emotions, it is unclear whether deep actingactually lowers the physiological arousal.

Surface ActingGen eral Predict ions for Surface and De ep

Acting Bas ed on Em otion Regulat ion TheoryThe emotion research is valuable to the study of

emotional labor in that it supports two mainassumptions: Individuals can and do regulate their

Surface acting, or antecedent-focused emotionregulation, may be desirable to organizations so thatcustomers or clients always see the expressions thatare mandated, even when the employee may feeldifferently. However, Hochschild (1983) suggestedthat this job demand results in stressful experiences

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S P E C I A L S E C TI O N: E M O T I O N R E G U L AT IO N I N T H E W O R K P L A C E 101

f o r t h e e m p l o y e e . T h i s m a y b e b e c a u s e i n d i v i d u a l sg e n e r a l l y d o n o t l i k e t o f e e l " f a k e , " o r i n t h el o n g - t e r m , b e c a u s e s u p p r e s s i n g t r u e e m o t i o n s a n de x p r e s s i n g f a l s e e m o t i o n s r e q u i r e s e f f o r t t h a t r e s u l t si n st r e s s o u t c o m e s . F o r e x a m p l e , i n t w o r e c e n t s t u d i e sp a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e a s k e d t o s u p p r e s s t h e e m o t i o n a le x p r e s s i o n o f e i t h e r s a d n e s s o r d i s g u s t ( G r o s s , 1 9 9 8 a ;G r o s s & L e v e n s o n , 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e s u p p r e s s i o n c o n d i t i o nr e s u l t e d i n d e c r e a s e d o b s e r v a b l e s i g n s o f e m o t i o n ,s u c h t h a t r a t in g s o f p a r t i c i p a n t s ' f a c i a l a n d b o d i l yr e s p o n s e s t o e m o t i o n - i n d u c i n g s t i m u l i w e r e l o w e rt h a n a n o n s u p p r e s s i o n c o n d i t i o n . I n o t h e r w o r d s ,p e o p l e a r e c a p a b l e o f s u p p r e s s i n g t h e i r e m o t i o n s s ot h a t o t h e r s c a n n o t s e e h o w t h e y t r u l y f e e l . H o w e v e r ,t h e l e v e l s o f t h e s e l f - r e p o rt e d e x p e r i e n c e o f e m o t i o ni n t h e s e t w o s t u d i e s , a n d t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l s i g n s o fe m o t i o n a l a c t i v a t i o n , d i d n o t d e c r e a s e . T h u s , t h ep a r ti c ip a n t s w e r e a w a r e t h a t th e y w e r e " f a k i n g , " a n dt h e y s t i l l h a d a s t a te o f e m o t i o n a l a r o u s a l . A c c o r d i n gt o r e c e n t e m o t i o n t h e o r y a n d r e c e n t e m o t i o n r e g u l a -t i o n l a b s t u d i e s , b o t h s u r f a c e a n d d e e p a c t i n gt e c h n i q u e s m a y r e s u l t i n t h e r e q u i r e d e m o t i o n a le x p r e s s i o n , b u t t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s em a y s t i l l b e a c t i v e . S u c h s t u d i e s m a y h e l p e x p l a i nh o w e m o t i o n a l l a b o r c a n r e l a t e f u n c t i o n a l l y t op e r f o r m a n c e m e a s u r e s b u t c a n b e d y s f u n c t i o n a l f o rt h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s h e a l t h a n d s t r e s s.A C a v e a t

I t is r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e s e s t u d i e s d i f f e r i n s e v e r a lw a y s f r o m t h e s i tu a t io n s f a c e d b y e m p l o y e e s i n m o s t

o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n s t u d i e s d o n o ta d d r e s s s i tu a t i o n s i n w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l s u p p r e s s e so n e e m o t i o n a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e x p r e s s e s a d i f f e r e n te m o t i o n ( i. e ., a c u s t o m e r s e r v i c e e m p l o y e e m a y n e e dt o i n h i b i t a n g e r a n d s m i l e a t a d i f f i c u l t c u s t o m e r ) .L i k e w i s e , s t u d i e s a r e n o t t e s t i n g t h e i m p a c t o fe n h a n c i n g o r e n l a r g in g f e l t e m o t i o n s i n o r d e r t o m e e tt h e d i s p l a y r u l e s o f t h e j o b . F i n a l l y , t h e f a c t t h a te m p l o y e e s a r e p a i d f o r th e i r e m o t i o n r e g u l a ti o n m a ya f f e c t i n d i v i d u a l s d i f f e r e n t l y th a n w h e n t h e r e g u l a t i o ni s f o r a l a b s t u d y o r t h e s a k e o f s o c i a l n o r m s . T h e s es i t ua t i ons s t i l l need t o be s t ud i ed i n l ab and f i e l dse t t i ngs .

A M o d e l o f E m o t i o n a l L a b o rT h e p r o c e s s o f r e o r g a n i z i n g a n d i n t e g r a t i n g t h e

p r e v i o u s m o d e l s o f e m o t i o n a l l a b o r a r o u nd t h ew o r k i n g d e f i n i t i o n a n d u t i l i z i n g t h e g e n e r a l e m o t i o nr e g u l a t i o n t h e o r y p r o v i d e s a c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l o fe m o t i o n a l l a b o r ( s e e F i g u r e 1 ) . A n t e c e d e n t s o fe m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n a r e t h e s i t u a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s , a ss t a te d b y G r o s s ( 1 9 9 8 b ) . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f e m o t i o n a ll a b o r, t h e s i t u a ti o n a l v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e t h e e m p l o y e e ' si n t e r a c t i o n w i t h c u s t o m e r s . D r a w i n g o n p r e v i o u se m o t i o n a l l a b o r s t u d i e s , t h e v a r i a b l e s d e s c r i b i n g t h en a t u r e o f c u s t o m e r c o n t a c t a n d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' se m o t i o n d i s p l a y r u l e s s h o u l d c o n t r i b u t e t o t h ee m o t i o n a l l a b o r p r o c e s s ( H o c h s c h i l d , 1 9 8 3; M o r r i s &F e l d m a n , 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n l i t e r a t u r e ,i n t e g r a t e d w i t h t h e e m o t i o n a l l a b o r t h e o r i e s , s u p p o r t s

Situational Cue s

ln te rac f ionExpec ta t ions.Frequency.Dura t ion-Variety. D i s p l a y m l e s

Emotional Events,Positive eventsNegative events

Em otion Regulation Process

E m o t i o n a l L a b o r

Deep Acting: M odi fy Fee l ingsAttentional deployment Cognit ive chan ge

Sur face Ac t ing : Modi fy Express ionsResponse modula t ion

Long-Term Consequences

Individual W ell-BeingeBurnoutJob satisfaction

Organizational W ell-Being,PerformanceWithdrawal behavior

/Individual Factors,Gender-Emotional expressivityEmotional ntelligenceAffectivity NA /PA)

\Organizational Fac torsJob autonomySupervisor supportCow orker support

Figure 1 . The proposed conceptual framework of emotion regulation performed in the worksetting. N A = negative affect; PA = positive affect.

