Grammar Lecture Notes

7/28/2019 Grammar Lecture Notes

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Lectures on English Grammar

Lecture 1

The English noun phrase

v I qUANG,ph.d.

Englishdep .,CFL - VNU, H anoi

A. Overview

1. What is meant by the noun phrase ?

The noun phrase is a group of words in which there is / are

one or more noun(s) as the head component modifiable by

(an)other preceding or

following item(s) as modifier(s):NP NP

The man there is my teacher of

English

head head

2. Possible components of the NP:

Premodifier(s) Head

Postmodifier(s)

Closed-system item(s)+open-class item(s) noun(s) /

pronoun(s) open-class item(s)

3. What is meant by closed-system and open-

class items ?

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a.Items are closed in the sense that they are (i) reciprocally

defining;(ii) reciprocally exclusive.

Closed system items: articles, pronouns, prepositions,

conjunctions, etc.

b. Open-class items are (i) those that possess the same

grammatical properties and (ii) constitute the basis for

further word formation or paradigms.

Open-class items: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc.

4. Types of NP in terms of structure: The basic NP vs.

the complex NP.a. Structures of the basic NP: [Closed-system item(s)]

+ head

b. Structures of the complex NP: Patterns other than those of

the basic NP are normally considered possible abstract

models of the complex NP.

5. Dichotomies inherent in the English NP:

(i). Basic vs. complex NPs.

(ii) Single head vs. multiple head.

(iii) Single vs. multiple modification.

(iiv) Restrictive vs. non-restrictive modification.

(vi) Dynamicness vs. stativeness.

(vii) Premodification vs. postmodification.

(viii) Temporary vs. permanent characteristics.

(ix) Explicitnees vs. non-explicitness.

B. nouns, pronouns and The basic noun phrase.

I. The noun as a part of speech.

1. Classification of English nouns in accordance with:

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a. Structure: simple vs. compound.

b. Types of referents:count vs. noncount.

c. Deictic function: proper vs. common.

d. modes of naming: dynamic vs. stative.

e. Degrees of nominalisation: primary vs. substantivized.

2. Grammatical categories of the noun:

Singular:

Variable Plural:

a. Number

Invariable Singular:Plural

b. Gender: + English makes very few gender distinctions.

Where they are made, the connection between the biological

category sex and the grammatical category gender is

very close, insofar as natural sex distinctions determine

English gender distinctions.

+ Gender classes:

A.

Masculine: uncle

B.

Feminine: aunt

C. Dual:

doctor

Personal D.

Common: baby

Animate E.

Collective: committee

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F.

Masculine higher animal: bull

Non-personal G.

Feminine higher animal: cow

H. Higher

organism: France

I. Lower

animal: ant

Inanimate J.

Inanimate: desk

c. Case:

+ Case system: CASE

Nominative Genitive

Subjective Objective - sgenitive of- genitive

Group gen. Double gen.

Accusative Dative Instrumental

+ Group genitive: s apostrophe applied to a group of words

rather a single noun. Eg.

The man in the deckchairs ears are very

large.

+ Double genitive: - Combination of the s genitive with the

of-genitive.

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Eg. A friend of Marys is here.

- Constraints on the usage: (i) The noun

with the s apostrophe must be both personal and definite;

(ii) The noun preceding of- must be indefinite.

+ Genitive meanings:(i) possessive gen.; (ii) subjective

gen.; (iii) objective gen.; (iv) genitive of origin; (vi)

descriptive genitive; (vii) genitive of measure and partitive

gen.; (viii) appositive gen.

+ The choice of genitives:

- Principle: (i) The - s genitive is favoured by the classes thatare highest on the gender scale, ie animate nouns, in

particular persons and animals with personal gender

characteristics.

(ii) The of-genitive is chiefly used with nouns that

belong to the bottom part of the gender scale.

- Exception: The - s genitive is nornally used with the

following kinds of inanimate nouns: Geographical and

institutional names (eg. Europes future); temporal nouns

(eg. a weeks holiday); nouns of special interest to human

activity (eg. sciences influence)

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Lecture 2

The English complex noun phrase

v I qUANG,ph.d.

