GRAMMAR AND PUNCTUATION REVIEW: PART 1

A workshop provided by the TTU Grad School

Top Grammar Mistakes in Dissertations/Theses Punctuation errors

Commas, semi-colons, colons and hyphens Homonym errors Apostrophe Errors Capitalization Errors Strange word choices Misspelling and inconsistency of spelling Missing parts of speech Incomplete and run-on sentences

This week

I will cover the following today: Review of punctuation Discuss homonym errors and how to fix them Review of apostrophes Review of capitalization Discuss spelling and consistency

Next week, along with abstracts and annotations, I will continue the grammar review Parts of speech, incomplete and run-on sentences

Punctuation

It is not merely a technical, formal aspect of writing There are three main purposes of punctuation:

Makes the structure of your sentence more clear to the reader

Indicates to your reader how to read your sentence Gives meaning to your sentences. This function is

particularly important. Content itself is not meaning. Punctuation can alter the meaning/intent of your sentences

Punctuation gives structure/improves readability

What is the purpose of punctuation it has a rhetorical purpose the primary purpose of punctuation is to ensure the clarity and readability of writing punctuation clarifies sentence structure separating some words and grouping others it adds meaning to written words and guides the understanding of readers as they move through sentences

Compared to:

What is the purpose of punctuation? It has a rhetorical purpose: the primary purpose of punctuation is to ensure the clarity and readability of writing. Punctuation clarifies sentence structure, separating some words and grouping others. It adds meaning to written words and guides the understanding of readers as they move through sentences.

Punctuation can change meaning/intent

Sorry you had to witness that last night West Ham fans need to start showing the dedication that you have and things might start to improve.

Sorry you had to witness that last night. West Ham fans need to start showing the dedication that you have and things might start to improve.

Sorry you had to witness that last night, West Ham fans. [I] Need to start showing the dedication that you have and things might start to improve.

Other examples

Stop clubbing baby seals! Stop clubbing, baby seals! Here is a more infamous example: http://i.imgur.com/5LdZT.jpg

We invited the strippers, JFK and Stalin. We invited the strippers, JFK and Stalin.

The point is…

Without proper attention to how you punctuate your sentences, your reader may read the sentence differently from you intend, at best.

At worst, you will confuse your reader or cause them to pause to think about something as minor as punctuation.

You will create more work for them. You can empower yourself against interpretation, in

part, by taking more care in punctuating your sentences. Feedback on your work can then go from minor

editorial comments to content/global comments. That is a good thing!

Commas (,)

You use a comma in the following situations (this is not exhaustive, but a list of the most common situations): When you have two independent clauses joined by a

conjunction To separate words, phrases and/or clauses in a series

or list In between two adjectives that modify the same noun To set off a comment or aside within a sentence After an introductory phrase

Two independent clauses joined by a conjunction

An “independent clause” really just means part of a sentence that can stand on its own. A dependent clause cannot Independent clause: Johnny ate peanut butter and Sue ate

ice cream. “Jonny ate peanut butter” and “Sue ate ice cream” are

both independent clauses because they can stand on their own and be written as separate sentences. Dependent clause: Johnny ate peanut butter from the jar

“From the jar” is dependent. It cannot be a complete sentence on its own.

Cont.

I filled the test tubes with buffer. I prepared the agar plates.

I filled the test tubes with buffer, and I prepared the agar plates. Here, the comma + conjunction (and) “stands in” for the

period, making the two sentences into one. When the two independent clauses are short, as in these

examples, you could technically get away with it without a comma. I filled the test tubes with buffer and I prepared the agar plates.

However, when in doubt, use a comma. This becomes more apparent in longer sentences.

Cont.

Inexpensive examples of literary annuals still turn up in second hand stores, for the craze leaped the Atlantic, and the books became as popular in the United States as in England.

Inexpensive examples of literary annuals still turn up in second hand stores, for the craze leaped the Atlantic and the books became as popular in the United States as in England.

What does “and” do in this sentence? Does it join “Atlantic and books” together or does it join the two clauses together?

Cont.

This sentence is composed of two independent clauses, but the first one is quite long and more complex than the second. Here, you would definitely want to use the comma as well as the conjunction so it is clear to everyone what “and” is doing here.

To check to see if your sentence is composed of two independent clauses or if it is composed of one independent clause and one dependent clause, simply break up your sentence into two sentences. If one sentence is complete and the other incomplete, then you have one independent clause and one dependent one. If they both stand alone as complete sentences, they are both independent clauses.