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102 GRANDEYthe existence of several means of performing emotionmanagement in work settings. Two such methods,called deep acting and surface acting in the emotionlabor literature, can be understood more broadly asways of regulating feelings or manipulat ing expres-sion. Based on the emotion regulation lab studies andemotional labor field studies, the effortful processesof surface acting and deep acting may be related toemployee stress and health as well as organizationalwell-being. See Figure 1 for the proposed model. Thenext sections propose more specifically the previousresearch on and propositions regarding the anteced-ents and consequences of emotional labor.

Situational Antecedents of Emotional LaborAs seen in the emotion regulation literature, the

situation acts as a cue from which emotions mayresult. In the customer service setting, the salientsituation is the interaction with customers and theexpectations of the organization. This can bemeasured as both chronic expectations of theemployee's interactions with customers and acuteevents that create an emotional response. Both thechronic and the acute situational factors may impactthe emotion regulation needed.

Customer Interaction ExpectationsAs Hochschild (1983) stated, certain job character-

istics may demand higher levels of emotional laborfrom employees. One characteristic is the nature ofinteraction with customers, in particular, the fre-quency of face or voice contact. To this, Morris andFeldman (1996) added the characteristics of theduration of interactions and variety of emotionalexpression. Hochschild's other proposed characteris-tics of emotional labor jobs are that the organizationexpects and controls the emotional expression of theemployee. This characteristic can be seen in percep-tions of display rules--how much the employeesperceive that certain emotional expressions are part ofthe job. These work role characteristics can bethought of as ongoing situations to which employeesrespond with emotion regulation.

Different work roles hold different expectations forthe employee when interacting with customers. Jobroles may differ in the frequency that employees areexpected to interact with customers. A receptionist ata small legal firm may welcome customers once anhour, but a cashier at a grocery store may meet 10customers an hour. Another difference in interactionsis the duration demand placed on employees. A

salesclerk in a clothing store may work with acustomer for hours, whereas a convenience storeclerk may only interact with each customer for 5minutes. The work role demands of frequency andduration are situational factors that may increase thelikelihood that an employee must fake expressions ormodify feelings. Thus, such factors are proposed asantecedents of emotional labor. The relationshipsfound between customer interaction expectations andemotional labor have provided mixed support.Nonsignificant correlations were found for frequencyof interaction and duration with dissonance (Morris &Feldman, 1997), and between frequency of interac-tions and surface or deep acting (Grandey, 1999). Inanother study, frequency had significant positiverelationships with surface acting and deep acting(Brotheridge & Lee, 1998), although duration was notrelated to surface or deep acting.

A few researchers have explored the differentemotional displays required by jobs. Three types ofemotional work requirements have been proposedand tested: integrative, differentiating, and masking(Jones & Best, 1995; Wharton & Erickson, 1993).Front-line service employees are generally expectedto express integrative emotions such as happiness andsympathy. Other job types, such as bill collectors orbouncers, are expected to portray differentiatingemotions such as fear or anger (Hochshild, 1979;Sutton, 1991). The third type is descriptive of jobs inwhich controlling emotions are required, such astherapists or judges. In this article, I focus on those inthe first group, who are expected to expressintegrative emotions and suppress differentiatingemotions.

Those expectations are controlled by the displayrules of the organization, which may be informalnorms or formal processes (Hochschild, 1983). Asstated earlier, training and performance appraisalmaterials may directly request emotional labor. Ifemployees report that certain emotions are expectedby the organization, then that individual may engagein more emotional labor to meet the expectations.With samples of part- and full-time student workers,Brotheridge and Lee (1998) found significant correla-tions for the perception of emotion display rules withsurface acting and deep acting. Others have found arelationship between display rules and emotionaleffort (Kruml & Geddes, 1998) and display rules anddeep acting (Grandey, 1999). Thus, it can be proposedthat perceiving that the organization expects certainemotion displays will lead to more management ofemotion by employees.

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SPECIAL SECTION: EM OTIO N REGULATION IN THE WO RKPL ACE 103

E m o t i o n a l E v e n t sA l t h o u g h t h e w o r k s e t t i n g m a y c r e a t e a c h r o n i c