English

dep .,CFL - VNU, H anoi

I. COMPONENTS OF THE ENGLISH COMPLEX NOUN PHRASE.

1. Pattern:

NP

Premodification Head

Postmodification

Closed-system item(s) + open-class item(s)

open-class item(s)

2. Dichotomies inherent in modification:

a. Restrictive vs. nonrestrictive:

(i) Restrictive: + The head can be viewed as a member of a

class which can be linguistically identified only through the

modification that has been supplied.

Eg. The pretty girl standing in the corner who became

angry because you waved

to her when you entered is Mary Smith.

In this example, the girl is only identifiable as Mary Smith

provided we understand that it is the particular girl who is

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ptretty, who was standing in the corner, and who became

angry. Such modification is restrictive.

+ Restrictive modification tends to be given

more prosodic emphasis

than the head

(ii) Nonrestrictive: + The head can be viewed as unique or as

a member of a class that has been independently identified;

any modification given to such a head is additional

information which is not essential for identifying the head.

Eg. Mary, who is in the corner, wants to meet you. In thisexample, Mary Smith s identity is independent of whether or

not she is in the corner, though the information on her

present location may be usefull enough.

+ Nonrestrictive modification tends to be

unstressed in pre-head position. In pre-head position, its

parenthetic relation is endorsed by being given a separate

tone unit or - in writing - by being enclosed by commas.

b. Temporary vs. permanent.

+ Items placed in premodification position are given the

linguistic status of permanent or at any rate characteristic

features.

+ Adjectives which cannot premodify have a notably

temporary reference. Eg. We can say The man is ready but

we cannot use the phrase the ready man.

c. Explicit vs. non-explicit.

+ Explicitness in postmodification varies considerablly: It is

greater in the finite relative clause, lesser in the nonfite

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clause, less still in the prepositional phrase and least in the

one-head noun / adjective / adverb phrase.

+ Part of the relative clauses explicitness lies in the

specifying power of the relative pronoun: It is capable of (I)

showing agreement with the head and (b) of indicating its

status as an element in the relative clause structure.

+ Observe the degrees of explicitness in the following:

Eg. The girl who was standing in the corner

is Mary (1)

personal time posture position

The girl standing in the corner is Mary

(2)

posture position

The girl in the corner is Mary (3)

position

The girl there is Mary (4)

position

The girl is Mary (5)

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In example (1), the status, the time of action, the posture,

and the position of the head noun referent are specified. In

example (5), no such properties are indicated.

II. Postmodification in the COMPLEX NOUN PHRASE.

1. Items as postmodifiers:

Postmodifiers

Padj. Padv. Pprep. NP. Non-finites

Finites

(to) V V-ing V-ed2

Relative Sent. rel. Appositve

Note: The types of items in this diagram do not necessarily

occur in the order thus mentioned.

2. The relative clause as postmodifier.

a. Relative pronouns in English:

who, whom, whose that

which

For human(s) For both animate (humans) and

inanimate For inanimates

b. Case in the relative pronoun.

+ Case is used to indicate the status of the relative pronoun

in its clause.

+ If the pronoun is in a genitive relation to a noun head, the

pronoun can be whose.

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c. Relative pronoun and adverbial.

d. Restrictive vs. nonrestrictive relative clauses.

e. Functions performed by relative pronouns in the relative

clause: S, O, C, A.

f. The sentential relative clause:

Features:

+ The only relative pronoun used is which.

+ The sentential relative clause is separated from the

preceding clause by a comma.

+ The antecedent of WHICH is the whole preceding clause,not any single word.

Eg. Mary came home late, which made her

mother angry.

3. The appositive clause as postmodifier.

Features:

+ Similarities and differences between the relative clause

and the appositve clause:

- Similarities: (i) Capable of introduction by that; (ii)

distinguishing between restrictive and non-restrictive;

- Differences: (i)The particle that is not an element in the

clause structure; (ii) The head of the noun phrase must be a

factive abstract noun.

+ Plural heads are rare with appositive postmodification and

are regarded as unacceptable.

+ As with apposition generally, the apposed units can be

linked with be (where the copula typically has nuclear

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prominence). Eg. The belief that no one is infallible is well -

grounded The belief IS that no one is infallible.

