Gonda- Indian Mantra

The Indian MantraAuthor(s): J. GondaSource: Oriens, Vol. 16 (Dec. 31, 1963), pp. 244-297Published by: BRILLStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1580265 .

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THE INDIAN MANTRA by

J. Gonda Utrecht

Hellmut Ritter zum 70o. Geburtstage I

In the practice of religious life the importance and decisive power of the spoken word, and especially of the well-formulated word, has always been understood. The spoken word is an act, an exercise of power, revealing an attitude of the speaker and containing something creative. Especially when they combine into formulas, into phrases definite in the sound, rhythm and order of their terms, words possess the greatest might and effect whether dangerous or beneficient. The performance of ritual acts, the exertion of influence upon the Unseen, the utilization of power as a rule require a vocal expression of the officiant's will, desire or intentions; the verbal reference to a desired result becomes an instrument producing it. Words and rites are closely connected, the former lending the latter their specific character: accedit verbum ad elementum et fit sacramentum 1.

In a long chapter of a recent book 2 Friedrich Heiler enumerates no less than twelve different aspects or manifestations of the holy or sacred word 3. He distinguishes various forms of prayer and spell, oath and curse, conjuration (whether citing or exorcizing), invocation or

i?xhynGo , confession of sins, adoration, praise and the expression of thankfulness, confession of faith, sacrificial forms, vow, and formulation of desires. It can not be part of my task here to criticize this twelvefold classification and to ask for instance why praise and gratitude are so closely connected

1 Augustinus, in Joan. 80, 3, quoted by F. Heiler, Erscheinungsformen und Wesen der Religion, Stuttgart 1961, p. 266.

2 See note i; chapter VII, esp. p. 3o6 ff. 3 For the significance of the sacred word in general see also G. van der Leeuw, Religion in essence and manifestation, London 1938; F. Heiler, Das Gebet, Miinchen (1918), 61923; D. W. Steere, Prayer and Worship, New York 1934; F. Schwenn, Gebet und Opfer. Studien zum griechischen Kultus, Heidelberg 1927; V. Larock, Essai sur la valeur sacre'e et la valeur sociale des noms de personnes dans les societds infirieures, in Revue de l'histoire des religions ioi (1930), and the bibliography contained in the footnotes to Heiler, Erscheinungsformen, p. 306 ff.

244



The Indian Mantra 245

as to form one category. The only remark which I should like to make here is that the well-known Indian mantra is, in these pages, conspicuous by its absence. At first sight this is rather surprising because references to the Indian religions in which the mantras from the beginning to the present day play a highly important part, are numerous in this book. On second thought it becomes however understandable that the Indian mantra has either escaped the attention of the learned author, or perhaps intentionally been left out of account because it does not fit in well with the twelvefold classification adopted by him. It is true that Professor Heiler has no reason to mention the Indian mantra under some of his twelve headings: it is, for instance, no expression of thankfulness towards a deity. But it would be incorrect to hold that it does not for some of its aspects come under the heading of "Zauberwort, Segen und Fluch", and for others under "prayer", or under "adoration, praise, liturgical formula, expression of a wish, invocation" and even under "confession of faith". The concept of mantra covers much more than "prayer" or "invocation", than "praise" or "formula". A mantra is now invocatory, then evocatory, now deprecatory, then again conservatory. It may be beneficent or hurtful, salutary or pernicious. So we repeat: this special Indian manifestation of the sacred word does not fit in well with the above twelvefold classification.

The same plurivalent character of the Indian term-that is, the impossibility of translating it by one single word of one of our modern languages-has no doubt induced other authors to adopt, consciously or unconsciously, short, but inadequate, and sometimes even deceptive translations whenever they are under the necessity of explaining the Indian term. "Zauberformel" 1 or "incantation" 2 may, indeed, sometimes do duty, but are far from being a general equivalent; "short prayers" is very incomplete and "sacred sentences" 3 too vague; "formule magique pour prendre contact avec la Verite" ' may like "prayer" ("priere") 5, "liturgy" 6, "formule mystique" 7 lead to misunderstanding; neither "formule, g6ndralement versifide, recitee au cours du sacrifice

1 See e.g. H. von Glasenapp, Die Religionen Indiens, Stuttgart 1943, P. 141; S. Dasgupta, A history of Indian philosophy, 13, Cambridge 1951, p. 69; W. Volz, in G. Buschan, Die V6lker Asiens, Australiens und der Siidseeinseln, p. 544.

2 A. K. Coomaraswamy, Pour comprendre l'art hindou, Paris 1926, p. 62. 3 A. C. Bouquet, Hinduism, London, p. 139. 4 J. Herbert, La mythologie hindoue, Paris 1953, p. 36. Cf. also H. Zimmer,

Myths and symbols in Indian art and civilization, Washington D.C. 1946, p. 72. 1 L. Renou, in L. Renou et J. Filliozat, L'Inde classique, I, Paris 1947, p. 270. 6 M. Eliade, Yoga, Paris 1936, p. 107. 7 J. Herbert, Spiritualitd hindoue, Paris 1947, p. 366.