n e e d t o r e g u l a t e e m o t i o n s , t h e a c u t e e v e n t s a t w o r kh a v e a n i m m e d i a t e i m p a c t o n a n e m p l o y e e ' s e m o -t io n s . A s s u g g e s t e d b y W e i s s a n d C r o p a n z a n o ( 1 9 9 6 ) ,e m o t i o n a l e v e n t s a t w o r k m a y h e l p e x p l a i n e m p l o y e ea t ti tu d e s a n d b e h a v i o r. A n e m o t i o n a l e v e n t m a y l e a dt o m o r e e m o t i o n a l r e g u l a t io n w h e n t h at e v e n t r e s u lt si n e m o t i o n s t h a t a r e d i s c r e p a n t f r o m t h e o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l d i s p l a y r u l e s . T h e e v e n t i s a p p r a i s e d f o r i t sp o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e i n f l u e n c e o n t h e p e r s o n ' sw e l l - b e i n g . I n p a r t ic u l a r , i f t h e e v e n t i n t e r f e r e s w i t ht h e e m p l o y e e s ' g o a l s , o n e o f w h i c h i s to e x p r e s s a n di n d u c e p o s i t i v e e m o t i o n s , t h e e v e n t w i l l b e a p p r a i s e dneg at i ve l y (Fr i j da , 1986 ; Laz arus , 1991) . In o t herw o r d s , t h e e v e n t m a y b e s e e n a s s t r e s s fu l . S u c h e v e n t sm a y i n v o l v e a c u s t o m e r a n g r i ly b l a m i n g t h e e m -p l o y e e f o r a p r o d u c t m a l f u n c t i o n , o r l e a r n i n g t h a t af a m i l y m e m b e r h a s b e c o m e s i c k . I n s u c h c a s e s , t h ee m p l o y e e e x p e r i e n c e s a n e v e n t t h a t r e q u i re s e m o t i o nr e g u l a t i o n t o m a i n t a i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e a p p e a r a n c e a tw o r k . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f th e e v e n t c r e a t e s ap o s i t i v e e m o t i o n ( s u c h a h e a r i n g a b o u t a r a i s e o rg e t t i n g a c c e p t e d t o g r a d u a t e s c h o o l ) , t h e n t h a t m a yh e l p m e e t d i s p l a y r u l e s . I n t h i s c a s e , l e s s e m o t i o nr e g u l a t i o n w o u l d b e n e c e s s a r y .B a i l e y ( 1 9 9 6 ) o b t a i n e d d e s c r i p t i o n s f r o m e m p l o y -e e s a b o u t h o w t h e y c o p e d w i t h " d i f f i c u l t " c u s t o m e r s ,a g e n e r a l t y p e o f w o r k e v e n t . T w e n t y - t w o o u t o f 4 9r e s p o n d e n t s d e s c r i b e d a n i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h c u s t o m e r sw h e r e t h e c u s t o m e r w a s t o o d e m a n d i n g o r a n g r ya b o u t a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f a c t o r . T h e i r r e s p o n s e ss u p p o r t e d t h e i d e a t h a t su c h i n t e r a c t i o n s m a y i n c r e a s ee m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n a t w o r k . R e s p o n s e s t o d i f f i c u l tc u s t o m e r s i n c l u d e d l e a v i n g t h e w o r k f l o o r ( s i t u a t i o nm o d i f i c a t io n ) , t h i n k i n g o f s o m e t h i n g f u n n y ( a t t e n t i o nd e p l o y m e n t ) , r e a l iz i n g s o m e p e o p l e a r e n e v e r h a p p yn o m a t t e r w h a t ( c o g n i t i v e c h a n g e ) , a n d t r y i n g t o s t a yc a l m , t a k i n g d e e p b r e a t h s ( r e s p o n s e m o d u l a t i o n ) .T h e s e q u a l i t a t i v e fi n d i n g s a r e s u p p o r t i v e o f h o w w o r ke v e n t s m a y c r e a t e m o r e e m o t i o n a l l a b o r , a n d h o wa n t e c e d e n t - f o c u s e d o r r e s p o n s e - f o c u s e d t a c ti c s m a yb e u s e d b y e m p l o y e e s t o r e g u l a t e e m o t i o n s f o ro r g a n i z a t i o n a l g o a l s .

H i g h e r f r e q u e n c y o f n e g a t i v e e v e n t s m a y l e a d t om o r e e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n , a n d t h u s m o r e s t r e s s .A c r o s s t h e 4 9 e m p l o y e e s w i t h d i f fe r e n t ty p e s o f j o b s ,e m p l o y e e s o n a v e r a g e r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y d e a l t w i t h" d i f f i c u l t " c u st o m e r s o n c e o r t w i c e a d a y ( B a il e y ,1 9 9 6 ). T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t o n e t y p e o f e m o t i o n a l e v e n tm a y h a p p e n f a i r l y o f t e n . O t h e r e m o t i o n e v e n t s m a yo c c u r a t w o r k a s w e l l , s u c h a s t h e e q u i p m e n t n o t

w o r k i n g o r a p e r s o n a l i s s u e a r i s in g . T h e s o u r c e o f t h ea f f e c t iv e e v e n t s m a y b e t h e c u s t o m e r , c o w o r k e r s ,s u p e r v i s o r , o r p e r s o n a l s i tu a t i o n s. A f f e c t i v e e v e n t st h a t i n t e r f e r e w i t h e m o t i o n d i s p l a y r u l e s m a y b e av e r y s a l i e n t p a r t o f w o r k l i f e a n d s h o u l d b ec o n s i d e r e d i n e m o t i o n a l l a b o r s t u d i e s . P r o v i d e d t h a tt h e e v e n t s i n d u c e e m o t i o n s t h a t a r e d i s c r e p a n t f r o md i s p l a y r u l e s , m o r e e v e n t s s h o u l d r e s u l t in m o r e e f f o r tt o r e g u la t e e m o t i o n s , a n d s o s h o u l d h a v e a c u m u l a t i v ee f f e c t o n s t r e ss a n d w e l l - b e i n g . T h e s o u r c e o f e v e n tm a y a l s o i m p a c t h o w m u c h r e g u l a t i o n i s p e r f o r m e d ,D i s p l a y r u l e s m a y b e m o r e e x p l i c i t f o r i n t e r a c t i o n sw i t h c u s t o m e r s , r a t h e r t h a n e m p l o y e e s . T h u s , w h e nt h e s o u r c e o f t h e e v e n t i s a c o w o r k e r , l e s s e m o t i o nr e g u l a ti o n m a y b e n e e d e d .

T h i s p r o p o s i t io n m a y b e e x p l o r e d v i a d i a r y s t ud i e si n w h i c h e m p l o y e e s d e s c r i b e e v e n t s a n d h o w t h e yr e s p o n d e d t o t h e m i n t h e im m e d i a t e c o n t e x t , a n d t h e nr e l a t e t h o s e e v e n t s t o o v e r a l l e m o t i o n a l l a b o r a n ds t re s s . O b s e r v a t i o n a l s t u d i e s a n d l a b s t u d ie s m a y a l s oh e l p e x p l o r e t h is i d e a o f e m o t i o n a l e v e n t s i m p a c t i n ge m o t i o n a l l a b or . U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e ty p e s o f e v e n t sa n d h o w f r e q u e n t l y t h e y o c c u r m a y h e l p o r g a n i z a -t i o n s t o a d j u s t th e i r w o r k p r o c e s s e s o r t o d e s i g n b e t t e rt r a in i n g f o r d e a l i n g w i t h s u c h s i tu a t i o n s.