To separate words, phrases, and/or clauses in a series or list

Words in a list: Bread eggs rice and pudding were on my grocery

list. Bread, eggs, rice, and pudding were on my grocery

list. Oxford comma alert! Is the comma before and really

necessary? See the previous example about our friends the

hookers, JFK and Stalin. Then come back here.

Cont.

Phrases: Management can improve worker productivity create better

working conditions offer more training and expand worker benefits without reducing wages.

To know where to put the comma, list what management can do: Improve worker productivity Create better working conditions Offer more training Expand worker benefits

These do not stand on their own as sentences. They are clauses.

Phrases, cont.

Where does the comma go? To put them into a list put a comma after each one.

Management can: Improve worker productivity, Create better working conditions, Offer more training, Expand worker benefits,

Now put them all together as a sentence again. Management can improve worker productivity, create

better working conditions, offer more training, and expand worker benefits, without reducing wages.

Commas in a list continued: Clauses

Originally the conference was rather small there were fewer vendors than presenters and panel presentations were more common than poster presentations.

List the three quality of the conference discussed here: Originally the conference was rather small There were fewer vendors than presenters Panel presentations were more common than poster

presentations

Each of these could be a sentence on its own. These are clauses.

Cont.

Where does the comma go? Again, put a comma after each one, then put back into

a sentence. Originally the conference was rather small, There were fewer vendors than presenters, Panel presentations were more common than poster

presentations,

Originally the conference was rather small, there were fewer vendors than presenters, and panel presentations were more common than poster presentations.

Commas in between two adjectives that modify the same noun

“Modify” essentially means “to act upon.” Example: She had long flowing hair. “long” and “flowing” both describe her hair. It could

be written like this: She had long hair. She had flowing hair.

Because both “long” and “flowing” are adjectives that describe her hair, you put a comma in between them.

She had long, flowing hair.

Cont.

As usual, the necessity for this is more readily apparent in longer sentences:

Heroism is usually defined as bravery and the active successful overcoming of adversity.

Both “active” and “successful” describe the “overcoming of adversity.” Therefore, put a comma in-between them and the sentence is easier to read.

Heroism is usually defined as bravery and the active, successful overcoming of adversity.

To set apart ideas within an sentence

Sometimes there are ideas in our sentences that aren’t necessary for the overall meaning of the sentence, but add extra information or impact.

If you have something in your sentence that could be taken out and the sentence still expresses the main idea, then the “extra” information should be put in commas.

Example: Bob, after receiving instructions, left for Utah. This could be written “Bob left for Utah.”

In both sentences, the main point is the same. “after receiving instructions” gives more info, but isn’t necessary. It should, therefore, be placed within commas.

Aren’t sure if you should place info within commas? Delete it and see what happens to your sentence. If the main idea is still there, then put the information in commas.

After an introductory phrase

An introductory phrase is a way to make your sentences a bit more complex. In a lot of instances, sentences with introductory phrases can be re-written to be more direct.

Example In his re-imagining of the Star Trek universe, J.J.

Abrahms re-writes Kirk’s character so that Kirk’s father died as he was born.

The introductory clause isn’t actually necessary, but adds some extra information (a lot like our previous examples, but here the info is at the beginning).

Cont.

Sometimes introductory phrases are in much shorter sentences and don’t add extra information, but the rest of the sentence is dependent on what information is in the introductory phrase.

You can think of these kinds of sentences as “if, then” statements.

Example: If I put this reagent into the mixture then a reaction will occur. If I put this reagent into the mixture, a reaction will occur. If our mission is to succeed then the various groups must work

together. If our mission is to succeed, the various groups must work

together. Here, the comma can “Stand in” for “then.”

Cont.

So, in sum, there are two types of “introductory” phrases.

One contains extra info at the beginning of the sentence. This information isn’t necessary and the rest of the sentence could stand alone. Put a comma after this introductory clause

The other kind of “introductory” clause is really just a dependent clause. It does introduce the sentence, but this isn’t always clear because the sentence is so short. So, just think of it like an “if, then” sentence. If you feel after reading the first part of a sentence there should be a “then,” then you should either write “then” or put in a comma!

Some concluding thoughts on commas

Sometimes people say that as a general rule, put a comma where you would take a breath when reading.

