Graduate Student Unions in United States

8/19/2019 Graduate Student Unions in United States

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r a d u a te S t u d e n t U n i o n s i n t h e U n i t e d S ta t e s

P A R B U D Y A L S IN G H

Y or k U n i v e r si ty T or on to O N M 3J 1P 3 Canada

D E B O R A H M . Z IN N I

B r o c k U n iv e r si ty S t. Ca t har i ne s O N L 2S 3A 1 Canada

A N N E F

M A c L E N N A N

Y o r k U n i v er si ty T o ro n to O N M 3 J 1 P 3 C a n a d a

G r ad ua t e s t ude n t un i ons hav e be e n a tt r ac ti ng c ons i de r ab l e a c ade m i c and p r ac -

t i t ioner a t t en t ion recent l y e spe c ia l l y s ince the N ew York Un ivers i t y dec i s ion in

2 0 0 0 . G i v e n t h e d e c l i n i n g f o r t u n e s o f t h e u n i o n m o v e m e n t i t s e e m s a s i f t h e

a c a d e m i c s e c t o r h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l o f b e c o m i n g a v i ta l n e w o r g a n i z in g fr o n t i e r.

H o we v e r t he r e is s c an t r e s e ar c h on t h i s i ss ue. We t r ac e the o ri g i n s and e v o l u -

t ion o f grad uate s tuden t un ion s in the Un i ted S ta tes d i scuss the re levan t s ta tu-

t o r y a n d c a s e l a w a n a l y z e p e r t i n e n t c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g a n d s t r ik e i ss u e s

a n d s u g g e s t a v e n u e s f o r fu t u r e r e se a rc h .

I . In t roduc t ion

T he r e ha s be e n a g r ow i ng a c a de m i c a nd p r a c t i t ione r i n t e re s t in g r a dua t e s t ude n t un i ons

i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , c a t a l y z e d b y t h e u n p r e c e d e n t e d u n a n i m o u s d e c i s i o n b y t h e

N a t i o n a l L a b o r R e l a t i o n s B o a r d N L R B ) in 2 0 0 0 t o r e c o g n i z e t h e g r a d u a t e st u d e n t

u n i o n at N e w Y o r k U n i v e r s it y N Y U ) S a l t zm a n , 2 0 00 ) . T h i s d e c is i o n , w h i c h m a r k e d

a s i gn i f i c a n t r e ve r s a l i n t he t r e a t m e n t o f g r a dua t e s t ude n t un i ons a t p r i va t e un i ve r s i -

t ie s b y th e N L R B , w a s s u b s e q u e n t ly o v e r t u r n e d b y a 3 - 2 d e c i si o n i n B r own U n i v e r s i t y

v . N L R B i n J u l y 20 04 . I n the f ou r - y e a r i n t e r va l s i nc e t he N Y U de c i s i on , t he r e w a s a

s pu r t o f o r ga n i z i ng d r i ve s a t o t he r m a j o r un i ve r s i ti e s , inc l ud i ng Y a l e , P e nn S t a te , O h i o

S t at e , an d t h e U n i v e r s i ty o f P e n n s y l v a n i a , a ll o f w h i c h m a y b e a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d b y

the B r o w n dec i s ion .

T h e m o s t re c e n t N L R B r u li n g c o m e s a t a ti m e w h e n g r a d u a t e s tu d e n ts u n i o n i z a -

t i on w a s on t he r i s e i n t he U n i t e d S t a t e s . U n i ve r s i t i e s w i t h r e c ogn i z e d g r a dua t e s t u -

d e n t u n i o n s h a v e g r o w n f r o m t en t o a t l e a st 3 0 o v e r t h e p a s t d e c a d e . T h e n e w b a r -

g a i n i n g u n i ts h a v e i n c lu d e d m a j o r u n i v e r si ti e s s u c h a s T e m p l e , M i c h i g a n S t at e ,

U n i v e r s i t y o f R h o d e I s la n d , a n d C o l u m b i a . W i t h a n e s t i m a t e d 2 0 p e r c e n t o f al l g r a d -

JOURN L OF

LABOR RESEARCH

Volume XXVII Number 1 Winter 2006


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56 JOURNAL OF LABOR RESEARCH

u a t e e m p l o y e e s n o w c o v e r e d b y c o l l e c ti v e b a rg a i n i n g a g r e e m e n t s ( L a f e r, 2 0 0 3 ), a n d

r e n e w e d i n t e r e s t i n f a c u l ty u n i o n i z a t i o n ( M e t c h i c k a n d S i n g h , 2 0 0 4 ) , h i g h e r e d u c a -

t i on migh t be c o m e a ne w f r on t i e r f o r o r ga n iz e d l a bo r ( Cha i son a nd B ige low , 2002 ) .

T h e un ion iz a t ion o f g r a dua t e s tude n t s i s e spe c i a l ly impor t a n t f o r t he l a bo r mov e -

m e n t i n t he U n i t e d S t a t e s , g ive n the c u r r e n t un ion d e ns i ty r a t e s o f l e s s t ha n 14 pe r -

c e n t , the l ow e s t s i nc e w or ke r s ga ine d c o l l e c t i ve ba r ga in ing r i gh t s t h r ough the N a t iona l

L a b o r Re la t ions A c t in 1935 . F u r the r m or e , the o r ga n iz a t ion o f s tude n t un ions e x t e nds

be y ond the c on te mp or a ne ou s w or k o f t he l oca l t o p r ov ide i de o log ic a l tr a in ing o f f u tu r e

l a bo r l ea de r s . In f a c t , t he c u r r e n t le a de r o f the pow e r f u l H o te l E m ploy e e s a nd R e s t a u -

r a n t E m p l o y e e s I n t e r n a ti o n a l U n i o n , J o h n W i l h e l m , w h o m a n y v i e w a s p o t e n t i a ll y

the ne x t na tiona l p r e s ide n t o f the A F L - CI O , i s a lso a Y a le g r a dua t e a nd p r e v iou s c h i e f

ne go t i a to r o f w h i t e - c o l l a r w or ke r s on c a m pus ( G r e e nho use , 2003b) .

D e sp i t e t he impo r t a nc e o f g r a dua t e s tude n t un ions , a nd w i th t he e xc e p t ion o f the

l i t e r a tu r e i n l a bo r l a w , t he r e i s a pa u c i ty o f r e se a r c h in i ndus t r i a l r e l a t i ons on th i s

i s sue . H e r e in , w e t r a ce t he o r ig in s o f t he g r a dua t e s tude n t un ion m ove m e n t , d i s c us s t he

r e l a t e d l a w , a n a l y z e p e r t i n e n t c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g a n d s t r ik e i s s u e s, d e s c r i b e t h e

Yale

c a se , d is c us s t he r a t i ona l e a nd op pos ing v i e w s f o r g r a dua t e s tude n t un ions , a nd

sugge s t a reas for fu ture r e sea rch .

II.

An Overview of Graduate Student Unions The Nature

of the Employment Relationship and the Law

G r a d ua te s tude n t s a t t e nd un ive r s i t y to l e a rn a nd ga in r e l e va n t de g r e e s . I nc r e a s ing ly ,

t h e y a r e e m p l o y e d w h i l e e n r o l l e d i n th e i r p r o g r a m s o f s t u d y a s r e s e a r c h a s s is t a n ts

(work ing pr imar i ly to h e lp facu l ty wi th the i r r e sea rch) , teach ing ass i stan ts (work ing pr i -

m ar i ly to tu tor s tudents o r teach cou rses or pa r t s the reof ) , and adm inis t r a t ive a ss i s tan ts

( w or k ing p r ima r i l y w i th a dmin i s t ra to r s i n c l e ri c a l and o the r du t ie s ). T h e y se e k e m p loy -

m e n t f o r tw o p r ima r y r e a sons . F i rs t , ma n y g r a dua t e s tude n t s ne e d the e x t r a i nc om e to

de f r a y the c os t s o f h ighe r e duc a t ion , w h ic h c a n e xc e e d $1 8 , 000 p e r ye a r a t some in st i-

t u t ions ( E h r e nb e r g e t a l. , 2003 ) . S e c o nd , so m e un ive r s i ti e s r e qu i r e t he i r g r a dua t e s tu -

dents to teach or a ss i st adm inis t r a tor s . W hi le adm inis t r a tor s pos i t tha t th i s is a r equi re -

m e n t o f a c om pr e he ns ive educ a t ion , e spe c i a ll y w he n the s tude n t s a r e be ing t r aine d f o r

facu l ty pos i t ions , o the r s a rgue tha t th i s s t r a tegy i s a de l ibe ra te e f for t to r edu ce the cos ts

o f i n s t r uc tion in a nd ou t o f t he c l a s s r oom ( L a f e r , 2003 ) . A s C a ve l l ( 2000 ) no t e s , t he r e

w a s a s ign i f i c a n t i nc r e a se i n t he u se o f t e a c h in g a s s i s t a n ts a t c o l l e ge s a nd un ive r s i -

t i es , w i th the num be r o f f a c u lty m e m be r s w ho w e r e a lso g r a dua t e te a c he r s g r ow ing by

35 pe rcen t , and tha t th i s i s l a rge ly a r e su l t o f cos t r educ t ion e f for t s (p . 1 ).