S t r e s s a n d W e l l - B e in g a s O u t c o m e so f E m o t i on a l L a b o rT h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e o r g a n i z a -

t i o n a l e x p e c t a t i o n s a c t a s a s i t u a t i o n a l c u e f o re m p l o y e e s . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s d e m a n d f o r c er t a ine m o t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n s s h o u l d r e s u l t in m o r e e m o t i o nr e g u l a t i o n b y t h e e m p l o y e e , o r e m o t i o n a l l a b o r . A sd i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , t h e s e m e t h o d s o f e m o t i o n a l l a b o r ,s u r f a c e a n d d e e p a c t i n g , r e q u i r e a l e v e l o f e f f o r t b yt h e i n d iv i d u a l . T h e a m o u n t o f e m o t i o n a l l a b o r s h o u l dr e l a t e t o s t r e s s d u e t o t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l d e m a n d s o fe m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n ( G r o s s , 1 9 9 8 a , 1 9 9 8 b ; L a z a r u s ,1 9 9 1 ) . H o w e v e r , s u r f a c e a n d d e e p a c t i n g s h o u l da f f e c t c u s t o m e r s e r v i c e p e rf o r m a n c e , b e c a u s e t h e y a r ew a y s o f r e g u l a t i n g e m o t i o n s i n o r d e r to i n te r a c t w i t hc u s t o m e r s w i t h p o s i t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s . T h e r e a r e o t h e ro r g a n i z a t i o n a l o u t c o m e s , t h o u g h , t h a t m a y b e d e t r i -m e n t a l l y a f f e c t e d b y t h i s l a b o r . T h e f o l l o w i n gs e c t i o n s r e v i e w t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d e m p i r i c a l s u p p o r tf o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n e m o t i o n a l l a b o r a n d v a r i o u sw e l l - b e i n g o u t c o m e s .

B u r n o u tB u r n o u t i s a s t r e s s o u t c o m e t y p i c a l l y f o u n d i n

e m p l o y e e s i n t h e h e l p i n g i n d u s t r i e s . B u r n o u t o c c u r s

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104 GRANDEYwhen an employee becomes overly emotionallyinvolved in interactions with customers and has littleway to replenish those emotional resources beingspent (Jackson, Schwab, & Schuler, 1986). The signsof burnout are emotional exhaustion, depersonaliza-tion, and reduced personal accomplishment (Cordes& Dougherty, 1993; Maslach, 1982). When asituation induces repeated emotional responses thatthe employee must regulate, the employee mayexperience emotional exhaustion, or energy depletionand fatigue. To cope with this feeling, employees maydetach from the customers by objectifying ordepersonalizing them. This may lead to feelingnegatively about themselves and their work, to thepoint where they experience a diminished sense ofpersonal accomplishment (Cordes & Dougherty,1993). Other researchers have associated burnoutwith important organizational outcomes like perfor-mance and turnover (Singh, Goolsby, & Rhoads,1994; Wright & Cropanzano, 1998). If emotionallabor is related to burnout, it also may contribute to ahost of other organizational outcomes.

The research supports the prediction that emotionallabor will relate to bumout. Gross and Levenson(1997) discussed the physiological effort demandedto inhibit emotions from being expressed in a labstudy. Several studies have assessed the relationshipof emotional labor with emotional exhaustion inemployees. Emotional dissonance has been related toemotional exhaustion (Abraham, 1998; Morris &Feldman, 1997). Surface acting was related toemotional exhaustion in another study, beyond deepacting and dissonance (Brotheridge & Lee, 1998).Thus, there is support for the relationship ofemotional exhaustion to managing emotions at work.There seemed to be less empirical support foremotional labor's relationship to the other burnoutdimensions. It is expected that emotional labor willhave a similarly detrimental relationship with deper-sonalization and personal accomplishment. The moreemployees need to effortfully express and suppressemotional responses at work, the more they maychoose to depersonalize customers. This may be away of distancing themselves from the stress of theemotional expenditure; if they are detached wheninteracting with customers, their potentially emotion-producing reactions will matter less (Hochschild,1983). One study of police officers found that whenofficers are expected to suppress their reactions totragic events, this suppression may result in lessempathy and connection with citizens (Pogrebin &Poole, 1995). If an employee feels that meetingemotion demands at work requires a lot of effort and

feels detached from customers, then that employee mayalso feel a lowered sense of personal accomplishment.

Job Sa t i s fac t i onJob satisfaction is a measure of the employee's

evaluation of the job and has often been used as aproxy for employee well-being at work. Someresearchers propose that being required to be friendlyto customers may make a monotonous job more fun,or may allow self-expression that is enjoyable toemployees (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Tolich,1993). Others have suggested that emotional laborstifles personal expression and as such is unpleasant(Hochschild, 1983; VanMaanen & Kunda, 1989). Theempirical research on the relationship betweenmanaging emotions at work and job satisfaction hasbeen contradictory. This contradiction may be due tothe use of different definitions of emotional labor.Expressions of emotions may be positively related tojob satisfaction, as suggested by the facial feedbackhypothesis (Adelmann & Zajonc, 1989), but theregulation to achieve that expression may be nega-tively related to satisfaction.

The available data support this difference, althoughnot with surface acting directly. Two studies sup-ported that the experience of emotional dissonance(which is conceptually similar to surface acting) wasnegatively related to job satisfaction (Abraham, 1998;Morris & Feldman, 1997). Rutter and Fielding (1988)reported that suppressing true emotions (surfaceacting) was a source of stress for prison officers, andthat such suppression related to lowered job satisfac-tion. Adelmann (1995) reported that the table serverswho expressed real smiles at work, and didn't feel"false," had more job satisfaction than those whoreported faking emotions. There seems to be lessempirical support for the relationship of deep actingwith job satisfaction. Based on Hochschild's (1983)work, there should be a negative relationship. Herargument was that working to manage something aspersonal as emotions for organizational purposeswould he inherently unsatisfying. In general, thosewho report high levels of emotion regulation withcustomers may be less satisfied with their jobs.