Technically, this isn’t true. Commas were sometimes used in ancient times to indicate where actors should breathe. However, we don’t often take a breaths in such a way as to make sure all the parts of our sentences, separated by commas, are logical or grammatically correct.

However, in general, if you read a sentence out loud and find it hard to get through without needing to take a breath or pause, then you might consider breaking up that sentence with proper punctuation.

In general, the less punctuation the better. This doesn’t mean that you shouldn’t use punctuation. Rather, what it means is that if you struggle with punctuation or clarity in your sentences, the shorter the better. Better to write shorter sentences that need less punctuation than really long ones improperly punctuated.

Semi-colon

The semi-colon is the most misunderstood punctuation mark. In fact, the oatmeal has a cartoon about it http://theoatmeal.com/comics/semicolon

So, what is a semi-colon and how do you use it? The confusion arises because of the name itself, which

contains “colon.” But the semi-colon behaves more like a comma than a colon. So forget “semi-colon” and just call it a “super comma.”

Semi-colons Super Commas

There are two main uses of a semi-colon: In between items in a series or list when the items in the

list themselves have commas within them To join two independent clauses without a conjunction That sounds complicated. But in reality, you use a semi-

colon when, if without it, there would be so many commas you would have no clue what is going on. If you look at your sentence and are amazed at the sheer number of commas you have, then you need a semi-colon super comma somewhere.

In between items of a list

How’s this read: The Masked Rider, our official mascot, Raider Red,

our alternative mascot, and the Saddle Tramps, a booster organization, make our football games exciting. So, how many people are we talking about here? Who is who? Too many commas!

Cont.

Semi colon super comma to the rescue! The Masked Rider, our official mascot, Raider Red,

our alternative mascot, and the Saddle Tramps, a booster organization, make our football games exciting.

The Masked Rider, our official mascot; Raider Red, our alternative mascot; and the Saddle Tramps, a booster organization, make our football games exciting. Whew!

Join two independent clauses without a conjunction

Remember, “independent clauses” means “can stand alone as a sentence” and “conjunction” is just another fancy word for connector.

So, do you have two sentences that could stand alone but you want them to go together? More over, do you want to get rid of “and” or “but” or

some other silly connector word?

Want to add some variety to your writing? You need a semi-colon!

Cont.

You can use a semi-colon in these situations, and get rid of “and” or “but,” etc.

Example: Graduate students who registered for this workshop

want to learn how to better punctuate their sentences, and I am happy to teach them.

Graduate students who registered for this workshop want to learn how to better punctuate their sentences. I am happy to teach them.

Graduate students who registered for this workshop want to learn how to better punctuate their sentences; I am happy to teach them.

Things to remember about semi-colons

They act more like commas than colons. They are super commas.

A semi-colon is more like a comma, but it doesn’t read as easily through the sentence. There is a bit of a break in continuity. However, this can be used for effect.

When in doubt, ditch the semi-colon, and ditch the comma+conjunction and just write shorter sentences.

Colon

There are three main uses of a colon: To expand upon a previous concept or idea To clarify a point To illustrate a point

To expand upon a previous point

Sometimes we write things that may be clear to us, but not our reader

We need to expand a little bit so that what we mean is clear Example: As Emerson’s friend at Walden Pond suggested, it takes two

to speak the truth: one to speak and another to hear. In American English we often say “two in the hand is worth

one in the bush” : what is concrete is often preferable to what you imagine. Without the second part of these sentences, the reader may not know

what is meant. I just said something brilliant and obtuse: I just followed through with it so

you will think I’m brilliant and not obtuse.

To clarify a point

This is similar to expanding. Don’t worry about it too much.

Example: Chinese culture is unrivaled in its depth and antiquity: it

is unmatched in its rich artistic and philosophical records.

The second part of this sentence provides evidence to justify the claim in the first part of the sentence.

I am making a claim here that you may not immediately understand: here is an example to clarify.

To wit illustrate

Would you like to put in a list or quote in a sentence to show what you mean? You need a colon!

Examples: The qualification are as follows: a doctorate in

economics and an ability to communicate statistical data to a lay audience.

The new art relation of modernism is a concept that was most memorably given expression by Walter Pater: “All art constantly aspires towards the condition of music” (140).

Other interesting things about colons

They can create an economy of words. The new art relation of modernism is a concept that was

most memorably given expression by Walter Pater: “All art constantly aspires towards the condition of music” (140).