4. Nonfinite clauses as postmodifier.

a.Types of clauses: Head + Non-finite clauses

V-ing V-ed2 To -

V

b. V-ing participle clause:

+ V-ing nonfinite clauses can be interpreted, according to

context, as equivalent to one of more explicit versions,

typically relative clauses.

Eg. The man writing the obituary is my friend

will write

will be writing

writesThe man who is writing the

orbituary is my friend.

wrote

was writing

+ Not all V-ing forms in non-finite postmodifiers correspond

to progressive forms in relative clauses. Stative verbs, which

cannot have the progressive in the finite verb phrase, can

appear in participial form. Eg. He is talking to a girl

resembling Jane (Who resembles Jane, not * who is

resembling Jane ).

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c. V-ed2 participial clauses:

+ The V-ed2 participial clause corresponds to a passive

clause construction .

+ The V-ed2 participle concerned is as firmly linked with the

passive voice as that in the V-ing construction is linked with

the active. Hence, with intrasitive verbs, there is no V-ed

postmodifier corresponding exactly to a relative clause.

d. To V clauses:

+ The to-V nonfinite clause could, in a suitable context, have

precisely the same meaning as the relative clause. But, thesubject of an infinitive clause need not be the antecedent. It

may be separately introduced by the for- device or it may be

entirely covert. Eg. The man for John to consult is Wilson /

The man to consult is Wilson.

+ Voice and mood are variable, the latter covertly:

Eg. The time to arrive ... (= The time at which you should

arrive).

The case to be investigated... = (that will or is to be

investigated).

5. Prepositional phrases as postmodifier.

+ A prepositional phrase is by far the commonest type of

postmodification in English: It is three or four times more

frequent than either finite or non-finite clausal

postmodification.

+ The full range of prepositions is involved in

postmodification including the complex prepositions. Eg.

Passengers on board the ship; Action in case of fire.

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+ Relationships conveyed by the of - genitive in

postmodification: appositive, possessive, ...

+ Restrictive vs. nonrestrictive:

- Prepositional phrases may be non-appositive or appositive,

and in either function, they can be restrictive or non-

restrictive. Eg.

This book on grammar(non-appositive,

restrictive).

This book, on grammar, (no-appositive,

non-restrictive).This issue of student grants (appositive,

restrictive).

This issue, of student grants, (appositive,

non-restrictive).

+ Non restrictive function would be rare and unnatural,

plainly suggesting an afterthought.

+ Position and varied relationship: When separated by

commas, prepositional phrases may be interpreted either as

A or Postmodifier, ...

+ Deverbal noun heads: A deverbal head will not permit

premodifying adverbs.

Eg. The violent quarrel over pay.

* The violently quarrel over pay

(unacceptable).

6. Minor types of postmodification.

(i) Adverbial postmodification. Eg. The road back was dense

with traffic.

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(ii) Postposed adjective. Eg. Something strange happened

last night.

(iii) Postposed mode qualifier. Eg. Lobster Newburg is

difficult to prepare.

7. Multiple postmodification.

(I) A head may have more than one postmodification;

(ii) A modification may be applicable to more than one head;

(iii) The head of a modifying phrase may itself be modified.

(iv) Miscelaneous types.

8. Ambiguity and constraints on multiple modification.+ Frequently, careful ordering of constituents in a NP is

essential to communicate all (and only) ones intention.

Eg. The man in black talking to the

girl ...

The man talking to the girl in

black ...

These two phrases are different in meaning.

+ One of the chief reasons for preferring the of - genitive to

the -s genitive is to avoid discontinuity. Eg. The ears of the

man in the deckchairThe mans ears in the

deckchair.

+ A special type of multiple modification that requires careful

ordering occurs when the premodifying clause becomes itself

embedded in a clause.

Eg. I will read the poem (which) Tom hopes (that)

John will write for you.

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In this example, the relative pronoun which is object in the

underlined relative clause. When, however, a relative

pronoun is subject, the conjunction that must be omitted.

Eg. I will read the poem (which) Tom hopes will be

written for you.