W o r k B e h a v i o r s a s O u t c o m e so f E m o t i o n a l L a b o r

C u s t o m e r S e r v i c e P e r f o r m a n c eIn the service industry, managing emotions (show-ing happiness and empathy, not fear or anger) is an

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SPECIAL SECTION: EMOTION REGULATION N THE WORKPLACE 105important facet of maintaining loyal customers andrepeat business (Albrecht & Zemke, 1985; Hochs-child, 1983; Schneider & Bowen, 1985). Becauseemotion regulation may be performed in differentways, it is possible that some methods are moreeffective than others and may thus impact perfor-mance on the job. As a means of presenting a positiveimage of the organization and inducing the appropri-ate feelings in customers, managing emotions mayresult in good customer service performance (Ash-forth & Humphrey, 1993). Emotional expression suchas smiles and friendly comments can lead to goodwork performance as measured by tips for tableservers (Adelmann, 1995; Tidd & Lockhard, 1978).Pugh (1998) found a positive relationship betweenemotional displays of bank tellers and customersatisfaction. These studies suggest that positiveemotional expressions will result in higher customerservice performance.

However, the personal effort of producing thoseexpressions may tell a different story. Emotionregulation researchers find that emotion suppressionand exaggeration may impair cognitive performance(Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998;Richards & Gross, 1999). Little is known about howan employees' method of regulating emotions isrelated to customer service performance. Severalauthors have mentioned the importance of emotionaldisplays being seen as "genuine" in service settings(Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Hochschild, 1983;Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987). Emotional expressions thatare perceived as insincere may negatively impactcustomer service (Grove & Fisk, 1989; Rafaeli &Sutton, 1987). Emotion research has found that whenpeople "fake" emotions, or are surface acting, thereseems to be "leakage" so that observers can detectthe deception (Ekman & Friesen, 196 9). Thissuggests that surface acting should be negativelyrelated to service performance. However, deep acting,or antecedent-focused emotion regulation, convincesemployees that they really feel the way they are tryingto express (Gross, 1998a). Although this process isstill effortful, it may lead to an expression that isperceived as more genuine than when an employeesurface acts. Thus, deep acting may be positivelyrelated to customer service.W i t h d r a w a l B e h a v i o r s

it is vital to understand the impact of emotional labor.In customer service jobs, it is essential that employeesbe available to customers (Parasuraman et al., 1985).If employees leave the work floor to cope with theiremotions, this may diminish the impression thecustomer has of the organization. Leaving the workfloor or talking to coworkers were stated ways ofcoping with difficult customers for 36 out of 49respondents in a variety of jobs (Bailey, 1996).

In the long run, employees may also decide to leavethe organization. Emotional labor levels may predictthose who desire to leave the organization. Those whoneed to engage in high levels of surface acting may bemore inclined to desire a different job. In fact, theneed to regulate emotions regularly at work may actas a signal to the employee that this environment isnot a good match for the individual (Edwards, 1991;Schwarz & Clore, 1983). The employee may engagein the antecedent-focused emotion regulation tech-nique of situation selection (Gross, 1998b) and selecta different organizational setting for employment. Onthe basis of the burnout literature, it is likely thatworking in jobs that demand high levels of emotionalregulation may result in withdrawal behaviors (Cordes& Dougherty, 1993; Maslach & Pines, 1977; Singh etal., 1994).

P e r s o n a l a n d O r g a n i z a t io n a l F a c t o r sA f f e c t i n g E m o t i o n a l L a b o r

In this article, I have proposed a linear processbetween organizational antecedents, emotional labor,and the well-being of the employee and theorganization. Looking at previous emotion research,it is clear that this is a simplified process. Assuggested by Ashforth and Humphrey (1993), thereare many other variables that may impact customerservice besides the employee's emotional laborprocess. The emotion regulation works have sug-gested some factors but not specifically work-oriented variables. For comprehensive understandingof emotional labor, individual differences and organi-zational factors should be taken into account in futureresearch.

P e r s o n a l C h a r a c t e r i s t ic s R e l a t e dt o E m o t i o n a l L a b o r

Emotion regulation results in physiological arousalthat, over the long run, may affect withdrawalbehaviors such as leaving the work floor, absentee-ism, and turnover. These are outcomes that are ofparticular concern to customer service jobs, and thus

There are many individual differences that may berelated to emotional labor. Emotional labor research-ers need to integrate the personality variables into theemotional labor framework, in order to understandthe concept of emotional labor more clearly. Are

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106 GRANDEYc e r t a i n t ype s o f pe op l e be t t e r a t r e gu l a t i ng t he i re m o t i o n s ? A r e o t h e r t y p e s o f p e o p l e b e t t e r a t h a n d l i n gd i f f i c u l t s i t ua t i ons w i t hou t be c omi ng s t r e s s e d? I se m o t i o n a l l a b o r i n g t h ro u g h s u r f ac e a n d d e e p a c t in g at r a i na b l e p r oc e s s ? A f e w r e l a t e d c onc e p t s a r e b r i e f l ym e n t i o n e d i n o r d e r t o s u g g e s t d i r e c ti o n s f o r f u t u rer e s e a r c h .