W h e t h e r s t u d en t s a r e b e in g e m p l o y e d f o r p e d a g o g i c a l o r e c o n o m i c re a s o n s , t he

t r e nd se e ms inc on t r ove r t ib l e : A n inc r e a s ing nu m be r o f g r a dua t e s tude n t s a r e r e qu i r e d

to w or k . F u r the r m or e , t he w o r k loa d i s be c omin g he a v ie r ( H a yde n , 2000 ). T he C oa l i -

t io n o f G r a d u a te E m p l o y e e U n i o n s ( C G E U ) r e p o r t e d t h a t p a r t- t im e f a c u l ty h a d g r o w n

f rom 22 pe rcen t in 1970 to 41 pe rcen t in 1995, wi th gradua te s tudents p rovid ing 18 pe r -

c e n t o f a ll t e a c h ing in i n s t it u t ions o f h igh e r e duc a t ion ( C G E U , 2000 ) . D a ta c o l l e c t e d


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PARBU DYA L SINGH, DEBO RAH M. ZINNI, and ANN E F. MA CLENN AN 57

f r o m m a j o r u n i v e r s i t ie s i n d i c a t e t h a t f r o m 5 0 t o 7 0 p e r c e n t o f a ll c o n t a c t h o u r s a r e

p e r f o r m e d b y g r a d u a t e s t u d e n ts a n d c o n t i n g e n t f a c u l t y

D i g es t o f E d u ca t i o n S t a t is -

tics,

1999) . M or e ove r , s t ude n t l a bo r i s r e l a t ive ly c he a p . F o r e xa m ple , s e n io r f a c u l ty c a n

e a r n a n a v e r a ge o f $80 , 000 pe r ye a r , w h i l e a g r a dua t e a s s i s t a n t /t e a c he r ha s t he po t e n -

t ia l to e a r n f r om $5 , 000 to $20 , 000 pe r ye a r

D igest o f Ed uca t ion Statist ics ,

1999) .

E v e n t h o u g h u n i v e r s i t i e s i n c r e a s i n g l y d e p e n d o n g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s t o p e r f o r m

te a c h ing a s s ignme n t s , p r a c t i c a l ly spe a k ing , g r a dua t e s tude n t s ne e d m on e y to l i ve a nd

so th i s c o l l a bo r a t i on o f so r t s c a n b e be ne f i c i a l t o bo th t he un ive r s i ti e s a nd to g r a dua t e

s tude n ts . C om pa r e d to unde r g r a dua t e s tude n t s, t he y a r e t yp i c a l ly o lde r , le s s l i ke ly t o

ha ve f a m i ly suppo r t, a nd m or e l i ke ly to ha ve f a m i ly re spons ib i l it i e s o f t he i r ow n ( T a sk

F or c e , 1999 ). T he y a r e a l so l ike ly t o ha ve de p le t e d s a v ings a nd poss ib ly i nc u r r e d s ig -

n i f ic a n t de b t s i n t he c ou r se o f t he i r unde r g r a d ua t e s tudi e s. W i thou t o f f e r s o f fund ing ,

u s u a l l y i n th e f o r m o f a c a d e m i c a s s i s ta n t s h ip s o r s c h o l a r sh i p s , f e w c o u l d c h o o s e t o

pursu e gradua te s tud ies on a fu l l - t im e bas is (T ask Force , 1 999) .

A l t h o u g h g r a d u a t e s tu d e n t s m a y d e p e n d o n t h is t y p e o f t e m p o r a r y w o r k t o s u p -

po r t t he i r s t ud ie s , t he y do no t oc c u py a c o r e pos i ti on i n t he a c a de mic f r a m e w or k m a k-

i n g t h e i r p o s i t i o n s t r a n s i t o r y a n d p r e c a r i o u s . C r a n f o r d e t a l. ( 2 0 0 3 : 4 5 5 ) p o s i t t h a t

p r e c a r i o u s e m p l o y m e n t i s c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y a t y p i ca l e m p l o y m e n t c o n t r a c ts , l i m i t e d

s o c i a l b e n e f i ts a n d s t a t u t o r y e n t i tl e m e n t s , j o b i n s e c u r i t y , lo w j o b t e n u r e , l o w e a r n -

ings , po o r w or k in g c ond i t i ons , a nd h igh r i sk s o f i ll he a l th . E s se n t i a l l y , t he i s sue is

t h e q u a l it y o f e m p l o y m e n t . T h e c o n d i ti o n s o f e m p l o y m e n t f o r g r ad u a t e s t u d e nt s s h a r e

m a n y o f th e d i m e n s i o n s o f p r e c a ri o u s e m p l o y m e n t . N o n u n i o n g r a d u a te s t u d e nt s i n a

p r e c a r ious e m p lo ym e n t s i tua t i on a r e c ha l l e nge d by l imi t e d a c c e s s to j ob s e c u r i t y a nd

te nu r e , l ow e r w a ge s , l im i t e d be ne f i t s , a nd inc r e a se d r i sk s o f il l he a l th du e t o s t re s s .

G i v e n t h e f o r e g o i n g , g ra d u a t e s t u d e n t s a c r o ss N o r t h A m e r i c a a r e i n c r e as i n g l y s e e k -

ing c o l l e c t i ve a c ti on th r ough un ion iz a t ion to r e m e dy r e a l a nd p e r c e ive d ine qu i t ie s .

H o w e v e r , th e u n i o n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s i s f ra u g h t w i t h l e g al h u r d le s . A s w i t h o t h e r

s e c t o r s in t h e U n i t e d S t a te s , t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t in d u s t r i al r e l a t i o n s f r a m e w o r k s a n d

la w s go ve r n in g the pub l i c a nd p r iva t e s e c to r s . In pub l i c un ive r s i t i e s , s t at e l aw s gov -

e r n t h e u n i o n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s a n d t h e a c q u i s it i o n o f c o l l e c ti v e b a r g a i n i n g r ig h t s. T h e

U n ive r s i t y o f W isc ons in be c a m e the f ir s t un ive r s i t y t o re c og n iz e i ts g r a dua t e s tude n t

union in 1969 , a lbe i t vo lunta r i ly , a s the re was no s ta te law a t tha t t ime tha t p ro tec ted

the s tude n t s ' r i gh t to c o l le c t i ve ba r g a in in g - - th a t c a m e m uc h l a t e r i n 1986. Cu r r e n t ly ,

t he r e i s no u n i f o r m i ty a t t he s t a t e l e ve l i n de a l ing w i th s tude n t un ions . W hi l e a t l e a s t

ten s ta te s gua ran tee th i s r igh t , inc lud ing Massachuse t t s , Kansas , F lor ida , and Ca l i for -

n ia , o the r s do no t . Essen t ia l ly , a s wi th o the r lega l in i t ia t ives , po l i t ica l and o the r forces

d r ive t he l e g i s l a t i on a t t he s t a t e l e ve l . I n F lo r ida a nd K a nsa s , t he r e l e va n t s t a tu t e s

w e r e a d op te d a f t e r sp ir i te d oppos i t i on by those w h o f e l t tha t s tude n t s w e r e no t e m p loy -

e e s a nd , t he r e f o r e , shou ld n o t be gua r a n t e e d the r i gh t t o o r ga n iz e a nd ba r ga in c o l l e c -

t i ve ly ( H a yde n , 2000 ) . Mo r e ove r , m a ny o f t he s t a te s t ha t gua r a n t e e th i s p r o t e c t i on do

no t pe r m i t t he s tude n t s t o s t ri ke , a s it ua t i on no t un l ike t ha t o f o the r s ta t e e m p lo ye e s

( L e a the r m a n , 2000 ) .


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5 8 J O U R N A L O F L A B O R R E S E A R C H

T h e s i tu a t i o n a t p r i v a t e u n i v e r s i t ie s h a s i ts o w n p e c u l i a r it i e s . A t f i rs t, th e N L R B

r e f u s e d t o h e a r t h e c a s e s , a r g u i n g t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t w i t h i n i ts j u r i s d i c t i o n . E s s e n -

t ia l ly , it w a s d e t e r m i n e d , i n p a rt , th a t s t u d e n t e m p l o y m e n t d o e s n o t a f f e c t i n te r s ta t e

c o m m e r c e a n d t h a t i t i s e d u c a t i o n a l o r c h a r i t a b l e i n n a t u r e , w h i c h d o e s n o t t r i g g e r

t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e N L R A . F o r i n s t a n c e , in th e 1 9 5 1 Co l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y ru l i n g , th e

N L R B h e l d t h a t w i t h o u t s i g n i f i c a n t c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t y a n d w i t h a n e d u c a t i o n a l

f o c u s , a p r i v a t e u n i v e r s i t y c a n b y p a s s t h e N L R A Trus tees o f Colum bia Univers ity,

1 9 5 1 ) . T h i s a r g u m e n t w a s r e v e r s e d i n 1 9 7 0 w h e n t h e N L R B a c c e p t e d t h e Corne l l

University c a s e . I t w a s h e l d t h a t g i v e n t h e c h a n g i n g e c o n o m i c r e a l it i e s, w i t h t h e l in e s

b l u rr e d b e t w e e n b u s in e s s a n d e d u ca t io n , a n d b e t w e e n c o m m e r c i a l an d n o n c o m m e r -

c i a l a c t i v it i e s, t h e N L RB c a n b e s t e f f e c t u a t e th e p o l i c i e s o f t h e A c t b y a s s e r t i n g j u r i s -

d i ct io n o v e r n o n p r o fi t, p r iv a t e ed u c a t io n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . . , w h o s e o p e r a t i o n s h a v e a

s u b st a n ti a l e f fe c t o n c o m m e r c e Cornell University v. NLRB, 1 9 7 0 : 3 3 4 ) . N o w , t h e

c e n t r a l d e b a t e a t t h e l a b o r b o a r d a n d c o u r t s r e v o l v e s a r o u n d t h e is s u e o f w h e t h e r s t u -

d e n t s a r e e m p l o y e e s u n d e r t h e l a w . T h e r e l e v a n t s e c ti o n o f t h e N L R A ( s. 7 ) st a te s t h a t,

e m p l o y e e s s h a ll h a v e t h e r i g h t to s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n , t o f o r m , j o i n , o r a s s i st l a b o r o r g a -

n i z a ti o n s , t o b a r g a i n c o l l e c t i v e ly t h r o u g h r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f t h ei r o w n c h o o s i n g , a n d

t o e n g a g e i n o th e r c o n c e r t e d a c t i v i t ie s f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f c o l l e c ti v e b a r g a i n i n g o r o t h e r

m u t u a l a i d o r p r o t e c t i o n . T h e de f in i ti o n o f e m p l o y e e s t h en b e c o m e s c r u c ia l . S e c -

t io n 2( 3 ), i n a s o m e w h a t c i r c u l a r m a n n e r , d e f i n e s e m p l o y e e s : T h e t e r m e m p l o y e e s

s h a l l i n c l u d e a n y e m p l o y e e , a n d s h a l l n o t b e l i m i t e d t o t h e e m p l o y e e s o f a p a r t i c u l a r

e m p l o y e r , u n le s s [ t he A c t ] e x p l i c it l y st a te d o t h e r w i s e . E v i d e n t l y , t he A c t d o e s n o t

s p e c i f i c a l l y e x c l u d e s t u d e n t s .