* hopes that

will (unacceptable)

III. Premodification in the complex NP.

1. Types of premodifying items.

Premodifiers

Closed-system items + Open-class items

adjective participle -s genitive noun

adverbial sentence

2. Premodification by adjectives.

+ A premodifying adjective, especially when it is the first

item after the determiner, can itself be premodified in the

same way as it can in predicative position:

His really quite unbelievably delightful

cottage

+ With indefinite determiners, so would be replaced by

such:

A cottage which is so beautiful = Such a

beautiful cottage

or else so plus adjective would be placed before the

determiner:

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so beautiful a cottage

+ There are certain adjectives that cannot be used in

premodification.

3. Premodification by participles.

a. V-ing participle:

+ Gradability is available. Eg. He has a very interesting

mind.

+ The indefinite article favours the the habitual or

permanent, the definite article the specific or temporary.

Eg. ? The approaching train is fromLiverpool.

He was frightened by an

approaching train.

? The barking dog is my neighbours

I was wakened by a barking dog.

+ The definite article may be used generically and hence

evoke the same generality and permanence as the

indefinite.

Eg. The beginning student should be given every

encouragement.

b. V-ed2 participle:

+ Ved2 participle can be active or passive. The active is rarely

used in premodification.

Eg. The immigrant who has arrived.

* The arrived immigrant

(unacceptable).

The newly - arrived immigrant.

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Our recently - departed friend

+ Most V-ed2 participles are of the agential type and

naturally only a few will admit the permanent reference that

will permit premodifying use.

Eg. The wanted man was last seen in

Cambridge.

(The man goes on being wanted by

the police)

* The found purse was returned to its

owner (unacceptable)(The purse was found at a particular

moment)

+ Modifiers in -ed may be directly denominal and not

participles at all.

Eg. a wooded hillside; the vaulted roof; a fluted pillar, ...

Constraints are detectable (perhaps dictated merely by

semantic redundancy):

Eg. * a powered engine; * a haired girl; * a legged

man, ... (unacceptable).

The following are possible:

a diesel - powered engine; a red - haired giel; a

long - leg man, ...

4. Premodification by genitives.

Ambiguity is available with this type od premodification.

Eg. These nasty womens clothing may be interpreted as

The clothing of these nasty women and not The nasty

clothing of these women which would require The nasty

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womens clothing. An intermiediate modifier will be

interpretated as referring to the head: This nasty womens

clothing.

5. Premodification by nouns.

+ Noun premodifiers are often so closely related with the

head as to be regarded as compounded with it. In many

cases, they appear to in a reduced-explicitness relation with

prepositional postmodifiers.

Eg. The question of partition = The partition

question.The door of the cupboard = The cupboard

door.

+ Two important features in noun premodifications:

(I) Plural nouns usually become singular;

(ii) According to the relationsjip between the two nouns, the

accent will fall on the premodifier or the head. Eg. An iron

rod but a war story.

6. Multiple premodification.

+ With single head;

+ With multiple head;

+ With modified modifer.

7. Relative sequence of premodifiers.

Det. + general + size + shape + age + colour + particple +

noun + denominal + head

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Lecture 3

The verb and its

complementationv I qUANG,

ph.d.English

dep .,CFL - VNU, H anoi

I. Classification of verbs in English

1. Verbs classified according to the functions

performed by the elements in the verb phrase:

Regular: V VED

Lexical

Irregular: (7 subclasses)

Verbs Semi-auxiliaries: need, dare,

used to.

Primary: do, have, be

Auxiliary

Modal: will, would, shall,

should, may, might, ought

to, must, can, could.

2. Verbs classified in accordance with the types of

complementation:

Current:

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Intensive

(SVC / SVA) Resulting:

Verbs

Intransitive (SV)

Extensive

Monotransitive

(SVO)

Transitive Ditransitive

(SVOO)

Complex

transitive (SVOC / SVOA)

3. Verbs classified according to the number of

constituents:

One - word verbs

Verbs

Phrasal verbs

Multi-word verbs Prepositional verbs

Phrasal - prepositional verbs

II. Verb forms

1. The five forms of the lexical verb

V

VS Finite

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VED1

VED2 Non-finite

V- ING

2. Uses of lexical verb forms:

(i) V: Simple present tense - aspect forms except 3rd person

singular; mandative

subjunctive form.

(ii) Vs: Simple present tense - aspect form for 3rd person

singular.