Gender. G e nde r d i f f e r e nc e s a r e o f t e n a t op i c o fi n t e r e s t , a n d t h e a r e a o f e m o t i o n a l l a b o r i s n oe x c e p t i o n . H o c h s c h i l d ( 1 9 8 3 ) p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h em a j o r i t y o f s er v ic e j o b s a r e p e r f o r m e d b y w o m e n , a n da s s u c h g e n d e r b e c o m e s a n i s s u e f o r e m o t i o n a l l a bo r .W h a r t o n a n d E r i c k s o n ( 1 9 9 3 ) a l s o d i s c u s s e d h o ww o m e n a r e m o r e l i k e ly to m a n a g e e m o t i o n s a t w o r ka s w e l l as a t h o m e . I f w o m e n e n g a g e i n m o r e e m o t i o nm a n a g e m e n t s i tu a t io n s , p e rh a p s t h e y a r e b e t te r a tm a n a g i n g e m o t i o n s ( s o p e r f o rm a n c e w o u l d b eb e t t e r ) , b u t t h e y w o u l d b e e n g a g i n g i n m o r es uppr e s s i on o f t r ue f e e l i ngs ( s o s t r e s s w ou l d beh i g h e r) . K r u m l a n d G e d d e s ( 1 9 9 8 ) f o u n d a r e l a ti o n -s h i p b e t w e e n g e n d e r a n d e m o t i o n a l d i s s o n a n c e , i nt h a t w o m e n w e r e m o r e l i k e l y to r e p o r t f e e l in gd i f f e r e n t l y tha n t he y e xp r e s s e d . I t i s unc l e a r i f t h i sm e a n s t h a t m e n a r e s h o w i n g e m o t i o n s t h a t a r ei n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e j o b o r s i m p l y n o t f e e l i n gd i s c r e pa n t e mo t i ons . I n l i ne w i t h t he f i r s t po i n t , ones t u d y s u g g e s te d t h a t m e n a n d w o m e n h a v e d i f f e re n tm o t i v e s f o r r e g u l a t i n g e m o t i o n s , i n t h a t w o m e n a r em o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h g e t t in g a l o n g , w h e r e a s m e n a r emor e mo t i va t e d t o s t a y i n c on t r o l a nd e xp r e s sp o w e r f u l e m o t i o n s s u c h a s a n g e r o r p r id e ( T i m m e r s ,F i s c he r , & M a ns t e a d , 1998 ) . H ow e v e r , i n t hec u s t o m e r s e r v ic e s e t ti n g , th i s m o t i v e m a y n o t w o r k i nm e n ' s f a vo r . I t is pos s i b l e t ha t i n s e r v i c e s e t t i ngs , m e nm a y n e e d m o r e t r a in i n g to m a n a g e e m o t i o n s w h e nd e a l i n g w i t h c u s t o m e r s.

E m o t i o n a l e x p r e s s i v i t y . B e y o n d d e m o g r a p h i cva r i a b l e s , t he r e a r e a w i de va r i e t y o f r e l a t e d" e m o t i o n " v a r i a b l e s t h a t h a v e b e e n e x p l o r e d i nc l i n i c a l , de ve l opme n t a l , o r o r ga n i z a t i ona l r e s e a r c h .E m ot i ona l e xp r e s s i v i ty a s a pe r s on a l i t y c ha r a c te r i s ti cha s be e n r e c e i v i ng a t t e n t i on l a te l y a s a p r e d i c t o r o fh e a l th a n d j o b p e r f o r m a n c e ( A r v e y e t a l. , 1 9 9 8 ; K i n g& E m m o n s , 1 9 9 0 ; K r i n g , S m i t h , & N e a l e , 1 9 9 4 ) .R e c e n t l y , s c a l e s o f e mo t i ona l e xp r e s s i v i t y ha ve be e nt e s te d by G r os s a nd J ohn ( 1998) a n d S t e e l, A r ve y , a ndK y l l on e n (1999) . T he s e s c a l es , s uc h a s P os i ti veE xpr e s s i v i t y , I mpu l s e I n t e ns i t y , a nd M a s k i ng , s e e mve r y r e l a t e d t o t he i de a s o f s u r f a c e a c t i ng a nd de e pa c t i ng p r e s e n t e d e a r l i e r . I t i s pos s i b l e t ha t pe r s onsh i g h i n p o s i t iv e e x p r e s si v i ty , f o r e x a m p l e , w o u l d b es k i l l e d a t me e t i ng o r ga n i z a t i ona l d i s p l a y r u l e s . T hu s ,s u c h a n i n d i v i d u a l sh o u l d r e p o r t l o w e r l e v e ls o f

e m o t i o n a l l a b o r a n d p e r f o r m b e t t e r i n s e r v ic e jo b s .E xpr e s s i v i t y i s a l s o r e l a t e d t o ge nde r , w i t h w ome nr e p o r t i n g h i g h e r l e v e l s o f e m o t i o n a l e x p r e s s i v i t y( K i n g & E m m o n s , 1 9 9 0 ; R a f a e li & S u t t o n , 1 9 8 9 ).

Emotional in tel l igence. A n o t h e r r e l a t e d c o n c e p tt ha t ha s be e n r e c e i v i ng a l o t o f a t t e n t i on r e c e n t l y i se m o t i o n a l in t e l l ig e n c e ( G o l e m a n , 1 9 9 5 ; M a y e r &S a l ove y , 1995 ) . E m ot i on a l i n t e l l i ge nc e i s r e f e rr e d t oa s t h e a b i l i ty t o r e c o g n i z e a n d u s e e m o t i o n a li n f o r ma t i on i n s oc i a l i n t e r a c t i ons . E f f e c t i ve a f f e c tr e g u l a t i o n i s o n e o f t h e s i g n s o f s t r o n g e m o t i o n a li n t e l l i ge n c e ( S a l ove y , H s e e , & M a ye r , 1993 ) . T hos ew i t h h i gh e mo t i ona l i n t e l l i ge nc e a re s k i l l e d a th a n d l i n g s o c i a l e n c o u n t e r s , a n d i n f a c t m a y m a k eo t h e r p e o p l e f e e l g o o d a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s a s w e l l( G o l e ma n , 1995 ) . T h i s i s a de s i r e d c ha r a c t e r i s t i c i ns e r v i c e e n c o u n t e r s . T h e T r a i t M e t a - M o o d S c a l e( S a l ove y e t a l . , 1995 ) w a s de s i gne d t o c ons i d e r thea m o u n t o f a t t e n t i o n th a t p e o p l e p a y t o t h e i r e m o t i o n sa n d t h e m o d i f i c at i o n o f e m o t i o n s . U n f o r t u n a t e ly , th eme a s u r e me n t o f t h i s c ons t r uc t ha s ha d d i f f i c u l t y . I npa r t i c u l a r , one s t udy f ound t ha t t h i s f a c t o r o fe m o t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e w a s e x t r e m e l y u n r e l i a b l e( D a v i e s , S t a nkov , & R obe r t s , 1998 ) . N e w mod i f i c a -t i ons o f t h is s c a l e a r e be g i nn i ng to e m e r ge ( M a ye r ,C a r us o , & S a l ove y , i n p r e s s ) a nd s hou l d be u s e d i na ny f u t u r e s t ud i e s t ha t t e s t how e mot i ona l l a bo r a nde m o t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e c a n i n f o r m e a c h o t he r .