O v e r t i m e , l a b o r b o a r d s a n d c o u r t s h a v e u s e d t w o t e s t s t o a s c e r t a i n w h e t h e r s t u -

d e n t s a r e e m p l o y e e s . F i r st , t h e r e i s a p r i m a r y p u r p o s e t e st , w h e r e b y t h e v a l i d i t y o f

a b a r g a i n i n g u n i t is d e c i d e d b y e x a m i n i n g i ts p r i m a r y p u r p o s e . I f t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e

i s e c o n o m i c , t h e n t h e u n i t c a n a c q u i r e c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g r i g h ts ; h o w e v e r , i f i t i s

e d u c a t i o n a l , w i t h e c o n o m i c p u r p o s e s s e c o n d a r y , i t i s n o t a v a l id u n i t ( G a r t la n d , 2 0 0 2 ;

R o h r b a c h e r , 2 0 0 0 ) . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e

Adelphi Univers i ty

c a s e, th e N L R B d e n i e d

g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s w h o w e r e t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t s c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g r i g h t s . T h e s t u -

d e n ts w e r e r eq u i re d t o w o r k f o r 2 0 h o u r s p e r w e e k a n d w e r e r e m u n e r a t e d w i th $ 1 , 2 0 0

t o $ 2 , 9 0 0 p e r a c a d e m i c y e a r . I n c o m i n g t o i t s d e c i s io n , t h e Bo a r d d i s t i n g u i s h e d s t u d e n t

a s s is t a n ts a s b e i n g d i f f e re n t f r o m f u l l - ti m e f a c u l t y b e c a u s e o f t h e e c o n o m i c b e n e f i ts

p r o v i d e d t o f a c u l t y b u t d e n i e d t o s t u d e n t s . T h e B o a r d f o u n d t h a t g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s

w o r k e d a s p a r t o f t h e ir e d u c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g i n a t ta i n i n g a d e g r e e , a n d t h e p r i m a r y p u r -

p o s e w a s n o t e c o n o m i c Adelphi an d NLRB, 1 9 7 2 ). T h i s l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g w a s m a i n -

t a i n e d o v e r th e n e x t th r e e d e c a d e s , a s e x e m p l i f i e d i n Leland S tanford Junior Univer-

s i t y a n d N L R B ( 1 9 7 4 ) a n d C e d a r s - S i n a i M e d i c a l C e n t e r a n d N L R B ( 1 9 7 6 ) . I n a

d i s s e n t in g o p i n i o n i n th e Cedars-Sinai c a s e , Ch a i r m a n F a n n i n g a r g u e d t h a t t h e Bo a r d

w a s w r o n g , a n d a s s e r t e d t h a t w h e t h e r o r n o t p e o p l e a r e p r i m a r i l y c a r p e n t e r s o r p r i -

m a r i l y s tu d e n t s , t h e y a r e s ti ll e m p l o y e e s . H e f u r t h e r c o n t e n d e d t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t st u -

d e n t s r e c e i v e d r e m u n e r a t i o n , o r s t i p e n d s f o r t h e ir s e r v i c e s , s o m e t i m e s a s m u c h a s

$ 2 0 , 0 0 0 i s e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e y a r e e m p l o y e e s .


5/19

PARBUDYAL SINGH, DEBORAH M. ZINNI, and ANNE F. MACLENNAN 59

This line of argument is the essence of the second criteria in adjudicating the

employment status of students, namely the service test. Essentially, this test is

grounded in the contention that anyone who provides compensated services is an

employee. In

Boston Medical Center and NLRB

(1999), the Board ruled that medical

interns, who were also degree-seeking students, were employees under the NLRA. The

house staff/interns received annual compensation from about $34,000 to $44,000 and

were entitled to several other benefits including paid vacation, sick, parental and

bereavement leave, and health, dental, and life insurance, among others. Apply ing the

service test, the Board held that the house staff worked for an employer within the

meaning of the NLRA, were compensated for their services, and provided patient care

for the Hospital, and that all of these obvious ly define an employer-employee rela-

tionship

Boston Medical Center and NLRB,

1999: 14).

This reasoning prevailed in the historic

New York University

(NYU) decision in

2000 that granted graduate students working as teaching assistants the right to form a

union and bargain collectively. The Board ruled that:

Graduate assistants work as teachers or researchers. They perform their duties for,

and under the control of, the Employer's departments or programs. Graduate assis-

tants are paid for their work and are carried on the Employer's payroll system. The

graduate assistants' relationship with the Employer is thus indistinguishable from a

traditional master-servant relationship

NLRB v. NYU,

2000: 2).

However, the determination that graduate students are employees under the law does

not automatically grant them collective bargaining rights. If they are found to be

employees, the courts and administrative bodies must decide whether or not the rela-

tionship gives rise to collective bargaining rights (Hayden, 2000). In the

NYU

case,

the Board also found that the students had such rights.

The

Brown v. NLRB

decision, in overruling

NYU,

reverts to the pre-2000 posi-

tion held by the NLRB. The NLRB decision was along party lines, with President

George W. Bush's appointees voting against unionization, and the two Democrats

offering a dissenting opinion. The majority ruled that:

we have come to the conclusion that the Board's 25-year pre-NYU principle of

regarding graduate students as non-employees was sound and well reasoned. It is

clear to us that graduate student assistants, including those at Brown, are primarily

students and have a primarily educational, not economic, relationship with their uni-

versity. Accordingly, we overrule NYU and return to the pre-NYU Board precedent

Brown v. NLRB,

2004: 5).

The two dissenters argued, among other things, that the majority ignored contemporary

economic realities facing universities and graduate students, as well as empirical evi-

dence showing that collective bargaining would not have a deleterious impact on

overall educational decisions and that the

NYU

decision was correct. They stated

that the majority erred in seeing the academic world as somehow removed from the

economic realm that labor law addresses--as if there was no room in the ivory tower

for a sweatshop

Brown v. NLRB,

2004: 13).


6/19

60 J O U RN A L O F L A BO R RE SE A RCH

T h e B r o w n de c i s i on , w h i c h d oe s no t a f f e c t pub l i c un i ve r s i ti e s , is a s e r ious b l ow

t o th e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t u n i o n m o v e m e n t in p r i v a t e u n i v e rs i ti e s. H o w e v e r , i t d o e s n o t

i m p l y th e d e m i s e o f t h e m o v e m e n t . U n i o n l e a d e rs h a v e a l r e a d y s ta t e d th a t th e y w i l l

c h a l l e n g e t h e d e c i si o n ( A F L - C I O , 2 0 0 4 ) . I t i s u n c l e a r w h a t f o r m t h e c h a l l e n g e s w i ll

t a ke bu t t he r e a r e a f e w op t i ons . F i r s t, t he y c a n a r gue t ha t Br ow n i s s i gn i f i c a n t ly d i f -

f e r e n t f r o m o t h e r p r i v a t e u n i v e rs i ti e s ( t h is w a s o n e o f t h e a r g u m e n t s b y t h e a d m i n i s -

t r a t o r s a t B r ow n i n c ha l l e ng i ng t he N Y U d e c i s io n ; t h at is , B r o w n w a s d i f f e re n t f r o m

N Y U ) . T he u n i on c a n a l s o a ppe a l the B oa r d s r u l ing i n f e de r a l c ou r t , o r i t c ou l d s t a ge

s t ri k e s a n d o t h e r la b o r a c t i o n s t o f o r c e v o l u n t a r y r e c o g n i t i o n b y u n i v e r s i t ie s ( A F L -

C I O , 2 0 04 ; S m a l l w o o d , 2 0 0 4 ) . A n d , o f c o u r se , t he s t u d e n t u n i o n m o v e m e n t c a n a ls o

w a i t to f il e n e w c a s es w h e n e v e r t h e c o m p o s i t io n o f th e N L R B c h a n g e s i n f a v o r o f m o r e

s y m p a t h e t i c m e m b e r s .

I n t e r e s t in g l y , i n C a n a d a , t h e is s u e o f s tu d e n t s a s e m p l o y e e s w a s s e t tl e d in t w o

cases in the mid-1970s . In the 1975

York Univers i ty

c a s e

Gradua te S tude n t s Assoc i -

at ion v . York Universi ty , 1975), the O n t a r i o L a b our Re l a t i ons Boa r d ( O L RB ) r u l e d t ha t

t e a c h in g a s s i st a n ts w e r e e m p l o y e e s u n d e r C a n a d i a n l a w b e c a u s e th e y w e r e re m u n e r -

a t e d f o r t h e ir s e r v i c e s a n d t h a t th e i r w o r k w a s n o t p a r t o f t h e i r g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m s o f

s t u d y . W h i l e t h e O L R B f o u n d t h a t g r a d u a t e r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t s w e r e n o t e m p l o y e e s ,

b e c a u s e t h e i r i n c o m e d i d n o t d e p e n d o n t h e i r s er v i c es , th i s w a s q u i c k l y o v e r r u le d b y

t h e B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a L a b o u r R e l a t i o n s B o a r d t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , w h e n i t h e l d t h a t

i n t e rn s a nd r e s e a r c h a s s i st a n t s w e r e a l s o e m p l o ye e s a nd ha d t he r i gh t to o r ga n i z e a n d

ba r ga i n c o l l e c t i ve l y ( R ogr o w a nd B i r c h , 1984) . T h i s e s s e n t ia l l y s e tt le d t he m a t t e r f o r

a l l Canadian un ive rs i t i e s .