246 J. Gonda

v6dique et empruntee notamment au RIgveda" 1 nor "hymn addressed to some god or goddess" 2 give a correct idea; "son mystique", "mysti- scher Laut" 3 and "name of God" 4 are as a general explanation no less inadequate than "sacred hymn" 5 or the unspecified and ambiguous "formula" 6. Even an enumeration like "Verse, Gebete, Spriiche und Zauberformeln" 7 fails to satisfy a critical reader. Lexicographers were confronted with the same difficulty: "Spruch, Gedicht, Lied als Erzeug- niss des Geistes; die vedischen Lieder und Spriiche; magische Besprech- ung; Verabredung, Rat ..." says the Petrograd Dictionary 8; "divine saying or decision ..., hence magic charm, spell; in particular a secret religious code or doctrine" the P5li Text Society's < Pli-English dictionary)> 9; "formula etc." Edgerton's (Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit dictionary,) 10. In a modern glossary of 'special terms' it reads: "mystic formula or spell, deriving its power from traditional association with a particular divinity or a desired result; it is rendered effective by means of repetitive recitation (japa) combined with meditation (dhydna)" 11. It would be unwise to deny that for practical purposes many of these translations may, in particular contexts, serve to give the modern non- Indian reader a fairly good idea of what is meant, but they may not be used as definitions of the concept or as exact indications of what is meant by the Indians who use the term. And although it must be conceded that in particular contexts, which have come into existence in different centuries and in different communities the various aspect of the concepts were differently emphasized, there is on the other hand no denying that the term has in the course of time and notwithstanding its varied application kept a definite semantic kernel. In this case, like in many others, our modern languages do not possess a single term which might cover what the Indians understood, and often still understand by a mantra. The very diversity of translations in dictionaries and books

1 L. Renou, Sanskrit et culture, Paris 1950, p. 181. 2 Ch. Sharma, A critical Survey of Indian philosophy, London 1960, p. 14. 3 M. Eliade, Le Yoga, Paris 1954, p. 216; Jos. Abs, Indiens Religion der Sandtana-

dharma, Bonn 1923, P. 17. 4 Swami Akhilananda, Hindu Psychology, London 1947, p. 68. 5 B. A. Gupte, Hindu holidays and ceremonials, Calcutta 1919, p. 269. 6 S. Konow, Die Inder, in A. Bertholet und E. Lehmann, Lehrbuch der Reli-

gionsgeschichte, II, Tiibingen 1925, p. 128; C. G. Diehl, Instrument and purpose, Lund 1956, p. Ioo.

7 M. Winternitz, Geschichte der indischen Litteratur, 12, Leipzig (1907), p. 38. 8 A. B6htlingk und R. Roth, Sanskrit- Wrterbuch, V, 537. 9 Edited by T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede, V, Calcutta 1923, P. 146 s.v.

manta. 10 F. Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit dictionary, New Haven 1953, P. 419. 11 D. L. Snellgrove, The Hevajra Tantra, I, London 1959, P. 136.




touching upon "the sacred word" in India shows us that the term is, in point of fact, untranslatable.

Defining, provisionally and for practical purposes, the term under consideration as a general name for the formulas, verses or sequences of words in prose which contain praise and prayer, references to myths, conjurations, ritual injunctions, religious statements etc. etc., are believed to have magical, religious or spiritual efficiency, are recited, muttered or sung in the Vedic ritual and which are collected in the methodically arranged corpora of Vedic texts called

Sam.hitds or con-

tained in other special collections I we must, however, add that the same name is applied to comparable 'formulas' of different origin used in the post-Vedic cults 2. In both periods and in all communities mantras are very sacred and their recitation is traditionally subjected to fixed and strict rules. Thus a mantra is, as far as the Vedic religions and literature are concerned, explained by Indian commentators and lexicographers as "part of the Veda", "special Vedatext"; "words (to be) taken from the RIgvedasamhita and the other corpora" and "means of propitiating gods etc.". They are moreover considered, not products of discursive thought, human wisdom or poetic phantasy, but flash-lights of the eternal truth, seen by those eminent men who have come into a supersensuous contact with the Unseen.

Not only do the translations and definitions of the term strike the reader as considerably varied, also the literal explanations and interpretations proposed differ widely. Whereas some authors, for instance, explain mantra- as "thought" ("pens'e" 3), others prefer expressions such as "pensde formulhe et structur'e" 4. Beside the explanation "mantra means originally religious thought, prayer, sacred utterance, but from an early date it also implied that the text was a weapon of supernatural power" 5 we find "originally the word mantra- meant simply 'a verbal instrument for producing something in our minds' " 6 or "to pronounce a mantra is a way of wooing a deity, and, etymologically, the word mantra is connected with Greek words like meimao (read

1 The reader may be referred to L. Renou, in Renou et Filliozat, L'Inde classique, I, p. 270; J. Gonda, Die Religionen Indiens, I. Veda und dlterer Hinduismus, Stuttgart 1960, p. 9 ff. For some particulars see also Winternitz, o.c., I, p. 148 f.; 236 f.; P. V. Kane, History of Dharmasdstra, II, 2, Poona 1941, p. 983; A. Minard, Trois e'nigmes sur les Cent Chemins, II, Paris 1956, p. 293.