(iii) Ved1: Simple past tense - aspect form for all persons

singular as well as plural;

past subjunctive form.

(iv) V-ing: Progressive aspect form.

(v) Ved2: Perfective aspect form; passive voice form.

3. Auxiliary verb forms & uses:

- Eight forms of BE: be, being, been, is, am, was, are, were.

- Forms of all modal auxiliaries and the primary auxiliaries

DO and HAVE: grouped under three categories (non-

negative; uncontracted negative; contracted negative).

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- Usage: operaror function (structural; modal; structural -

modal).

III. Grammatical categories of the verb

1. Tense

(i) Tense (linguistic concept; language-specific) vs.Time

(universal concept)

(ii) Tense system: Present (timeless; limited; instantaneous)

vs. past.

(iii) Uses of tense - aspect forms (26 forms: active vs.

passive).

(iii) Ways of expressing future time: will / shall + verb; be +

going to +verb; present progressive; simple present; will /

shall + progressive; be + to verb; be + about+ to verb.

2. Aspect

(i) What is meant by aspect ?

(ii) Aspect system: simple vs. progressive vs. perfective vs.

perfective progressive

(iii) Interrelationship between tense and aspect:

INTERMINGLED.

3. Mood

(i) What is meant by mood ?

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(ii) Types of mood in English:

+ Forms:

- Indicative: affirmative, negative, non-assertive.

- Imperative: positive, negative.

- Subjunctive: mandative, formulaic (present subjuntive),

were (past subjuntive).

+ Uses of different types of mood: indicative (facive);

imperative (non-factive); subjunctive (non-factive / counter-

factive), ...

(iii) Mood vs. modality.

4. Voice

(i) What is meant by voice ?

(ii) Voice system: Active, passive, middle.

(iii) Uses of the passive voice.

(iv) Constraints on active - passive transformation.

III. Verb phrase forms:

1. Simple verb form: V; Vs; Ved.

2. Complex verb forms (in relation to aspect and

voice):

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(i) Modal; (ii) Perfective; (iii) Progressive; (iv) Passive; (v)

Modal perfective; (vi) Modal progressive; (vii) Modal passive;

(viii) Modal perfective passive; (ix) Modal progressive

passive; (x) Modal perfective progressive passive.

3. Contrasts expressed in the VP: Tense, aspect, mood,

voice, questions, negation, emphasis.

IV. Complementation of the verb.

1. Intensive complementation.

a. Clause type: SVC / SVA

b. Features:

+ Morphological features:

* Types of copulas: current, resulting.

* Realisation of elements:

- Noun and adjective phrases as CS

- Predicative adjuncts

- Complementation of adjective phrase as CS : Adj

complementation by prepositional phrase; Adj

complementation by finite clause; Adj complementation by

to-infinitive clauses.

+ Syntactic features: Word order;

transformation.

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+ Semantic features: Relations between

elements (identifier - identified;

carrier - attribute, entity - location, event -

time, ...).

2. Intransitive complementation

a. Clause pattern: SV

b. Features: + Morphological features: Realisation of

elements, ...

+ Syntactic features: Word oder; transformation,

...

+ Semantic features: Relations between

elements, ...

3. Monotransitive complementation.

a. Clause pattern: SVO

b. Features:

+ Morphological:

- Types of verbs not involved in passivization.

- Realisation: NPs as Od; finite clauses as Od; non-finite

clauses as Od.

+ Syntactic: Constraints on active - passive transformation,

temporal & voice differences between the two constructions

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of the forms V + to V and V + V-ing with certain

aspectual verbs: begin, start, stop, remember, deserve,

need,want, ...

+ Semantic functions performed by S, V and O: S: Agentive /

actor; V: Material / mental ... processes; O: Affected /

effected / locative, ... participants.

4. Ditransitive complementation.

a. Clause pattern: SVOO

b. Features: + Morphological features: Realisation of

elements, ...

+ Syntactic features: Word oder; possible

transformations; ditransitive prepositional verb

complementation; ideomatic expressions consisting of verb

+ noun phrase + preposition; NPs as Oi + finite clauses as

Od; NPs as Oi + non-finite clauses as Od.

+ Semantic features:

- Semantic relationships between elements.