In this usage, the colon creates parsimony in the sentence, which otherwise would be written like this:

The new art relation of modernism is a concept that was most memorably given expression by Walter Pater, who said that “[a]ll art constantly aspires towards the condition of music” (140).

Cont.

Sometimes you get to choose what punctuation you want (as long as you follow the rules). That is, you can be creative.

Remember this example: Bread, eggs, rice, and pudding are on my grocery list.

It can be re-written with a colon: The following items are on my grocery list: bread, milk,

eggs, and cheese. And to really blow your mind, it can be re-written with

a semi colon I need to go to the store; I need to buy bread, milk, eggs

and cheese.

The Hyphen

Hyphens are used in between words, in words we call “compound words.” The best way to determine whether or not you use a hyphen in a word is to look it up in the dictionary http://dictionary.reference.com/ Bookmark it

Dashes, however, are often used in sentences. In general, it is best to avoid using them. You can just use either commas or parentheses in place of them. Since we just went over commas, you now no longer need to worry about dashes.

Apostrophes

We use apostrophes in the following situations: Possessive Plural possessive Contractions

Examples: Possessive: That is Jane’s ball. Plural Possessive: Students’ scores on the test improved

significantly in the past 5 years

But that isn’t really what gives people trouble.

Its and it’s

THIS gives a lot of people (including me) a lot of trouble!

To figure this one out, we have to remember that “it” is a terrible, terrible accident of English.

“it” can stand in for words, people, places, and pretty much anything that came before “it.” “It” can stand for a whole city of meaning.

“It” is also a pronoun. What’s the difference?

It and it

It can be a pronoun: She, he, it

She is over there. He is over there.It is over there. Where is she? Where is he?Where is it?

It can also be a “stand in” for other things. Today is going to be a beautiful day. It is going to be a beautiful day. “Today” isn’t a person or place or really a thing, and so does not have a

“pronoun” equivalent. Here, “it” is a place-holder for “today.” It comes in more handy in more complex situations:

Today was a terrible day; I failed my chemistry exam, ran over a sqiurrel on the way home, and found that my electricity was cut off. The more I think about it, the more I realize that I shouldn't have gotten out of bed.

Here, “it” stands in for the terrible day and all it entails.

Cont.

And that is the beauty and the terror of it. It can be shorthand, but it can also obfuscate meaning.

Today is going to be beautiful. It is going to be beautiful.

Without proper context, “it” can be anything. It may not refer to the weather at all.

Why is this important?

Back to Its and It’s

This is one of the reasons that its and it’s is so hard We forget what “it” is in this situation

Its This is the possessive form of the pronoun it. It is a pronoun like he or she But when pronouns are possessive, they are written as his or

hers That is Johnny’s bike. That is his bike. The book’s pages are worn. Its pages are worn.

Cont.

It’s This is a contraction. The apostrophe stands in for stuff. It IS NOT possessive

It’s going to be a sunny day. Today’s going to be a sunny day

Today’s = today is Therefore, it’s = it is

Cont.

The bus is red, but it’s sign is blue. Most people make this mistake, but it is definitely a

mistake. What is going on here? The bus is red, but it is sign is blue.

The bus is red, but its sign is blue. The bus is red, the bus’ sign is blue.

In conclusion

When in doubt, do not rely on “it.” Try to insert what “it” is referring to in order to

determine if you need an apostrophe or not. Its = his, hers, theirs It’s = it is In academic writing clarity is of the upmost

important. When in doubt, get rid of it.

Other errors

Homonyms Use the dictionary! It will help you, I promise! http://dictionary.reference.com/ Check it out: pore, pour, poor

Capitalization We capitalize “proper nouns.” How do you know if

something is a proper noun? Look it up in the dictionary. http://dictionary.reference.com/ Check it out: middle ages, blue collar

Resources

Turabian, Kate. L. A Manual for Writers LB2369 .T8 2007

The Modern Language Association, MLA style guide PN147 .G444 2008

Lunsford, Andrea. A. The Everyday Writer PE1408 .L86 2001

The Purdue OWL http://owl.english.purdue.edu/

TTU’s University Writing Center http://uwc.ttu.edu/

Thank you!

During the next workshop we will review: parts of speech incomplete sentences and run on sentences an how to fix

them. We will also cover annotations and abstracts. Hope to see you February 15th. Register at

https://www.depts.ttu.edu/gradschool/private/eventreg.aspx

For more info on events, see http://www.depts.ttu.edu/gradschool/grdschInfo/news.php