2 This distinction between Vedic and later, so-called Agamic mantras is also made by the Hindu authorities themselves (see, e.g.,

Brahma-purn.na 41, 63). 3 Thus Renou, Litterature sanskrite, Paris 1946, p. 74.

4 L. Silburn, Instant et cause, Paris 1955, P. 25. 5 J. N. Farquhar, An outline of the religious literature of India, Oxford 1920, p. 25. 6 Zimmer, o.c., p. 141, n.



248 J. Gonda

0al'ok& "to be very eager") which express "eager desire, yearning and intensity of purpose" (this word is, however, by the best authorities rightly regarded as non-related), and with the Old High German word minnia, (read minn(e)a "remembrance, love"), which means "making love to" 1. "So ist mantra 'Werkzeug zum Denken', ein 'Ding, das ein Denkbild zuwege bringt' 2. Mit seinem Klange ruft es seinen Gehalt zu unmittelbarer Wirklichkeit auf. 'Mantra' ist Gewalt, kein meinendes Sagen, dem der Geist widersprechen oder sich entziehen kann. Was in mantra verlautet, ist so, ist da, begibt sich. Hier, wenn irgendwo, sind Worte Taten, wirken unmittelbar Wirkliches" 3. "Mantra, das Symbol- wort, ist der heilige Laut, der dem Eingeweihten vom Guru tibermittelt sein Inneres zum Schwingen bringt und es dem hiheren Erleben dffnet" 4.

In matters of religion and 'Weltanschauung' explanations based on the principle of folk etymology frequently elucidate the opinions enter- tained by the adepts and adherents of a doctrine, belief or tradition. Thus the term mantra- is often-of course from the scientific point of view incorrectly-explained as that which saves (trd- "to save, rescue") the one "who, in thought, formulates it, meditates upon it" (man-). In tantric literature 6 which generally associates the term with trd- as well as man- it is suggested that it liberates when properly meditated upon. "A mantra derives its name from the fact that it is a means of 'mental identification' with the nature of things and of obtaining the salvation, i.e., deliverance of transmigration" 6. Sir John Woodroffe I is no doubt right in warning against regarding mantras as mere "formulas of worship" or as styling them "prayers" or "mystic syllables". The essence of a mantra, he rightly holds, is the presence of the deity: only that mantra in which the devatd has revealed his or her particular aspects can reveal that aspect. The deity is believed to appear from the mantra when it is correctly pronounced. It is indeed true that the term mantra, because of the power considered to be inherent in formulated inspired

1 E. Conze, Buddhism, Oxford 1951 (1953), p. 183. 2 A wrong etymological explanation is also given by S. B. Dasgupta, Aspects

of Indian Religious Thought, Calcutta 1957, P. 22. 3 H. Zimmer, Ewiges Indien, Potsdam 1930, p. 82. 4 Lama Anagarika Govinda, Grundlagen tibetischer Mystik, Ziirich-Stuttgart

1957, P. 93. 5 See further on. 8 A similar and likewise incorrect 'etymology' occurs already in the Chandogya-

upanisad 3, 12, I, where in connection with the gayatri metre which is stated to be "everything here that has come to be, whatsoever there is here", the author observes that speech both recites (sings: gdyati) of and protects (trayati) everything here that has come to be. For the gdyatri see further on.

7 Sir John Woodroffe, Shakti and Shakta, Madras 1929, p. 454.




thoughts and uttered words, also implied that the 'formula' was a means of wielding supranormal power. A mantra is always a source of activity, it is always a potential means of achieving a special effect. Let us con- clude these quotations with an enlightening passage from a famous modern Indian mystic and philosopher, Shri Aurobindo (1872-1950) 1: "La th6orie du mantra est que c'est un mot n6 des profondeurs secretes de notre Wtre oth il a 6t6 couve par une conscience plus profonde que la conscience mentale 6veill~e et enfin projet6 au dehors silencieusement ou par la voix-le mot silencieux considere comme plus puissant peut- Wtre que le mot parld-pr6cis6ment pour un but de creation. Le mantra peut non seulement crier en nous-mimes de nouveaux 6tats subjectifs, modifier notre Wtre psychique, rev4ler une connaissance et des facultds que nous ne connaissions pas auparavant, il peut non seulement produire des r6sultats semblables dans d'autres esprits que celui qui le prononce, mais encore il peut produire dans l'atmosphere mentale et vitale des vibrations qui ont pour effet des actions et mime l'apparition de formes matdrielles sur le plan physique. L'emploi vedique du mantra n'est qu'une utilisation consciente de cette puissance secrete du verbe" 2. The survey of the Vedic uses of the term will show that the essence of the above statement is indeed already characteristic of the mantras of the Vedic period,--one of the numerous indicia of the agelong continuity of Indian religious thought.