I I I . T he Or ig ins , Pre v a le nc e, a nd Func t ions o f Grad ua te S tude n t

Unions in the U ni ted S ta tes

W h i l e m a n y r e s e a r c h e r s t r a c e th e o r i g in s o f g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t u n i o n s i n t h e U n i t e d

S t a t es t o the r e c ogn i t i on o f the ba r g a i n i ng un i t a t the U n i ve r s i t y o f W i s c on s i n i n 1969 ,

t h e r o o t s o f t h e s tu d e n t u n io n m o v e m e n t c a n b e tr a c e d to t he F r e e S p e e c h M o v e m e n t

a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a a t B e r k e l e y a n d t h e r e l a t e d s t u d e n t p r o t e s t s i n 1 9 6 5

( Rho a de s a n d Rhod e s , 2003 ) . T h e p r o t e s t s w e r e pa r t l y i n r e s pon s e t o t he un i v e r s i t y s

r u l e s t h a t l i m i t e d a n d c e n s o r e d s t u d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s o n c a m p u s ; g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s

w e r e c o n s e q u e n t l y r u l ed o u t o f t h e s tu d e n t g o v e r n m e n t ( t he A s s o c i a te d S t u d e n ts o f th e

U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i fo r n i a ). T h e p r o t e st s w e r e a l so h e l d a g a i n s t a b a c k d r o p o f a n t i -w a r

c a m p a i g n o n c a m p u s e s a c r o s s t h e U n i t e d S t at es .

T h e U n i v e r s i t y s p o l i c y t o w a r d s o r g a n i z i n g o n c a m p u s h a d a lo n g h i s t o ry . I n

1962, t he Ca l i f o r n i a L a b o r F e de r a t i on ha d a c c us e d t he U n i ve r s i t y o f l im i t i ng t he r igh t

o f i ts s tu d e n t s t o p ro t e st . T h e F r e e S p e e c h M o v e m e n t d e m a n d e d t he r i g h t to n e g o t i a te

w i t h t h e u n i v e r s i t y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a s a b a r g a i n i n g a g e n t f o r t e a c h i n g a s s is t an t s , f o l -

l o w i n g w h i c h t h e s tu d e n t s w e n t o n s tr ik e . G r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s s u b s e q u e n t l y f o r m e d a

4 0 0 - m e m b e r t e a ch i n g a s s i s ta n t u n io n , a l o c a l o f t h e A m e r i c a n F e d e r a t i o n o f T e a c h e r s

( L i ps e t a nd W ol i n , 1965; D r a pe r , 1965). F a c u l t y m e m be r s w e r e d i v i de d i n t he i r op i n -

i o n a b o u t s tu d e n t o r g a n i z in g a n d t h e F r e e S p e e c h M o v e m e n t . T h o s e w h o s u p p o r t e d i t


7/19

PARBU DYA L SINGH, DEBO RAH M. ZINNI, and ANN E F. MA CLENN AN 61

f o r m e d t h e C o m m i t t e e o f T w o H u n d r e d . O t h e rs w h o d i d n o t f a v o r s tu d e n t o r g an i z i n g

un i t e d i n a no the r g r oup , c a l l e d t he F a c u l ty F o r um ( L ipse t a nd W ol in , 1965) .

O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s fr o m t h e F r e e S p e e ch M o v e m e n t s t ri k e

w a s t ha t i t c ha ng e d the w a y s tude n t s t hough t a bou t la bo r a nd m or e pa r t ic u l a r ly a bou t

w o r k ing on c a m pus ( D r a pe r , 1965 ) . I t a l so ope ne d a d i s c us s ion a bo u t on - c a m pus r e l a -

t i ons a nd o r ga n iz ing a nd the im por t a nc e o f c o l l e ge stude n t s t o t he soc i e ty .

I n 1969 , t he T e a c h ing A ss i s t a n t s ' A sso c i a t i on ( T A A ) a t t he U n ive r s i t y o f W is -

c o n s i n - M a d i s o n w a s v o l u n t a r i ly r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e u n i v e r s i t y a d m i n i s tr a t io n a n d

ga ine d r i gh t s t o ba r ga in c o l l e c t i ve ly ( Ca ve l l , 2000 ). E d Y o ung , t he c ha nc e l lo r a t t ha t

t ime a nd a n in s ti t u ti ona l l a bo r e c onom is t , f a vo r e d c o l l e c ti ve bar ga in ing a nd g r a n t e d the

T A A t h e i r d e m a n d f o r r e c o g n i t io n d e s p i t e a l a c k o f l eg a l p r o t e c t io n b y s t at e l aw s

( S a l tz m a n , 2 0 0 0 ) . T h e T A A w e n t o n s t r ik e i n M a r c h t h e f o ll o w i n g y e a r , d e m a n d i n g

be t t e r w a ge s , b e ne f i t s , r e a son a b le w or k loa ds , a nd the r i gh t t o pa r t i c ipa t e in c u r r i c u -

lum p l a nn ing . T he loc a l c ou r t de t e r mine d tha t t he s tr i ke w a s i l l e ga l a nd o r de r e d the

t e a c h ing a s s is t a n ts b a c k to w o r k . I n A pr i l 1970 , t he s t ri ke r s re a c he d a n a g r e e m e n t w i th

the U n ive r s i t y w he r e b y t e a c h ing a s s i st a nt s w e r e p r omise d gua r a n t e e d a pp o in tme n t s f o r

f o u r y e a rs a n d r e a s o n a b l e w o r k l o a d s . H o w e v e r , t h e y w e r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t he c o u r s e

p l a nn ing p r oc e s s ( Row e , 1970) . A l a c k o f le ga l p r o t e c t i on c on t inu e d to a f f e c t t he w o r k

o f t he T A A a nd , a f t e r a f i ve - w e e k s t ri ke in 1980 , the un ive r s i t y w i thd r e w r e c ogn i t i on .

H ow eve r , fo l low ing pol i t ica l p ressure , a s ta te law in 1986 f ina l ly gav e the gradua te s tu -

de n t s t he r i gh t to o r ga n iz e a nd b a r ga in c o l l e c t i ve ly , bu t i t a l so sub je c te d t he T A A to t he

s t ri ke ba n tha t a pp l i e d t o o the r s t a te e m p loy e e s ( S a l t zma n , 2000 ) .

G r a dua te s tude n t un ions a t o the r un ive r si t ie s ha ve no t be e n vo lun ta r i l y r e c ogn iz e d

a n d h a v e n e e d e d l e g a l p r o t e c t i o n t o w i n c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g r ig h t s. I n i t ia l ly , m a n y

gr a dua t e s tude n t s be c a m e o r ga n iz e d by jo in ing f a c u l ty un ions . T he C i ty U n ive r s i t y o f

N e w Y o r k t e a c h ing a ss i st a n ts a nd pa r t - t ime f a c u l ty m e m be r s w e r e o r ga n iz e d unde r the

U n i t e d F e de r a t i on o f Co l l e ge T e a c he r s . T he un ion ha d i ts f ir st c on t r a c t w i th t he Boa r d

o f H igh e r E duc a t ion in 1969 . T he goa l w a s t o r a is e t he s a la r ie s f o r un t e nu r e d c o l l e ge

t e a c he r s . A t t ha t t ime , t he a ve r a ge s a l a r y f o r ne w t e a c he r s w a s $5 , 500 pe r ye a r , a nd

$5 , 950 f o r e xpe r i e nc e d t e a c he r s ( H a nd le r , 1969) .

T h e e c on om ic c ri s is i n the 1970s l e d t o budge ta r y c u t s i n g r a dua t e p r og r a ms a nd

s ti p en d s . E n r o l l m e n t i n t h e s e p ro g r a m s w e n t d o w n a n d s t u d en t s c o m p l a i n e d a b o u t

low e r s t ipe nds . A t t he s a me t ime , t he c os t o f l iv ing r o se . S tude n t s be c a m e m or e a c t i ve

o n c a m p u s e s , l e a d i n g t o s e v e r a l g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t u n i o n s b e i n g f o r m e d a t s o m e u n i -

ve r s i ti e s a nd p r o t e s t a c t i on t a ke n e l s e w he r e . T a b le 1 c on ta in s a c h r ono log ic a l l is t ing o f

g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t u n i o n s i n th e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a s w e l l a s t h e c e n t ra l l a b o r o r g a n i z a -

t ions wi th w hich they a re a f f il i a ted .

A f t e r t h e i n it ia l t h r u st , t h e g r o w t h o f g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t u n i o n s b e c a m e s l u g g i s h

o v e r t h e n e x t tw o d e c a d e s ; h o w e v e r , a r e s u r g e n c e h a s r e c e n t l y o c c u r re d . A c c o r d i n g

to E h r e nb e r g e t a l. ( 2002 ) , by 1999 , g r a dua t e s tude n t s a t 19 un ive r s i t i e s ha d f o r m e d

u n i o n s ; h o w e v e r , a n o t h e r 1 3 m a j o r u n i v e r s i ti e s w e r e a d d e d t o th e l i st b e t w e e n 1 9 99

a n d 2 0 0 2 . T h e U n i v e r s it y o f C a l i f o rn i a ( U C ) s y s t e m m a y h a v e c o n t o r t e d t hi s f ig u r e ,


8/19

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10/19

J O U R N A L O F L A B O R R E S E A R C H

how e ve r , a s e igh t o f it s c a mpuse s we r e g ive n c o l l e c t ive ba r ga in ing r igh ts i n 1999 . Th i s

o c c u r r e d 1 6 y e a r s a f t e r t h e T A A u n i o n s o u g h t r e c o g n i t i o n a t B e r k e l e y a n d 11 y e a r s

a f t e r t he un ion sou gh t c o l l e c t ive ba r ga in ing r igh ts a t o the r UC c a m puse s ( S a l t z m a n ,

2000) . Ne v e r the l e s s , a s La f e r ( 2003 : 26 ) r e po r t e d , w i th 27 g r a dua te un ions e x i s t ing in

2 0 0 1 , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 p e r c e n t o f al l g r a d u a t e e m p l o y e e s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w e r e

c o v e r e d b y u n i o n c o n t r a c ts , a l e v e l c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e m o s t h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d s ta t es

in the c oun t r y a nd f if t y pe r c e n t a bove the na tiona l no r m . Ou r own r e se a r c h sugge s t s

tha t, c oun t ing the c a m puse s a t t he UC a nd S U NY sys t e ms ind iv idua l ly , the r e a re now

a t le a s t 40 un ive r s i ti e s w i th r e c og n iz e d g r a dua te s tude n t u n ions ( Ta b le 1 ).