Self-monitoring. S e l f - m on i t o r i n g r e f e r s t o t hee x t e n t t ha t pe op l e m on i t o r the i r s e l f - p r e s e n t a t i ons a ndc on t r o l t he i r e xp r e s s i ve be ha v i o r ( S nyde r , 1974 ) .H i g h s e l f - m o n i t o r s a r e m o r e a w a r e o f t h e e m o t i o n a lc u e s o f o t h e r s a n d a r e m o r e w i l l i n g a n d a b l e t o c h a n g ethe i r own emo t iona l expres sion to f i t the s i tua t ion thanl o w s e l f- m o n i t o r s . L o w s e l f- m o n i t o r s t e n d t o r e m a i n" t r u e " t o the i r in t e r na l f e e l i ngs . S e l f - m on i t o r i n gma ke s t he o r e t ic a l s e ns e a s a n i n f l ue n t i a l c ha r a c t e r i s ti co n e m o t i o n a l la b o r. I n jo b s w h e r e e m o t i o n a l l a b o r i sr e qu i r e d , l ow s e l f - mon i t o r s s hou l d ha ve a mo r ed i f f i c u lt t i me f o l l ow i n g d i s p l a y r u l e s . I f t he y w a n t t oke e p t he i r j obs , t he y ne e d t o a dhe r e t o e mo t i on a ld i s p l a y r u l e s , bu t t he y m a y b e l e s s a t e a s e s upp r e s s i ngt he i r tr ue f e e l i ngs t ha n a h i gh s e l f - mo n i t o r . T hu s , l ows e l f -m o n i t o r s m a y r e p o r t h i g h e r l e v e ls o f e m o t i o n a ll a bo r a nd h i ghe r l e ve l s o f s t r e s s i n c us t ome r s e r v i c ej obs . S t ud i e s ha ve s ugge s t e d t ha t h i gh s e l f - mon i t o r sw o u l d b e l e s s re a c t iv e t o d i s s o n a n c e ( A b r a h a m , 1 9 9 8)a nd be t t e r a t c u s t om e r s e r v i c e j ob s ( C a l d w e l l &O ' R e i l l y , 1 9 8 2 ; F r i e d m a n & M i l l e r -H e r r i n g e r , 1 9 9 1) .W h a r t o n ( 1 9 9 3 ) f o u n d t h a t h i g h s e l f - m o n i t o r s i ne m o t i o n a l la b o r jo b s , a s d e f i n e d b y H o c h s c h i l d ' s( 1983) t a xonomy , w e r e l e s s l i ke l y t o r e po r t bu r nou tt ha n l ow s e l f - m on i t o r s . R e s e a r c h ne e ds t o e xp l o r e

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SPECIAL SECTION: EMOTION REGULATIONIN THE WORKPLACE 107how self-monitoring relates to methods of emotionregulation at work.

Affectivity. Positive affectivity is related to enthu-siasm and optimism, whereas negative affectivity isrelated to pessimism and aversive mood states. Asstated by Weiss and Cropanzano (1996), affectivetraits act as predispositions toward more or lessintense emotional responses. Thus, someone high innegative affectivity (NA) may respond more stronglyto negative events if they occur. This means a highNA person exerts more emotional labor to maintainthe emotional display in the face of a difficultencounter. Affectivity has been proposed in theoreti-cal models as a predictor of emotional labor. Morrisand Feldman (1996) suggested that positive andnegative affectivity would relate to emotional labor.In particular, these researchers hypothesized thatwhen the emotion work requirements (expresspositive or negative emotions) conflicted with affec-tivity (positive or negative affect), dissonance wouldoccur. Some have found that positive affectivity isgenerally effective in the workplace (Staw, Sutton, &Pelled, 1994), but this research does not consideremotional labor explicitly. Research is needed to testthese propositions and to see if high NA persons canlearn to regulate their emotions in effective ways.Organ iza t iona l Fac tors

As suggested by Ashforth and Humphrey (1993)and Morris and Feldman (1996), and supported by theemotion regulation literature, the environment is avery important factor in understanding emotionmanagement. It is very possible that the s ituation inwhich employees work may affect the level and typeof emotional labor in which they engage.Autonomy. Feeling a lack of control over eventshas been identified as a source of life stress (Rodin,1986) as well as job stress. Hochschild (1983)discussed the unpleasantness of having the organiza-tion control one's personal feeling state. A few studieshave tested the idea that job autonomy minimizes thestress of the emotion regulation process. Wharton(1993) found that those who reported high autonomyhad lower emotional exhaustion in both high and lowemotional labor-typed jobs. Morris and Feldman(1996) reported that job autonomy was negativelyrelated to emotional dissonance and emotionalexhaustion and positively related to job satisfaction. Arecent court case with a major grocery store chaininvolves emotional autonomy in particular: Customerservice employees are suing the company becausethey must smile at customers even though that has ledto sexual harassment by customers. Organizations

who take away emotional autonomy may findnegative outcomes emerge.Supervisor and coworker support. The emotionregulation theory proposed by Gross (1998h) dis-cussed the environment as a cue to the emotionalresponse that follows. Support from coworkers andsupervisors should create a positive working environ-ment (Schneider & Bowen, 1985). An employee'sperception that he or she works in a supportiveclimate has been found to relate to job satisfaction,lowered stress, and turnover intentions, and evenhigher team performance (Cropanzano, Howes,Grandey, & Toth, 1997; Eisenberger, Cummings,Armeli, & Lynch, 1997; Howes, Cropanzano, Grandey,& Mohler, 1999). In customer service settings, wherepositive expressions are expected, feeling positiveabout the social environment may mean that lessemotional labor is necessary. One may genuinely feelthe emotions that are expected in a service environ-ment if the interpersonal relationships are positiveand supportive. Indirectly, support may help employ-ees cope with the stress of service jobs. Bailey (1996)suggested that talking to other people was a method ofcoping with difficult customers. The stress literatureshows fairly clearly that disclosure of emotionalevents helps individuals cope with stress and bufferagainst health risks (Carver, Schein, & Weintraub,1993; Pennebaker, 1990). Social support in servicesettings seems to help protect individuals from stress(Goolsby, 1992; Pines & Aronson, 1988). Only oneknown study has tested support as a moderator ofemotional labor and outcomes. Abraham (1998)found that social support interacted with emotionaldissonance to buffer against ob dissatisfaction.