II

The Sanskrit words in -tra- < Indo-European -tro-, when neuter, are, generally speaking, names of instruments or sometimes names of the place where the process is performed 3. The former category may occasionally express also a faculty: Sanskrit ?rotram "organ, act or faculty of hearing"; jAdtram "the intellectual faculty"; or a "function": hotram "the function or office of a hotar priest". The sense of the root man- < I.E. men- was at the time defined by Meillet 4 as "mente agitare"; others assumed such basic senses as "denken, geistig erregt sein" 5, or preferred to hold that *men- "indiquait les mouvements de

1 See, e.g., H. Chaudhuri and F. Spiegelberg, The integral philosophy of Shri Aurobindo, London I960.

2 Aurobindo, La Kena Upanishad (1944), P. 33. 3 For lists of examples see K. Brugmann (und B. Delbriick), Grundriss der

vergl. Grammatik der indogerm. Sprachen 2, II, I, Strassburg 19o6, p. 341. 4 A. Meillet, De indo-eur. radice men- "mente agitare", Thesis Paris 1897. 5 J. B. Hofmann, Lateinisches etymol. W6rterbuch, II, Heidelberg 1940-1954,

p. 66; A. Walde-J. Pokorny, Vergl. Wdrterbuch der indogerm. Sprachen, II, Berlin- Leipzig 1927, p. 264-



250 J. Gonda

l'esprit" 1. Now the sense of Gr. E?evoq "bezeichnet solche Erlebnisse, die ein energisches Drfingen enthalten, Mut, Kampfgier" 2; an active eager energy, which may approximately be indicated by words such as "spirit, passion, might, strength, fierceness; life etc."; the corresponding Skt. manas- means "mind, in the widest sense as applied to a large variety of mental and psychical powers; including also spirit, thought, imagi- nation, invention, intention, affection, desire, mood etc.", the related Gr. ptiova "to be very eager, to purpose, intend, to be minded", the likewise related talvotm "to rage, to be filled by divine power"; a

tLmOiV'S is a "diviner, seer, prophet, foreboder, presager" 3; EvoLVi "to

desire eagerly"; ivEalvo "to desire earnestly, to rage"; in ancient India a muni- was "any one who is moved by inward impulse, an inspired or ecstatic man". Without entering into linguistic details the root men- may therefore be assumed to have expressed also such meanings as "emotional, moved, wilful, intentional, directed 'thought', experiencing impulses in heart and mind etc.".

As shown by Renou 4 the verb man- has in Vedic usage also the sense of "evoking, calling up", and is then often associated with the noun ndma "name". Compare, e.g.,

R.gveda I, 24, I kasya nanam ... mandmahe

cdru devasya nama "of which god do we now invoke the beloved name ?"; 4, 39, 4; 8, II, 5; Io, 64, I; 68, 7; Atharvaveda 7, I, I. A sumantu ndma is a "name which it is right or appropriate to invoke", the phrase durmantu ndma expresses the opposite sense: cf.

R.V. 6, 18, 8; io, 12, 6.

There seems, however, to be occasion for the remark that this meaning of man- appears also in cases such as 8, 47, 3-the whole passage is a prayer for help against evil and the consequences of sinful deeds-vilvdni .

varathyd mandmahe; here Geldner's translation: "alle Schutzmittel haben wir im Sinne" should probably be replaced by "we (the eulogist, priestly poet, officiant) evoke or summon (by concentrating our thoughts, in addressing you, 0 gods) all means of protection"; 5, 22, 3 cikitvin- manasam tvd devam martdsa utaye / varenyasya te 'vasa iydndso amanmahi "indem wir Sterbliche dich, den Gott mit achtsamem Sinne, um Gunst angehen, haben wir an deine vorziigliche Gnade gedacht" (Geldner), rather ". . . we have concentrated our minds on thy assistance (in order

1 A. Ernout-A. Meillet, Dictionnaire e'tymol. de la langue latine, Paris 1951, p. 704. 2 E. Struck, Bedeutungslehre 2, Stuttgart 1954, P- 98. 3 See also Hj. Frisk, Griechisches etym. Warterbuch, II, Heidelberg (I96I), p.