F u r the r m or e , the r e a r e o r ga n iz ing d r ive s a nd r e c o gn i t ion ba t t l e s a t mor e tha n 20

o t h e r u n i v e r s i ti e s , i n c lu d i n g Y a l e , P e n n S t a te , O h i o S t a te , U n i v e r s i t y o f M a r y l a n d ,

Un ive r s i ty o f P e nnsy lva n ia , Un ive r s i ty o f V i r g in ia , U n ive r s i ty o f Nor th C a r o l ina , a nd

t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l in o i s - C h i c a g o . W i t h t h e u n i o n i z a t i o n o f th e f i r s t p r iv a t e u n i v e r -

s i ty a t NYU , a sy m bo l i c v i c to r y wa s a c h ie ve d , a lbe i t sho rt - li ve d . Th e Brown de c i s ion

w i l l c e r t a i n l y a f f e c t t h e f u t u r e o f c u r r e n t o r g a n i z i n g d r i v e s . W h i l e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t

unions a t publ ic un ive rs i t ie s wi l l m ost l ike ly cont inu e to grow in the next f ew years , the

s i tua t ion a t p r iva t e un ive r s i ti e s wou ld de p e nd o n the suc c e s s o f t he c ha l l e nge s be ing

p la nne d by o r ga n iz e d l a bo r a nd s tude n t s g r oups a ga ins t the

Brown

ru l ing .

The functions of g r a dua te s tude n t un ions ma y be g l e a ne d f r om a n e xa m ina t ion o f

the co l lec t ive ba rga in ing an d s t r ike issues . N ot surpr is ing ly these i ssues a re s im i la r to

t h e o n e s t h a t l e d to t h e i n it ia l f o r m a t i o n o f t h e u n io n s , i n c l u d i n g d e m a n d s f o r b e t t e r

wa g e s a nd s t ipe nds , de c r e a se s in t u i t ion , l ow e r ing o f wo r k loa ds , b e t t e r be ne f i t s , a nd

mo r e sys t e ma t i c g r i e va nc e p r oc e dur e s. R e c e n t ly , o the r i s sue s ha ve be c om e h igh l igh te d ,

inc lud ing sa me - se x be ne f i t s a nd r a c e a nd ge nd e r d i scr imina t ion ( Gubr ium, 2001) .

W h i l e s o m e o f th e i s su e s i n t h e Yale University c a se a r e un ique to tha t i n s t it u -

t i on , a de t a i l e d e xa m ina t ion o f th i s c a se i l l u s tr a te s m a ny o f t he in t r i c at e i s sue s f a c ing

g r a dua te s tude n t un ions a nd un ive r s i t ie s , a s we l l a s t he me tho ds o f p r o te s t a c tion , a nd

r ou te s f o r c on f l i c t r e so lu t ion .

The Y a l e U n i v e r s i ty Case T h e o r i g i n s o f th e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a t

Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y c a n b e tr a c e d to 1 9 8 7 , w h e n 2 5 t e a c h i n g a s s is t a n ts f o r m e d a g r o u p

c a l l e d the Te a c h in g Ass i s t a n t S o l ida r ity , o r t he TA S o l ida r i ty ( Johnson a nd M c C a r thy ,

2 0 0 0 ) . T h e y a r g u e d t h a t t e a c h i n g a s s i s t a n t s h a d p o o r w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s a n d w e r e

no t pa id r e gu la r ly . Af t e r t he y th r e a t e ne d to t a ke l e ga l a c t ion a ga ins t t he Un ive r s i ty ,

the a dm in i s tr a t ion e s t a b l i she d a pa y c he c k sc he du le f o r the f o l low ing f al l. I n F e b r ua r y

1990, t he U n ive r s i ty a dop te d the Ka ga n - P o l i t t P la n , wh ic h s l a she d t e a c h ing a s s i st a n t

pos i t i ons by 30 p e r c e n t , im pose d r e s t r ic t ions on t e a c h ing pos i t i ons f o r s tude n t s i n t he i r

f i ft h ye a r , a nd a s ix - ye a r r e g i s t r a tion c u to f f . TA S o l ida r i ty me m be r s de c ide d to f o r m

the Gr a dua te Em ploy e e s S tude n t Or ga n iz a t ion ( G ES O ) in o r de r to i n it i a te d i sc ussion

wi th the Un ive r s i ty o f f ic i a ls on the K a ga n- P o l i t t p la n ( G ES O , 2004) .

Y a l e d i d n o t r e c o g n i z e t h e n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n , m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t i t h a d a n e d u c a -

t io n a l , n o t a n e m p l o y m e n t r e la t i o n s h i p , w i t h t h e te a c h i n g a s s i st a n ts . G E S O s u b s e -

que n t ly l e d a one - da y wa lkou t i n De c e m be r , 1991 , a nd a t h r e e - da y st r ike in F e b r ua r y ,


11/19

PARBUDYAL SINGH, DEBORAH M. ZINNI , and ANN E F . MACLENNAN 65

1 9 92 . A s a r e s u lt , G E S O a c h i e v e d a n i n c r e a s e i n p a y f o r th e t e a c h i n g a s s is t a n ts a n d

c a nc e l l a t i on o f t he s i x - ye a r r e g is t r a ti on r u le .

O n A pr i l 6, 1995, t e a c h i ng a s s i s ta n t s w a l ke d ou t o f the i r c l a s s s e c ti ons de m a nd -

i ng the r i gh t to be r e p r e s e n t e d by G E S O . I n a s ubs e que n t e l e c ti on , 600 s t ude n t s vo t e d

f o r the un i on a nd 120 vo t e d a ga i n s t it ( 1 ,080 g r a dua t e s t ude n t s f r om t he hum a n i t i e s a nd

s o c i a l sc i e n c e s w e r e q u a l i f i e d t o v o t e in t h e e l ec t io n ) . S o m e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s, w h o

o p p o s e d u n i o n iz a t io n , d i d n o t a g r e e w i th G E S O ' s s t ra t eg i e s to c a n c e l T A c l a ss e s a n d

t o u s e unde r g r a dua t e s tude n t s to a c h i e v e t he i r goa l s . F o r the f ir st t i m e G E S O opp o-

s i ti on un i t e d i n a g r oup , c a l l e d t he G r a du a t e s A g a i n s t U n i on i z a t i on . T he s e s t ude n ts d i d

n o t c o n s i d e r t h e m s e l v e s e m p l o y e e s a n d b e l i e v e d t h a t th e i r te a c h i n g a s s i g n m e n t w a s a

p r a c t i c a l e xpe r i e nc e r a t he r t ha n a j ob . D e s p i t e t he v o t e , Y a l e r e f u s e d t o ne go t i a t e a c on -

t r ac t w i th G E S O .

I n D e c e m b e r 1 99 5 , G E S O o r g a n i z e d a g r a d e s tr ik e a n d a g a i n d e m a n d e d u n i o n

r e c ogn i t i on f r om t he a dm i n i s t ra t i on ( Boda h , 2000 ; Ro w l a nd , 2001 ) . A bou t 200 t e a c h -

i ng a s s i st a n t s d i d no t s ubm i t the f i nal g r a de s o f the und e r g r a dua t e s t ude n t s by t he due

da t e bu t f u l fi l le d o t he r du t i e s f o r the F a l l 1995 s e m e s t e r . T he s t ri ke e nde d on J a nu a r y

15, 1996. A t l e a st t w o de a ns a nd f a c u l t y m e m be r s o f one de pa r t m e n t m a y ha v e th r e a t -

e ne d t he s t r ike r s w i t h t he l o ss o f t he i r pos i ti ons a s t e a c h i ng a s s i st a n t s a nd t he p r o s pe c t

o f n e g a t i v e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s w h i c h w o u l d a f f e c t th e i r fu t u re c a r e e r s ( H a y d e n , 2 0 0 0 ) .

G E S O t o o k t h e c a s e to t h e N L R B b y f i li ng a n u n f a i r la b o r p r a c ti c e c h a rg e . T h e G e n -

e r a l C o u n s e l f o r t h e N L R B s u p p o r t e d G E S O ' s c l a i m a n d i ss u e d a c o m p l a i n t in 1 99 7

N L R B v . Y a l e , 1 9 9 9 ) . A t t h e h e a r i n g , Y a l e d e n i e d t h e c h a r g e s a n d m a i n t a i n e d i t s

p o s i ti o n t h a t th e s t u d e n ts w e r e n o t e m p l o y e e s u n d e r t h e l aw . T h e A d m i n i s tr a t iv e L a w

J udg e r u l e d t ha t t he s t ri ke w a s no t p r o t e c t e d unde r t he N L R A b e c a us e i t w a s a pa r t ia l

one ; t ha t i s, the s t ude n t s c o n t i nue d t o pe r f o r m s om e o f t he i r du t i e s a f t e r t he s t r ike w a s

c a l l e d a nd , thus , w e r e w o r k i ng a nd s t r i k i ng a t t he s a m e t im e .

T h e g r a d e s t r ik e c a se w a s a p p e a l e d t o t h e f u ll N R L B , a n d i n M a r c h 2 0 0 0 , Y a l e

se t t l ed the case . Th e cha rges ag a ins t the Univ e rs i ty tha t it i l l ega l ly th rea tened th e s t r ik -

i ng T A s w e r e d i s m i s s e d , b u t Y a l e ha d t o pos t o f f i c ia l r u l e s f o r the r i gh t o f f r e e s pe e c h

o f it s e m p l o y e e s . H o w e v e r , t h e N L R B d i d n o t is s u e a d e c i s io n w h e t h e r t h e g r a d u a t e

s t ude n t s w e r e e m p l oy e e s . I n s t e a d , i t r e f e r r e d t he i s s ue ba c k t o t he a dm i n i s t r a t i ve l a w

j udge . T he de c i s ion i s s ti ll p e nd i ng . W hi l e t he g r a de s t r i ke w a s u ns uc c e s s f u l f o r G E S O ,

t h e N L R B G e n e r a l C o u n s e l a rg u e d t h at g r a d u a t e t e a ch i n g a ss is ta n ts w e r e e m p l o y e e s

a n d c o n t e n d e d t h a t t h e y h a d t he r ig h t t o b e p ro t e c t e d u n d e r t h e N a t io n a l L a b o r R e l a -

t i ons A c t . T h i s w a s t he f i rs t t i m e t ha t U . S . l a bo r l a w ope n e d a w i nd ow o f oppo r t un i t y

f o r a d i s c us s i on a bou t t he s t a tu s o f t e a c h i ng a s s i s ta n t s a t a p r i va t e un i ve r s i t y .