- Typical semantic functions: S (actor); Od (affected

participant); Oi (recipient).

5. Complex transitive complementation

a. Clause patterns: SVOC / SVOA

b. Featufres: + Morphological features:

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* Realisation of elements: - To-infinitive clauses with S; bare

infinitive clauses with S;

- ing participle clauses with; - ed participle clauses with S;

verbless clauses with S.

* Types of verbs involved in complex transitive

complemetation.

+ Syntactical features: Word oder; possible

transformations, ...

+ Semantic features:

- Underlying intensive relationship between O and C,

between O and A, ...

- Typical semantic functions performed by clause elements: S

(agentive); O (affected); C (resulting attribute); A (locative).

- Semantics of the ideomatic collocation category verb +

adjective (push open, pull tight, make clear, ... ): structure,

collocations, ...

+ Passivization as a means of making explicit

the cases of ambiguity as regards the differentiation

between ditransive and complextransitive complementation.

Eg. I wanted Bob to teach Mary.

I persuaded Bob to teach Mary.

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Lecture 4

The simple sentence

I. Clause patterns:

(i) SVO; (ii) SVC; (iii) SVA; (iv) SVOO; (v) SVOC; (vi)

SVOA; (vii) SV

Note: S = subject; V = verb; C = complement; O = object; A

= adverbial

Examples: a. Mary beat Tom.

S V O

b. Mary is clever.

S V C

c. Mary is here.

S V A

d. Mary gave me a book.

S V O O

e. Mary put the book here.

S V O A

f. Mary is singing

S V

II. Syntactic and semantic features OF clause

elements.

A. Subject1. Syntactic features:

a. Realization: NPs (basic & complex); clauses (finite;

nonfinite).

b. Positions: + Before V in statements; + After operator in

questions.

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c. Possible transformation: passivization with S becoming

by-phrase.

2. Semantic roles: agentive, recipient, temporal, locative,

instrumental, empty it, ...

B. Direct Object.

1. Syntactic features:

a. Realisation: NP (basic & complex); clauses (finite;

nonfinite).

b. Positions: After V in SVO; Before Oi in SVOO.

c. Possible transformation: passivization.2. Semantic roles: affected participant; effected participant;

locative.

C. Indirect Object.


a. Realisation: NP (basic & complex); clauses (finite;

nonfinite).

b. Position: After V and befrore Od

c. Possible transformation: passivization.

2. Semantic roles: recipient; affected participant.

D. Complement.


a. Realisation: NP (basic & complex); adjective phrases;

clauses (finite; nonfinite)

b. Positions: (i) After V in SVC; (ii) After O in SVOC.

c. Typical features: No passivizstion possible; NP

Complement is co-referential with S

(or O).

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2. Semantic roles: Attribute

E. Adverbial.


a. Realisation: NP (basic & complex); adjective phrases;

adverb phrases; clauses (finite; nonfinite; verbless).

b. Positions: Initial, medial, final.

c. Typical features: (i) Mobile; (ii) No passivization possible

with A becoming S.

2. Semantic roles: temporal, locative, conditional,

concessive, resultative, manner,...III. Concord

A. Types of concord in number and person between

clause elements:

(i) Subject - Verb concord;(ii) Subject-Complement concord;

(iii) Object - Complement concord ; (iv) Pronoun concord.

B. Subtypes of S - V concord in number and person.

1. Grammatical concord: (i) Ssingular + Vsingular; (ii) Splural + Vplural

2. Notional concord: Verb form determined by the actual

number inherent in the S

rather than its form.

3. Proximity concord: Verb form determined by the nearest

word (normally as S).

IV. Negation.

1. Scope of negation: stretch of discourse over which the

negative word operates.

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2. Focus of negation: contrastive stress on a certain word

in the sentence to signify the place where negation is most

available.

3. Interrelationships between scope and focus of

negation:

(i) Scope of negation normally extends from the negative

word up to the end of the sentence or to the beginning of a

final adjunct in the sentence.

(ii) Scope of negation extends from the negative word to the

focus. It is to be driven backwards to include the focus incase the focus is before the negative word.

(iv) It then follows from this that the scope of negation can

be identified by where the information focus is placed.