16o f.; 172 f. 4 See L. Renou, Etudes sur le vocabulaire du R gveda, Pondich6ry 1958, p. II n.;

the same, Etudes vddiques et panine'ennes, IV, Paris 1958, p. 79; 118; ibid. VII, Paris 196o0, p. 71. K. F. Geldner's (Der Rig-veda iibersetzt, Harvard 1951) translation "gedenken" is inadequate.




to evoke it and make it active)"; 5, 52, 3 marutdm adhd maho divi ksamd ca manmahe "then we evoke the majesty of the Maruts (a class of gods) in heaven and on the earth" (in the next stanza the poet states that he dedicates eulogy and sacrifice to the gods who protect men against injury; similarly 10, 26, 4; 97, I; AthV. 4, 23, I; 24, I; 26, I; IO, 4, I 1; Vdjasaneyi Samrh. 4, 11 daivlm dhiyam mandmahe ...

abhis.taye, not

"for aid we meditate divine Intelligence" 2 but rather "we concentrate our minds on (the product of our) divine intuition (i.e., the mantras) (in order to invoke) for assistance (the power which is inherent in them)".

Passing mention may also be made of the noun mantu- 3 which, mainly occurring in the

R.gveda, has been translated in different ways 4. Anyhow,

Geldner's "eure Sorgen sind ununterbrochene (Regen)str6me" seems less acceptable as a translation of I, 152, I acchidrd mantavo ha sargdh than "your flawless intentional and efficient thoughts are emanations" 5. The other occurrences have been taken to express a personal meaning "Berater, Lenker, Walter" 6, whereas in the two Avestan places exhibiting mantu- (Y. 33, 4; 46, 17) this meaning is at least dubious 1.

Let us now turn to the use of the noun mantrah in the RIgveda. In I, 31, 13 II-a line of difficult syntax which I would prefer to interpret as follows "thou lovest him who with all his heart offers liberally in order to procure himself safety, who < recites > the mantra of the praising poet" 8-the recitation of the product of the inspired mind of the poet is, as to its effect, put on a par with a sacrifice (cf. also Io, io6, ii). "Dichterspruch, Dichterwort" is Geldner's translation in this place. Similarly, I, 40, 5; I, 74, I where the reciter expresses his intention to address a mantra to the god Agni; I, 152, 2; Io, 50, 6; 2, 35, 2 where it is said to come from the poet's heart, the well-known 'place' where the

1 Here W. D. Whitney-Ch. R. Lanman, Atharvaveda Sarmhitd, Harvard 1905, translate "reverence", in connection with "name" (AthV. 7, I, I), however, "perceive".

2 R. T. H. Griffith, The Texts of the White Yajurveda, Benares 1927, p. 32. 3 For words in -u- used "in der sakral-rechtlichen Sphare" etc.: W. Havers,

in Anthropos 49 (1954), P. i99 ff. This word is dealt with under "Kiinste und Fertigkeiten", S. 202. (Cf. also Havers, in Anzeiger, Osterr. Akad. d. Wiss., ph.-h. Kl., 84 (1947), p. 139 ff.).

4 See L. Renou, Monographies sanskrites II, Paris 1937, P. 10; 17. 5 Cf. L. Silburn, Instant et cause, Paris 1955, p. 25. 6 See e.g. K. Grassmann, W6rterbuch zum Rig-veda, 1872 (Leipzig 1936), 999;

J. Wackernagel-A. Debrunner, A Itindische Grammatik, II, 2, Gbttingen 1954, p. 665. 7 Nor does Humbach's "Rathschluss" appear to hit the mark (H. Humbach,

Die Gathas des Zarathustra, Heidelberg 1959, p. 101; 134); rather something like "intentional thought".

8 For other interpretations see K. F. Geldner, Der Rig-veda iibersetzt, I, Harvard 1951, P. 35.



252 J. Gonda

intuition is conceived, the supranormal visions are seen, the inspiration is received 1; it is, moreover, sutas.ta-

"well fashioned"; this adjective derives from the verb taks- "to fashion" which is often used in connection with intuitions and inspirations which are transformed into poetical compositions (see 7, 7, 6; I, 67, 4 "the mantras fashioned with (in) the heart"; and cf. also 7, 32, 13) 2. In 6, 50, 14 "all the gods, increasing through rta 3, the invoked ones (and) the mantras proclaimed by inspired poets must, praised, lend assistance". The power of the mantras is also emphasized in I, 67, 5 "he (the god of fire, light and inspiration, Agni) has fixed heaven firmly with mantras which are in harmony with reality (satya-)"; IO, 14, 4 d tvd mantrdh kavigastd vahantu "the mantras proclaimed by the inspired poets must bring thee (the god Yama) hither"; Io, 88, 14. In 10, 50, 4 bhuvo . . jyesthas ca

mantrah, the god

Indra is called the best mantra; Grassmann 4 took the term in a personal meaning "Berather", and Geldner translated: "du wardst der beste Rat". I would venture to suggest: "thou art (i.e., thy name is) the best mantra (potent formula)". As will be shown further on the name of a mighty god is a potent mantra, just like the name of Christ enables man to exorcize demons and to work wonders (Mark 16, 17 f.). The term "name" is in connection with this god mentioned in this corpus: 3, 37, 3 ndmdni te 'atakrato vilvdbhir gfrbhir imahe / indrdbhimdtisdhye "we 'approach', i.e., we make an appeal to, thy names, O thou who art of hundredfold resourcefulness 5, with all words of praise, O Indra, if it comes to conquering the insidious"; 7, 22, 5 "I do not forget the words of praise to be addressed to thee ... I always proclaim thy name ...". See also 7, 32, 17 where the name of the god is invoked by those who are in need of protection; 10, 54, 4 "thou possessest four divine names which are impervious to deceit": the text no doubt refers to the mighty names of epithets such as v4rtrahan- "killer of the demon (power) of obstruction" etc. which express some of the most important qualities and abilities of the god or which mythologically speaking refer to some of his most impressive exploits. In 8, 46, 14 the god and his name are coupled together: "celebrate thy hero with mighty words of praise ... Indra, the famous name ...", in 6, 18, 7 the god and his majesty. "Der Name ist