I n M a r c h 2003 , G E S O w e n t on a f i ve - da y s tr i ke a l ong w i t h t he o t he r Y a l e un ions .

Y a l e w o r k e r s w a n t e d b e t t e r w a g e s a n d p e n s i o n s, a n d g r a d u a t e s t u d e n ts d e m a n d e d t h e

r i g h t t o o r g a n i ze i n a u n i o n ( G r e e n h o u s e , 2 0 0 3 a ) . O f th e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 , 00 0 G E S O

m e m b e r s , 4 8 2 v o t e d t o s t ri k e , an d 1 41 o p p o s e d it. O n A p r i l 3 0 , 2 0 0 3 , G E S O h e l d

a n o t h e r v o te , m o n i t o r e d b y t h e L e a g u e o f W o m e n V o t e rs , s e e k i n g r e c o g n it io n b y

Y a l e s t ude n t s ( Z a nd one l l a , 2003 ) . T h e o r ga n i z a t i on d i d no t s e e k the s t a nda r d p r oc e -


12/19

66 JOURNAL OF LAB OR RESEARCH

dur e f o r a n e le c t i on unde r t he s upe r v i s i on o f the N L RB be c a u s e t he y f e a r e d t ha t Y a l e ' s

a dm i n i s tr a t i on w ou l d a ppe a l t he vo t e i n a l ong l e ga l p r oc e du r e . F u r t he r m or e , t he r e w a s

n o o u t c o m e y e t in t he c a s e s i n v o l v i n g B r o w n a n d C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i ti e s a b o u t g r a d -

ua t e s t ude n t s ha v i ng t he r i gh t t o un i on i z e i n p r i va t e un i ve r s i t i e s . T he un i on w a s s u r -

p r i s i ng l y r e j e c t e d by a s l i m 694q551 vo t e ( G r e e nho us e , 2003a ) .

T h e r e w e r e s e v e r a l r e a s o n s b e h i n d t he u n i o n ' s d e f e at . F ir st , G E S O ' s m e m b e r s

m a y no t ha ve be e n un i t ed i n t he ir de c i s ion t o s tr i ke i n M a r c h . S e c ond , G E S O m a y ha ve

l o s t m a n y s u p p o r t e r s b e c a u s e o f i ts a g g r e s s i v e t a c t ic s a f t e r th e M a r c h s t ri k e . M a n y

g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s d i d n o t a p p r o v e o f th e g r o u p ' s p r a c t ic e t o i n t e rr u p t l a b c l a ss e s a n d

v i si t s tu d e n ts a t h o m e i n o r d e r t o g e t th e m o n G E S O ' s s id e . G E S O a l s o c la i m e d u n f a i r

p r a c t i c e s by t he a d m i n i s t r a t ion a nd s o m e f a c u lt y . I n f a c t , G E S O f il e d un f a i r l a bo r p r a c -

t i c e c om pl a i n t s w i t h t he N L R B a ga i n s t fi ve p r o f e s s o r s , w ho a l l e ge d l y d i d no t le t un i on

a c t i v i st s s pe a k t o the s t ude n t s, c o nduc t e d s u r ve i l l a nc e o f un i on - r e l a te d c onv e r s a t i ons ,

a n d t h r e a t en e d n o t t o w r it e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o n b e h a l f o f g r a d u a t e s tu d e n t s i n th e

eve nt o f a s t r ike .

T o d a y , G E S O , a m e m b e r o f t h e F e d e r a t i o n o f th e H o s p i t a l i t y a nd U n i v e r s i t y

E m pl oy e e s , a l ong w i t h the o t he r Y a l e un i ons , s ti ll t r ie s t o i n f lue nc e de c i s i on m a k i n g

on c a m pus . I n a dd i t i on t o t he tr a d i ti ona l i s s ue s d r iv i ng un i on i z a t ion ( s uc h a s de m a nds

f o r h ig h e r w a g e s , l o w e r t u it io n , g o o d w o r k i n g c o n d i t io n s , r e a s o n a b l e w o r k l o a d s a n d

c l a s s s iz e s , and he a l t h c a r e be ne f i ts ) , G E S O i s now i nvo l ve d i n he l p i ng t o b r ing t o the

f o r e s e v e r a l c o n t e m p o r a r y i s s u es , s u c h a s th e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f m i n o r i t y g r o u p s a n d

w o m e n , a nd t he c o r p o r a t i z a t i on o f un i ve r s i ti e s . I t i s s ti ll no t r e c og n i z e d b y Y a l e a s

t he l e ga l ba r ga i n i ng a ge n t f o r s t ude n t s.

IV . iscussion and Future Research

G r a d ua t e s t ude n t s a r e , f ir s t a nd f o r e m o s t , s tude n t s w ho e n t e r a c a de m i c i n s ti t u ti ons t o

s tudy in the i r cho sen f i e lds und er the tu t e l age of facu l ty mem ber s . H i s tor i ca l ly , the r igh t

o f pa s s a ge f o r a g r a dua t e s t ude n t ha s i nc l ude d s uc h du t i es a s t e a c h i ng , m a r k i n g pa pe r s ,

o r l e a d i ng s e m i na r s , w h i c h ha ve be e n s e e n a s t r a i n i ng f o r f u t u r e a c a de m i c pos i t i ons .

T h i s r o l e ha s be e n ide n t if i e d a s a n a pp r e n t i c e . H o w e ve r , w i th i nc r e a s e d w or k l oa ds ,

s om e t i m e s m a t c h i ng t ha t o f t he i r f a c u l t y a dv i s o r s , s t ude n t s a r e f i nd i ng i t d i f f i c u l t t o

c o m p l e t e t h e ir c o u r s e w o r k , a n d w i t h f u l l- t im e a c a d e m i c e m p l o y m e n t in d e c l in e , s t u -

de n t s ha ve ha d t o r e t h i nk t he i r r o l e . B e t w e e n 1975 a nd 1995 , un i ve r s i t i e s e l i m i na t e d

a n a ve r a ge o f 10 pe r c e n t o f t he ir te nu r e - t r a c k f a c u l t y , t hus pus h i ng t he w or k l oa d on t o

g r a dua t e s t ude n t s a nd pa r t - t i m e f a c u l t y ( L a f e r , 2003 ) . P a r t l y be c a u s e o f t he inc r e a s e d

w o r k l o a d , s t u d e n t s h a v e f o u g h t , a n d a s n o t e d , w o n t h e r i g h t t o u n i o n i z e i n s o m e

i ns ta nc e s be c a us e t he i r s t at u s ha s be e n r e c o gn i z e d l e ga l ly a s e m p l oye e s . S o , f o r g r a du -

a te s tudent s , t hey se rv e dua l - ro les : one as a s tudent , and the o the r a s an em plo yee .

I n a dd i t i on t o i nc r e a s e d t e a c h i ng l oa ds , t he m a i n i s s ue s be h i nd o r ga n i z i ng t oda y

r e l a t e t o d e m a n d s f o r i n c r e a s e d s t i p e n d s , w a g e s , a n d b e n e f i t s s u c h a s h e a l t h i n s u r -

a nc e , a nd i n s om e i n s t a nc e s , c h i l d c a r e , due t o i nc r e a s e d f i na nc i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s f a c e d

by t he s e s t ude n t s . S t ude n t s a r e f a c e d w i t h i nc r e a s e d l e ve l s o f de b t , a nd f o r m a ny t he


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PARBUDYAL SINGH, DEBORAH M. ZINNI , and ANN E F . MACLENNAN 67

p r o s p e c t o f p a y i n g t h e s e d e b t s is p o t e n ti a l ly p r o b l e m a t i c b e c a u s e o f p o o r j o b o p p o r -

t un it ie s i n s om e a r e a s ( J o s e ph a nd Cur t i s s, 1997) . S t ude n t s w ou l d e x pe c t t o be a b l e t o

p a y o f f th e i r d e b t in a r e a s o n a b l e a m o u n t o f ti m e , b u t d o i n g s o r e q u i re s t h e m t o h a v e

w e l l - pa y i ng j obs . T o da y , s t ude n ts , pa r t ic u l a r l y t hos e pu r s u i ng a n a c a de m i c c a r e e r a re

f a c i n g t h e r e a l it y t h a t th e r e a r e l im i t e d t e n u r e d - t r a c k j o b s a v a i l a b l e o n g r a d u a t i o n

( D e C e w , 2003 ) . W i t h f e w e r j ob p r os pe c t s , s t ude n t s a r e st a y i ng i n s c hoo l l onge r , t hus

c o m p o u n d i n g t h e ir d e b t l o ad e v e n f u r th e r ( S m a l l w o o d , 2 0 0 1 ).

Re a l be ne f i t s a ppa r e n t l y ha ve be e n ga i ne d t h r ough g r a dua t e s t ude n t un i on i z a t ion ,

t h us a ff o r d i n g u n i o n s w it h p r a g m a t i c l e g i t im a c y ( D e C e w , 2 0 0 3 ). F o r e x a m p l e , s tu -

d e n t s a t N Y U h a v e b e e n g u a r a n t e e d h i g h e r s t i p e n d s a n d h a v e f u l l h e a l t h i n s u r a n c e ,

w h i l e a t M i c h i ga n S t a t e , s t ude n t s ha ve s e c u r e d e xc e l l e n t c h i l d - c a r e be ne f i t s . S t ude n t

un i ons a n d t he i r s ym pa t h i z e r s ha ve a r gue d t ha t:

when unions help teaching assistants win better wages and working conditions, the

miss ion o f the univers i ty i s ul timate ly served: Students do n ' t hav e to work ext ra

jobs that take them aw ay from their teaching and scholarly work, and students from

a wider range o f econom ic backgrounds can afford to pursue g raduate educat ion.