Eg. Mary didnt break the vase yesterday

morning.

Focus of negation

V. Sentence types

1. Categories of sentences (classified in accordance with

purposes of communication) : (i) Statements; (ii) Questions;

(iii) Commands; (iv) Exclamations.

2. Subcategories of questions: (i) Wh-questions; (ii) Yes-

No questions; (iii) Alternative questions.

a. Wh-questions: (i) Wh-word + operator + S + Predication ?

(ii) Wh-word + Predicate ?

b. Yes - No questions: Yes - No questions proper; declarative

questions; tag questions: (i) \Positive statement + /negative

tag, (ii) \Negative statement + /positive tag, (iii) \Positive

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statement + \negative tag, (ii) \Negative statement +

\positive tag, (v) \Positive + /positive.

c. Alternative questions: Wh- question form; Yes-No question

form.

3. Subcategories of commands: Commands with S;

commands without S; commands with let; negative

commands; persuasive commands.

4. Subcategories of exclamations:

(i) How + adjective phrase !; What + NP !

(ii) Wh-question form exclamations; Yes-No question formexclamations; statement form questions.

5. Semantics of tag questions:

(i) Positive assumption + neutral expectation; (ii) Negative

assumption + neutral expectation; (iii) Positive assumption +

positive expectation; (iv) Negative assumption + negative

expectation; (v) Positive assumption + positive expectation.

VI. Block language

1. Definition: Block language = language structured in

terms of single words or phrases rather than the more highly

organised units of clause or sentence.

2. Forms:

3. Features: i.Omission of low-informative words;

ii.journalistic style, ...

VII. The vocative

1. Definition: Vocative = nominal element added to the

sentence to attract the attention of the addressee and to

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express the speaker s attitude towards the person

addressed.

2. Forms: noun phrases; finite clauses.

3. Characteristic intonations: (i) Fall - Rise for initial

vocatives; (ii) Rise for medial and final vocatives.

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The complex sentence

I. Coordination vs. subordination.

1. Coordination: Type of relationship between units that

stand on equal footing with each other.

2. Subordination: Type of relationship where one or more

unit(s) is/are (a) constituent(s) of a larger unit.

3. The complex sentence vs. the compound sentence.

Sentences with subordination between clauses (finite, non-

finite and verbless) are termed complex. Those with

coordination between clauses are compound.

4. Markers of subordination in the complex sentence:

Subordinators (simple, compound, correlative); S-Operator

inversion; That-clause; Wh-elements; subordinate clauses

that contain no markers within themselves of subordinate

status (nominal clause which may or may not have THAT,comment clauses), etc.

II. Dependent clauses structurally classified.

1. Finite: Verb element conjugated in number and person

with the subject.

2. Nonfinite: Verb element realized by a non-finite verb

form (to-V, Verb, VED, VING).

3. Verbless: No verb form available; the predicate realized

by items of different parts of speech.

III. Dependent clauses functionally classified.

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1. Nominal clauses: THAT- clause; Wh-interrogative clause;

Yes-No interrogative clause; nominal relative clause

(realization; syntactic functions; semantic roles, posssible

transformation).

2. Adverbial clauses: Adjuncts; disjuncts; conjuncts.

2.1. Adjuncts: Time, place, condition, process, result,

concession, etc.

2.2. Disjuncts: Style; attitudinal.

2.3. Conjuncts: Antithesis, contradiction, addition, etc.

3. Comparative clauses (structure; syntactic functions,

propositions to be compared).

4. Comment clauses (5 forms; syntactic functions).

IV. The verb phrase in dependent clauses.

1. Sequence of tenses: Present tense with subordinators;

the modal past; present subjunctive in conditional clauses;

direct vs. indirect speech (Backshift; exceptions to the

distancing rules; modal auxiliaries and indirect speech; free

indirect speech; transferred negation).

2. Types of verbs in dependent clauses as

complentation of superordinate verbs:

(i) Factive main verb + indicative verb in the dependent

clause.

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(ii) Emotive main verb + indicative verb in the

dependent clause.

+ should V

(iii) Volitional main verb + subjuntive V in the

dependent clause.

+ should V

3. Tense - aspect forms of verbs in Adverbial clauses

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Grammar Lecture Notes