1 See The vision of the Vedic poets, 's-Gravenhage 1963, especially chapter XII. 2 The same meaning, not "Rat" (Geldner) or "counsel" (Whitney-Lanman in

the corresponding stanza 6, 64, 2) may be admitted in io, 191, 3 where samitih no doubt refers to the gathering of those concerned in sacrificing, mantram abhi mantraye vah means "I pronounce, for your sake, mantras".

3 See H. Liiders, Varuna, II, Gittingen 1959, p. 555 ff. 4 Grassmann, Wirterbuch, Iooo. 5 See Epithets in the Rgveda, 's-Gravenhage 1959, p. 36 ff.




fiir den primitiven Menschen kein blosser 'Schall und Rauch', sondern ein Doppel-Ich ..., identisch mit dem Trager. Der Name ist kraft- geladen ... Der Name macht einen Menschen oder Gott prasent ... Der Name ist der Stellvertreter Gottes, Gott selbst" 1. The Samaritans even read "the name" instead of "the Lord" 2. In I, 57, 3 Indra's name is called a light, the context suggesting that it was created to be a light 3. Similar observations might be made in connection of the names of other gods: 5, 44, 2 (Agni). The poet of 9, 99, 4 makes mention of "intuitions 4 (to be) transformed into eulogies which bear the names of the gods" (dhitayo devdndm ndma bibhratih). Finally, the phrases with the verb man- and the noun ndma "name", reference to which has already been made, may be recalled to mind.

A perusal of the Atharvaveda brings to light similar data: 6, 76, 4 "the ksatriya who knowing takes the name of Agni in order to enjoy a full life-time (is secure from pernicious influences)" 5; in 19, 35, I "taking the name of Indra into the mouth the seers (rsayah) gave the jaftgida (a sort of amulet), which the gods in the beginning made a remedy, spoiler of the viskandha (a power provoking a disease 6)": here the "name of the god" can hardly function as anything else than as a mantra 7. In Hinduism the name of a god alone is a great protection even when pronounced unconsciously, unintentionally or when fallen asleep 8. Examples from other religions, e.g., the holiness and power inherent in the name of Jesus Christ, and the name of Allah used by Indian Muslims, as a mantra are too well known to need quoting.

The masculine gender of the term mantra- (the neuter is rare and

1 Heiler, Erscheinungsformen, p. 275. The words left out in the above quotations: "ob schon das Wort 6voyac .. . dem melanesischen topui "tabu machen" entspricht, ist etymologisch fraglich" should be replaced by: ". .. ist etymologisch vollkommen unm6glich".

2 J. E. H. Thompson, The Samaritans, Edinburgh 1919, p. 178. 3 Cf. also I, 55, 4; 5, 30, 5; 8, 52, 7; AthV. 3, 14, I; 5, 28, 12. See J. Herbert,

Shanikara, Hymnes c Shiva, Lyon 1944, P. 17 fl. 4 For dhiti- see The intuition of the Vedic poets, chapter III. 5 Cf. also 7, 20, 4; 19, 38, 2. 6 See Filliozat, L'Inde classique, p. io6. 7 Cf. also Chandogya-upanisad 7, 4, 2 "the mantras find their unity in name

and ritual acts (karmdni)

in the mantras". 8 See, e.g., E. Abegg, Der Pretakalpa des Garuda-Purinza2, Berlin 1956, p. Iio;

for divine and holy names on amulets in general see Heiler, Erscheinungsformen, p. 276; 341 f. (with a bibliography). Tulsi Dds (1532-1574) for instance went to exaggerated lengths in glorifying the name of his God, Rama, asserting that the name is greater than God himself who is unknowable until revealed by the Name, which has saved millions of votaries and will, when duly muttered, continue to save them to the end of time (see also W. D. P. Hill, The holy lake of the acts of iRama, Oxford 1952, p. XXIX).



254 J. Gonda

secondary) is exceptional 1. Brugmann 2 attempted to account for it by observing "gleichsam 'der lebendige Gedanke' ", Niedermann 3 more aptly remarked that instruments 'originally' (whatever that term may mean in this connection!) were conceived as 'selbstandige handelnde Wesen'; without entering into speculations about a historical (i.e., prehistorical!) earlier or later a double conception of the instrument names is quite understandable (in Dutch and in other languages words like veg-er mean "sweeper" and "brush").