Unions a lso f ight for bet ter training, sma l ler c lasses , and other im prove m ents in

undergraduate ed ucation. Indeed, we have found that faculty mem bers who attended

unionized graduate schools themselves generally support unions fo r teaching assis-

tants (Shapiro, 2001: B20).

U n i v e r s i t y a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h a v e s o m e u n d e r s t a n d a b l y t o u g h

i s sues to dea l w i th in the face of s tudent un ioniza t ion . Essen t i a l ly , t hey f ind them se lv es

i n t h e u n e n v i a b l e p o s i t i o n o f h a v i n g t o d o m o r e w i t h l e ss . W i t h g e n e r a l l y d e c l i n i n g

g o v e r n m e n t s u p p o r t , a d m i n i s tr a t o r s a r e f o r c e d t o s e e k a l te r n a t iv e f i n a n c i n g a r r a n g e -

m e n t s t ha t u l ti m a t e l y c a n a f f e c t bo t h f a c u l t y a nd s t ude n ts . W ha t ha s e vo l ve d ove r t he

ye a r s is a r i s e i n w ha t is t e r m e d t he c o r po r a t e un i ve r s i ty . T h e t ra d i t iona l m o de l o f t he

unive rs i ty , a s we on ce kne w i t, is now re p laced b y one tha t runs i t s e l f a s bus ines s , s eek-

i n g to m a k e p r o f i t s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , w i th d e c r e a s e d f u n d i n g f o r re s e a r c h , u n i v e r s i t i e s

ha v e ha d t o f o r ge pa r t ne r s h i p s w i t h c o r po r a t i ons i n o r de r t o f ind f unds. N o t on l y doe s

i t f i n d i t s e l f in c r e a s i n g l y c o r p o r a t i z e d , b u t i t a ls o f i n d s i t s e l f in t h e m i d s t o f u n i o n

unres t . In a rgu ing ag a ins t un ion iza t ion , adm ini s t ra tors s t a t e tha t un ive rs i t i e s a re no t the

s a m e a s b i g bus i ne s s a nd t ha t un i ons d on ' t f it i n t he a c a de m i c c u l t u r e. A s one a dm i n -

i s t ra t o r pu t s it: W ha t I w ou l d e m pha s i z e he r e is the l a c k o f fi t be t w e e n w ha t a un i on

i s a n d d o e s a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a n e d u c a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y w e s h o u l d a s p i r e t o

ach ieve (Bo l l inger , 2000: 1) .

T h e v i e w s o f u n i v e r s i ty a d m i n i s tr a t o r s a n d o t h e r s w h o o p p o s e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t

u n i o n i z a t io n c o m e a s n o s u r p r i se , g i v e n t h e e f fo r t s th a t h a v e b e e n m a d e t o f ig h t th i s

p r o l i f e ra t i o n o f o r g a n i z i n g o n c a m p u s e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e U n i t ed S t at e s. P e r h a p s t he

m o s t c o n t e n t i o u s o f a ll is s u e s p e r ta i n s t o th e h a n d l i n g o f e c o n o m i c v e r s u s a c a d e m i c

m a t t e r s a t t h e b a r g a i n i n g t a b l e . A d m i n i s t r a t o r s b e l i e v e t h a t a c a d e m i c i s s u e s s h o u l d

no t be d i s c us s e d a t t he ba r ga i n i ng t a b l e a nd s hou l d r e m a i n t he r i gh t o f t he un i ve r s it y .

D u r i n g t h e i r fi rs t a g r e e m e n t , N Y U w o n t h e r i g h t o v e r t h e u n i o n t o r e m o v e a c a d e m i c

c ons i de r a t i ons f r om t he t a b l e . E v e n t hough t he un i on po t e n t i a l l y c ou l d ha ve ba r ga i ne d


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68 JOURN AL OF LABOR RESEARCH

f or c e r ta i n a c a de m i c r i gh ts , t he y a g r e e d t o d r op t hos e i s s ue s f o r the s a k e o f ga i n i ng a

f ir s t c on t r a c t. W i t hou t t h i s a g r e e m e n t ne go t i a ti ons m i gh t no t ha ve p r oc e e de d . A l t hou gh

a n u m b e r o f u n i o n s h a v e f o c u s e d m a i n l y o n e c o n o m i c f a c t o r s th r o u g h c o l l e c t iv e b a r -

g a i n i n g , o t h e r s v i e w t h e s e i s s u e s a s i n s e p a r a b l e a n d a t t e m p t t o n e g o t i a t e r e l a t e d

c l a us e s . F o r e xa m pl e , t he un i on r e p r e s e n t i ng g r a dua t e s t ude n t s a t U n i ve r s i t y o f M a s s -

a c hu s e t t s - A m he r s t ha s tr i ed t o ne go t i a te t he a s s i gnm e n t o f t e a c h i ng a s s is t a n ts ba s e d o n

s e n i o r i t y r a t h e r t h a n q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , a n d o t h e r s h a v e i n c l u d e d c l a s s s i z e ( W i l l i a m s ,

2 0 0 2 ) . T h e q u e s t io n o f te a c h i n g l o a d b e c o m e s a n o b v i o u s c o n t e n t i o u s i s su e t h a t

r e m a i n s a n i m p e t u s f o r u n io n i z at io n . G i v e n t h e c u r re n t l a b o r m a r k e t , w h e r e a c a d e m i c

pos i t i ons a r e de c l i n i ng , t h i s i ss ue m a y c on t i nue t o ga i n no t i c e a b l e a t te n t ion .

O p p o n e n t s o f g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t u n i o n s a l s o a r g u e t h a t b e c a u s e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t

t each ing and resea rch as s ign m ent s va ry by semes te r , s tudent s vo t ing for un ioniza t ion a re

those wh o a re cur ren t ly wo rk ing as t each ing o r re sea rch as s i s t an ts , and the re fore on ly a

l im i t e d nu m be r o f the t o ta l g r a dua t e s t uden t popu l a ti on i s r e p r e s en t e d a t a ny g i ve n t i m e

(DeC ew, 20 03) . On ce a un ion i s accepted , al l s tudents a re then covere d by tha t un ion , and

hav e to beg in p aying m onth ly un ion dues . E xcep t in the f igh t - to -w ork s ta t e s in the Uni t ed

S ta tes, s tudent s w ho d o no t wi sh to be represen ted ca nno t op t ou t o f the un ion .

I n c r e a s e d w a g e s a n d b e n e f i t s a l s o r e p r e s e n t i n c r e a s e d c o s t s t o th e u n i v e r s i ti e s .

W i t h i nc r e a s e d c os t s , un i ve r s i t ie s c a n f i nd i t d i f f i c u l t t o g r a n t i nc r e a s e d s t i pe nds a nd

p r ov i de he a lt h i n s u r a nc e a nd c h i l dc a re . U l t im a t e l y , tu i t ion m us t be i nc r ea s e d . Co up l e d

wi th the i s sue of cos t s a re a s se r t ions tha t hav in g a un ion ized ins t i tu t ion resu l t s in a neg -

a t i ve i m a g e t ha t po t e n t i a l ly po s e s d i f f i c u lt i e s w h e n a t t e m p t i ng t o a t t r a c t the be s t s t u -

d e n ts . U n i o n c r it ic s p r o p o s e t h at , u n i o n i z a t i o n m o d e l e d o n i n d u s t r y . . , is h i g h l y

inf l ex ib le , bureaucra t i c , fo rmal i zed , and po ten t i a l ly d iv i s ive . I t i s t he an t i thes i s o f the

c o l l e g i a l m o d e l n e e d e d a t a u n i v e r s i t y ( D e C e w , 2 0 0 3 : 1 0 4 ). A l o n g s i m i l a r l in e s ,

G e o r g e R u p p , f o r m e r p re s id e n t o f C o l u m b i a , w r o t e i n re s p o n s e t o a s ch e d u l e d v o t e

r e ga r d i ng t he r e p r e s e n t a t i on o f g r a dua t e t e a c h i ng a nd r e s e a r c h a s s i s ta n t s by t he U A W ,

t ha t a un i on w ou l d r e duc e t he f l e x i b il i ty t ha t f a c u l t y a dv i s o r s a nd s t ude n t s c u r r e n t ly

h a v e t o s t ru c t u r e t e a ch i n g , a n d r e s e a r c h a s s i g n m e n t s t o m e e t i n d i v i d u a l e d u c a t i o n

ne e ds a s w e l l a s o t he r a s pe c ts o f g r a dua t e t r a i n ing ( Rupp , 2002 : 1 ).

F r o m t h e f o r e g o i n g , t h e r e a r e c l e a r l y l e g it i m a t e i s su e s r a i s e d b y t h o s e f a v o r i n g

a n d t h o s e o p p o s e d t o g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t u n i o n i z a t i o n . T h e N L R B a n d c o u r t s a r e i n a

d i f f ic u l t p o s i ti o n a s t h e y p o n d e r t h e c a s e s b e f o r e t h e m , a n d a s t h e y d e l i b e r a t e o n t h e

c a s e s t ha t m a y a r i s e f o l l ow i ng t he

rown

de c i s ion . G i ve n t ha t t he e c onom i c r e a l it ie s o f

un i ve r s i t ie s a r e c ha ng i ng a n d t ha t s tude n t s , in m a ny c a s e s , a r e i nde e d e m p l o ye e s unde r

t h e l a w , i t s e e m s j u s t a m a t t e r o f ti m e t h a t m o r e u n i v e r s i t i e s , a t l e a s t t h o s e t h a t a r e

p u b l i c, b e c o m e u n i on i z e d . W h e t h e r o r n o t t hi s is g o o d f o r s tu d e n ts o r b a d f o r a d m i n -

i s tr a t o r s is m o o t a t t h is po i n t . Bu t , a s e v i de n t i n the r e c e n t m ov e by t he a dm i n i s t r a ti on

a t Co l um bi a U n i ve r s i t y t o m e e t a nd d i s c us s a c on t r a c t w i t h un i on l e a de r s ha s s how n ,

t he t w o pa r t i e s c a n pe a c e f u l l y c oe x i s t . T h i s i s, a f t e r a ll , t he m ode l e nv i s i one d by t hos e

w ho c ha r t e r e d t he N L RA a nd i t s a s s oc i a t e d i n s t i t u t i ons . F u r t he r m or e , a s t he e v i de nc e

i n C a na da s how s , the un i ve r s i t y ha s no t be e n t u r ne d u ps i de dow n a s a r e s u l t o f g r a du -

a te s tudent s ' un ion iza t ion .