Conclus ions and Future Directions

Emotions have been a difficult topic of study fordecades: Even the definition and operationalizationof"emot ion" remains murky. The much newer field ofemotional labor can miss some of these growing painsif researchers learn from these more establishedemotion theories, as this article has attempted toshow. In general, several propositions could be madebased on the emotion regulation theory and theprevious emotional labor research. One, situationalsettings contribute to the emotional labor engaged inby the employees. Those who interact with customersor clients for extended periods and who experienceemotional events in those situations are more likely toemotionally regulate. Two, emotional labor mayresult in good organizational performance, but mayhave consequences for the employees' health. Specifi-

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c a l l y , d e e p a c t i n g s h o u l d b e m o r e p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t os e r v i c e p e r fo r m a n c e t h a n s u r f a c e a c t i n g , b u t b o t hs h o u l d b e r e l a t e d t o b u r n o u t , w i t h d r a w a l , a n dn e g a t i v e w o r k a t t it u d e s . F i n a l ly , p e r s o n a l a n d o r g a n i -z a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m a y a c t a s m a i n e f f e c t s o n t h el e v e l o f e m o t i o n a l l a b o r p e r f o r m e d ; f o r e x a m p l e ,w o m e n o r th o s e w h o a r e e m o t i o n a l l y e x p r e s s i v e m a yb e m o r e l i k e l y t o e n g a g e i n e m o t i o n a l l a b o r . T h e s eo r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m a y a l s oa c t a s m o d e r a t o r s b y a f f e c t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h ec o n s e q u e n c e s o f e m o t i o n a l l a b or . F o r e x a m p l e , t h o s ew h o p e r c e i v e h i g h l e v e l s o f s u p e r v is o r s u p p o rt m a yr e p o r t h i g h l e v e l s o f e m o t i o n a l l a b o r b u t n o t b u r n o u tb e c a u s e s u p p o r t a c t s a s a b u f f e r a g a i n s t t h e s t r e s s o rs .

A s c a n b e s e e n , th e r e a r e m a n y u n k n o w n s , a n d b o t hl a b a n d f i e l d r e s e a r c h a r e n e e d e d t o t e s t t h er e l a t i o n s h i p s o u t l i n e d i n F i g u r e 1 . F o r e x a m p l e , d i a r ys t u d ie s o f e m o t i o n a l e v e n t s w o u l d i l l u s tr a t e t h e t y p eo f e v e n t s e m p l o y e e s r e s p o n d t o a t w o r k , a s w e l l a s a c ta s a c o p i n g t e c h n i q u e s u g g e s t e d b y t h e e m o t i o nr e g u l a t i o n r e s e a r c h e r s ( i .e . , P e n n e b a k e r , 1 9 8 5, 1 9 9 0 ).L a b s t u d i e s , n o t t y p i c a l l y d o n e b y o r g a n i z a t i o n a lr e s e a rc h e r s , c o u l d e x a m i n e t h e i m p a c t o f s u r f a c e a n dd e e p a c t i n g p r o c e s s e s o n c u s t o m e r s . B o t h o f t h e s et y p e s o f s t u d i e s w o u l d h a v e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r w o r k -p l a c e t r a i n i n g f o r e m p l o y e e s . F i e l d s t u d i e s , t y p i c a l l yn o t u s e d b y t h e e m o t i o n r e g u l a t io n r e s e a r c h e rs , c o u l di n c l u d e p e n - a n d - p a p e r s t u d i e s o f p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c -t e r i s t i c s a n d e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s t o i n f o r ms e l e c t i o n d e c i s i o n s . T h o s e p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e s w h o a r em o r e l i k e l y t o r e a p p r a i s e s i t u a t i o n s a n d c h a n g ef e e l i n g s t a t e s m a y b e b e t t e r s u i t e d f o r c e r t a i n j o b st h a n t h o s e w h o p r e f e r t o i n h i b i t th e i r f e e l i n g s . F i n a l l y ,r e s e a r c h t h a t a s s e s s e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s u r f a c e a n dd e e p a c t i n g t o e a c h o t h e r a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i sn e e d e d . P e r h a p s s u r f a c e a c t i n g i s a r e a c t i o n t o a ne v e n t , a n d d e e p a c t i n g o c c u r s m o r e c o n s t a n t l yt h r o u g h o u t t h e d a y . T h e e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n t h e o r yp r o p o s e d b y G r o s s ( 1 9 9 8 b ) s e e m s t o s u g g e s t t h a td e e p a c t i n g w o u l d o c c u r f ir s t, a n d t h e n s u r f a c e a c t i n gi f t h a t w a s n o t s u c c e s s f u l . T h e s e a r e e m p i r i c a lq u e s t i o n s , a n s w e r a b l e b y l o n g i t u d i n a l f i e l d o r l a bs t u d i e s a n d q u a l i t a t i v e s t u d i e s. A l l o f t h e p r e c e d i n gr e s e a r c h w o u l d n o t o n l y i n f o r m t h e u n d e r s ta n d i n g o fe m o t i o n s a t w o r k , b u t a l s o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e b r o a d e rf i e ld o f e m o t i o n r e g u l a ti o n .

T h i s i s a n e x c i t i n g t i m e f o r r e s e a r c h e r s o fw o r k p l a c e e m o t i o n , w i t h m a n y q u e s t i o ns s t il l t o b ea n s w e r e d . T h e s t u d y o f e m o t i o n a l l a b o r c o n t i n u e s t oe x p a n d i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t n o t o n l y d oe m o t i o n s e x i s t i n t h e w o r k p l a c e , b u t t h e y g r e a t l yi m p a c t t h e w o r k p l a c e a n d t h e e m p l o y e e s . E m o t i o n

r e g u l a t i o n m a y b e a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n e x p l a i n i n gm a n y a s p e c t s o f e m p l o y e e a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l li f e.

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