It may in this connection be remembered that the Avestan mq?ra is likewise in a large majority of cases masculine. According to Bartho- lomae 4 it means "Wort, Ausspruch, Spruch"; sometimes "Zauber- spruch" 5, especially, in the singular, the mqfra par excellence, often accompanied by spanta ["intrinsically powerful" 6] " 'das heilige Wort' " 7, "der Inbegriff der gdttlichen Offenbarung; auch vielfach als Gottheit"; the neuter mq?ra- means "Gedanke, im Gegensatz zu Wort und Werk" (once) and "Bedenken, Nachdenken fiber" (once). From the Gdthds it is clear that a mq&ra- is a powerful word, phrase, verse or formula which being formed and communicated by the Lord and being pronounced by men is, for instance, capable of destroying or chasing away evil powers (28, 5 "we should like to avert the evil beings through the tongue") 8. Also from passages such as Ya't I, 28 it appears that the spanta mq&ra is the "powerful word" which emanating from Ahura Mazddh returns to him in the form of the liturgical verses and formulas spoken by the poets and reciters. Subjoining some places of interest I draw attention to Yt. 13, 81, where the spanta mq?ra is said to be the white, bright, radiant 'soul' of Ahura Mazddh, to Yt. I, 3 where the name of the Lord, the name of the "immortal Saints" (Ama~a Spantas) is, by the mouth of Ahura Mazddh himself, called the most powerful, victorious and brilliant element in the spanta mqe3ra; God's name is moreover that which in the

1 J. Wackernagel-A. Debrunner, Altindische Grammatik, II, 2, Gittingen 1954, p. 70o6.

2 Brugmann, Grundriss, p. 346. 3 M. Niedermann, in Indogerm. Forsch. 37, p. 154; see also Wackernagel-De- brunner, Altind. Gramm., p. 706.

4 Chr. Bartholomae, Altiranisches Wdrterbuch, Strassburg 1904, 1177 f. 5 This term should be used with caution, because the contents of the concept

'Zauber' are in different times and on different levels of civilization, liable to vary. I for one cannot agree with Humbach's translation "Zauberspruch" for the 'holy word or formulas' inspired by Ahura Mazda (Yasna 29, 7; 31, 6; 43, 14; 44, 14; 45, 3): H. Humbach, Die Gathas des Zarathustra, I, Heidelberg 1959.

6 See my relative paper in Oriens 2 (1949), P. 195 ff. 7 I. Gershevitch, The Avestan hymn to Mithra, Cambridge 1959, p. 84 translates

"the incremental divine word". 8 Cf. also Humbach, Gathas, II, p. 9 f.




spgnta mqira helps most to conquer the enmities of men and anti-gods, which furthers most supreme salvation, which "im ganzen k*rperlichen Dasein am meisten das Denken durchdringt und den Willen reinigt" . It appears moreover from Vidivddt 4, 45 that this 'holy word' was the best instruction to be given to those who sought instruction (cf. also 14, 46 where the adjective spanta does not turn up), from Y. 71, 5 etc. that it is worthy of worship and veneration.

Leaving some details out of consideration it may, on the strength of a number of particulars concerning the Indian term mantrah to be discussed in this article, safely be contended that from the prehistoric period of Indo-Iranian community onward the mantra concept-created no doubt by the mystery of speech as that which expresses thought- played an important role in the religious life and conceptions of the Aryan peoples 2. A mantra may therefore, etymologically speaking and judging from the usage prevailing in the oldest texts, approximately be defined as follows: "word(s) believed to be of 'superhuman origin', received, fashioned and spoken by the 'inspired' seers, poets and reciters in order to evoke divine power(s) and especially conceived as means of creating, conveying, concentrating and realizing intentional and efficient thought, and of coming into touch or identifying oneself with the essence of the divinity which is present in the mantra".

The 'semantic link' between the above meaning of the term mantra- and the other which will be touched upon hereafter seems to be constituted by phrases such as Io, 134, 7 "we do not, 0 gods, transgress ... we observe obedience (0 Indra) to thy mantras (mantrasrutyam cardmasi)". In this context the term for "powerful expression given to inspired men by the god who in his turn is expected to be invoked, evoked and influenced by it" assumes a connotation which may lead a modern translator to choose such a term as "Rat" (Geldner). Another contextual variant showing the transition to the 'meaning' "counsel, advice etc." occurs Paficavim'a-brdhmana 18, 9, 21 vdcy evdsya mantram dadhdty dmantranfyo bhavati "he brings the 'holy word' into his voice; he becomes a person who should be consulted" 3.