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PARBUD YAL SINGH, DEBOR AH M. ZINNI, and ANN E F. MA CLENN AN 69

W e h a v e d i s c u s se d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n d c o v e r a g e b y g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t u n io n s

in the Un i t e d S ta t e s , t he r e l a t e d l aw , a nd i s sue s f a c ing un ion s a nd un ive r s i ti e s . The r e

i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , m u c h w o r k l e f t t o b e d o n e , e s p e c i a l l y e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h o n t h e

a n te c e de n t s o f u n ion iz a t ion . N o t u n l ike t r a d i ti ona l t r a de un ions , a n in t r i c at e a nd in t e r-

c o n n e c t e d n e t w o r k o f f a c t o r s is o b v i o u s l y d r i v i n g t h e u n i o n i z a t i o n o f g r a d u a t e s t u -

de n t s . F i r s t, a s r e c og n iz e d in the NYU 2 0 0 0 d e c i si o n , t h e e c o n o m i c s o f c o l le g e s a n d

u n i v e r si t ie s a r e u n d e r g o i n g c h a n g e . E c o n o m i c f a c t o rs h a v e h i s t o r i c a l ly b e e n c e n t r a l

in the orga niz ing dr ives o f t r ad i t iona l un ions (F io r i to e t al ., 1982; M urra y and Re shef ,

1988 ; Of a r i - Da n kw a , 1993 ; P e r lma n , 1928). Ec ono m ic re a l i ti e s in un ive r s i ti e s ha ve ,

f o r i n s t a nc e , f o r c e d ma ny a dmin i s t r a to r s t o de pe n d inc r e a s ing ly on g r a dua te s tude n t s

a nd p a r t -t ime in s t ruc to r s , re l a t ive ly c he a p sou r c e s o f qua l i fi e d l a bo r, f o r t e a c h ing a nd

r e la t e d w o r k . T h i s m a y b e f u r t h e r c o m p o u n d e d b y h e a v i e r w o r k l o a d s , i n c re a s e s in

s tude n t - f a c u l ty ra t io s , a nd longe r t ime s f o r s tude n t s t o c om ple t e t he i r de g r e e s , a ll o f

wh ic h m a y in f lue nc e un ion iz a tion . Ho we v e r , the r e i s a pa uc ity o f e mp i r i c a l r ese a r c h on

suc h ma t t e r s. W hi l e on the su r f a c e the se f a c to r s m a y be d r iv ing s tude n t un ion iz a t ion ,

we c a nno t c onc lude tha t t h is i s the c a se w i th a ny c e r t a in ty w i thou t e m pi r i c a l e v ide nc e .

Th e r e la t e d i s sue o f p r e c a r ious e mp loy m e n t o f g r a dua te s tude n t s i s a l so r e l e va n t

s inc e it ha s imp l i c a t ions f o r un ions . The n um be r o f ye a r s t ha t g r a dua te s tude n t s r e m a in

o n c a m p u s v a r ie s b y f i el d o f s t ud y . A d d i t i o n a l ly g r a d u a te s t u d e n t s m a y o n l y t e a c h a

l imi t e d num be r o f s e me s te r s a nd no t be a c t ive ly invo lve d in the un ive r s i ty on a da y - to -

d a y b a s i s . T h e i r tr a n s i e n t n a t u r e t h e r e f o r e m a y n e g a t i v e l y a f f e c t u n i o n o r g a n i z i n g .

W i t h h i g h m e m b e r s h i p t u r n o v e r y e a r a ft e r y e a r, u n i o n s c o n t i n u o u s l y l o s e e x p e r i e n c e d

m e m b e r s ( u n i o n l e a d e r s a n d m e m b e r s ) o n c e t h e i r m e m b e r s s t o p te a c h i n g o r i f t h e y

g r a dua te ( D i r nba c h a nd C h im ona s , 2003) . The r e su l t o f suc h tu r nov e r r e su l t s i n lo s s

o f c on t inu i ty o f t he un ion f unc t ion , w h ic h ha s to be r e l e a r ne d a nd som e t ime s r e v i t a l -

i z e d . Vos ko s ( 2000) r e se a r c h f oc us e s , i n par t , on the sh i f ts i n the s t a nda r d e m ploy -

m e n t r e la t i o n s h i p a n d t h e l in k s b e t w e e n a n i n c r e a s e d f e m i n i z a t i o n o f t h e w o r k f o r c e

t h a t c o i n c i d e s w i t h a c a s u a li z a t io n o f e m p l o y m e n t . O u t s i d e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a te s , i n

the Un i t e d K in gdo m te nu r e wa s a bo l i she d in 1983 , p r o f ou nd ly cha ng ing the wa y m a ny

f a c u l t y v i e w t h e i r c a r e e r s ( W e i n e r , 1 9 9 6 ). A n u m b e r o f U . S . u n i v e r s it i e s h a v e a l s o

a t t e mpte d to d i sma n t l e t e nu r e , suc h a s t he Un ive r s i ty o f M inne so ta in 1996 ( R a bba n ,

2001) . Th e unc e r t a in ty a bou t f u tu r e f u l l - t ime pos i t i ons f o r g r a dua te s tude n t s a nd the

c h a n g in g v i e w s o f e m p l o y m e n t w i t h in t h e l a r g e r u n iv e r s it y e n v i r o n m e n t m u s t b e c o n -

s ide r e d in r e se a r c h on s tude n t un ion iz a t ion .

S e c o n d , th e p o l i ti c a l a n d l e g a l e n v i r o n m e n t s m a y b e i n f l u e n c i n g g r a d u a t e s t u-

den t un ioniza t ion , a s they do gen era l ly (Cur t i ss and Joseph , 1997; F io r i to e t al ., 1982;

M u r r a y a n d R e s h e f , 1 9 8 8 ; O f o r i - D a n k w a , 1 9 9 3 ) . F o r i n s t a n c e , f o l l o w i n g t h e

NYU

de c i s ion in 2000 , m a ny a c a de m ic s , p r a c ti t ione r s , a nd a c t iv i s ts l ooke d to the inc om ing

B ush a dm in i s tr a t ion w i th e i the r a pp r e he ns ion o r e xpe c ta nc y , de pe nd ing on the i r in t e r -

e s ts a nd p os i t ions . Af t e r t he c a se, m a ny o f t hose invo lv e d we r e qu ic k to no te tha t t he

c a s e w a s a p p e a l e d a n d t h a t f u t u r e c a s e s w o u l d d e p e n d o n t h e n e w a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s

a p p o i n t e e s t o t h e N L R B . A s e v i d e n t in t h e rown d e c i s i o n , t h i s p r o v e d p r o p h e t i c .

P o l i t ic a l a nd l e ga l f a c to r s a re no t r e s t r ic t e d to the ope r a t ions o f t he N LR B bu t pe r m e -


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7 0 J O U R N A L O F L A B O R R E S E A R C H

a t e o t h e r i n s ti t u t io n s a s w e l l , i n c l u d i n g t h e c o u r ts . F o r i n s t a n c e , s o m e o b s e r v e r s t h i n k

t h a t j u d g e s i n t h e c o u r t s y s t e m a r e w a i t i n g o n t h e N L R B c u r r e n t d e c i s i o n s t o g u i d e

t h e m a t th e s t a t e l e v e l ( L a f e r , 2 0 03 ) . T h u s a n o t h e r a r e a o f r e se a r c h i s t h e r o l e o f p o l i -

t i cs a n d t h e le g a l e n v i r o n m e n t o n u n i o n i z a t i o n .

F i n a l l y , th e i d e o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t io n a n d a t t i t u d e s o f w o r k e r s a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

m a y a l s o i n f l u e n c e t h e d e c i s i o n to u n i o n i z e ( A d a m s , 1 9 74 ; K o c h a n , 1 9 79 ) . M a n y

w o r k e r s a n d s t u d e n t s j o i n u n i o n s b e c a u s e o f t h e ir p o l i ti c a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l b e l ie f s a n d

p h i l o s o p h i e s ( W h e e l e r an d M c C l e n d o n , 1 9 91 ; H e m m a s i a n d G r a f , 1 9 93 ), w i t h th o s e

b e l i e v i n g in g r o u p s o l i d a r i t y p e r c e i v i n g u n i o n s a s a m a j o r v e h i c l e f o r c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n

( H a b e r f e l d , 1 9 95 ). A s B r e t t ( 1 9 80 ) f o u n d , d i s s a t i s f i e d e m p l o y e e s a r e m o r e l i k e l y to

f o r m u n i o n s i f t h e y a c c e p t t h at c o l l e c t i v e a c ti o n m a y l e a d t o p o s i t i v e o u t c o m e s f o r

t h em . T h i s s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n t h e c a s e a t Y a l e U n i v e r s it y w h e r e m a n y s t u de n t s b e g a n

t o f o c u s o n g e t t in g G E S O r e c o g n i z e d a s t he c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g a g e n t f o r g r a d u a t e

s t u d e n t s b e c a u s e t h e y s a w t h is as n e c e s s a r y i n a d d r e s s i n g t h e i r w o r k - r e l a t e d p r o b -

l e m s ( J a c o b s o n , 2 0 0 1 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e a t t i tu d e s a n d i d e o l o g i e s o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r s

a r e a l so r e l e v a n t , a s t h e s e m a y i n f l u e n c e t h e d e g r e e o f u n i o n r e s i s ta n c e . F o r i n s t a n c e ,

t h e p r o - c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g p h i l o s o p h y o f th e C h a n c e l l o r o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W i s -

c o n s i n i n 1 9 6 9 r e s u l t e d in t h e v o l u n t a r y r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e f ir s t g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t u n i o n

i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( S a l t z m a n , 2 0 0 0 ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e is n e e d f o r m o r e s y s t e m -

a t ic r e s e a r c h o n t h e r o l e o f a t t i tu d e s a n d i d e o l o g i e s in g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t u n i o n i z a t i o n .

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