The word mantra- has, in other contexts, not rarely another 'meaning' -that is to say, it is to be translated otherwise, viz. by "consultation, resolution, advice, counsel, design, plan, secret". Hence also mantrin- in the meaning of "counsellor (of a king), 'minister' ". It would be expedient

1 H. Lommel, Die Ydi?t's des A westa, Gittingen-Leipzig 1927, p. 14. 2 See also J. Filliozat, La doctrine classique de la me'decine indienne, Paris 1949,

p. 34- 3 Cf. also W. Caland, Pan-cavirma-bryhmana, Calcutta 1931, p. 496.



256 J. Gonda

to devote by way of digression some attention to this use, because it will prove to shed some light on the very essence of the concept under consideration. A mantra, the epics teach us (Mbh. 2, 5, 27 and R-m yana 2, Ioo, 16), "is the root of victory". According to Kautilya's famous Handbook of politics (ArthaSistra I, 15, 20) a mantra accomplishes the apprehension of what is not or cannot be seen; imparts the strength of a definite conclusion to what is apprehended, removes doubt when two courses are possible, leads to inference of an entire matter when only a part is seen 1. Mutatis mutandis the same description applies to mantra- in the religious meaning. All undertakings, the same authority holds

(I, 15, 2), depend on consultation (mantra-), which should take place in secret. Power being threefold, he informs us elsewhere (6, 2, 33), the first 'Macht- oder Verwirklichungsmittel' 2 is jiadnabala-, i.e., "the power of knowledge". It is understandable that the term may also admit of the meaning "Rat des Herzens" 3, or "plan, scheme, intention": one should not betray one's mantras by facial expression etc. (ibid. 5, 5, 6). The conclusion seems to be warranted that both 'meanings' of the term mantra- "speech which expresses, conveys, or leads to the concentration of, thought" owe their origin to different contextual use 4

Thus quotations from the great Vedic collections of metrical texts are in the younger prose texts of the brdhmanas referred to by the term mantra: atap. Br. I, 31, 28 (with reference to VdjS. I, 31), where the translation 'prayer' 5 is not applicable; 2, 6, 2, 14. The term applies also to larger portions of the ancient texts: in Aitareya-brdhmana 5, 14, 8, R1V. io, 61 and 62 (the so-called Ndbhhnedistha) is given that name. Also formulas such as svdhd (an exclamation used in making oblations to the gods) are in these texts considered mantras (Satap. Br. I,, 4 4, 6) 6. Occasionally a text which does not occur in the great Vedic collections is already at a comparatively early date styled a mantra: Maitri-upanisad 6, 9. A mantra is addressed or offered to a god (?atap. Br. 2, 3, 4, Io) and accompanies oblations and libations (4, I, 2, 19; 7, 3, I, Io) and ritual acts (2, 6, 2, 15). It is considered extremely powerful: Ait Br. 5,

1 See The Kau.tilfya Arthagdstra, edited by R. P. Kangle, I, Bombay 196o, p. Ig. Cf. also the Kashmirian (Xth cent. A.D.) Nitivdkydmrta, p. 114.

2 J. J. Meyer, Das altindische Buch vom Welt- und Staatsleben, Leipzig 1926, p. 404. Cf. V. A. Ramaswamy Sastri, in: P. K. Code Comm. Vol., Poona 1960, II, P. 373. 3 Meyer, o.c., p. 388.

4 In RV. 3, 53, 8 Grassmann translates "Entschluss, (geheimer Plan)", Geldner "Ratschluss"; here also there is question of realisation of intentional thought. RIV. 10, 95, I admits of the translation "words", although there is a similar undertone.

6 Thus J. Eggeling, The ?atapatha-brahmana translated, Oxford 1882, p. 78. 6 Cf. also Satap. Br. 2, 3, 3, 17; 4, I, I, 26.




14, 8. The mantra is in ?atap. Br. 7, I, I, 5 explicitly identified with brahman, the ultimate and most fundamental principle. The term is also regarded as synonymous with veda-; see, e.g., Sdyana's commentary on Pafic. Br. II, 8, 8. A mantra has first been 'seen' by eminent persons or beings (cf. Ait Br. 5, 23, 2; Jaiminiya-br. 3, 193).

III Words acquire a condensed power when they assume a fixed form, a

phrase definite in the sound and rhythm of its terms, a formula. Almost universally in law and religion the formula holds together, as it were, the power immanent in the words 1. With the ancient Romans a carmen was required for all services of prayer and dedication, and none of its elements might be altered or omitted. In ancient Egypt the destiny of the departed depended on the correctness of the recital, and in other religions also the liturgy is, in fact, a carmen enjoying at least to some extent, compelling power 2. Thus mantras were an absolutely essential element in the Vedic ritual. They were to invoke and to praise (i.e., strengthen) the gods, to exert influence on the powers, to avert evil, to dedicate the oblations, to express the meaning and functions of the ritual acts and thereby to give them their specific character. The priest is believed to know how to invite, by means of these texts which proved effective for his ancestors, the gods and to attract their invisible presences into the sacrificial area.

For instance, all 'Sacraments' (Samskdras) 3 from the conception to the cremation are, according to the ancient Indian authorities, to be performed, for male members 4 of the three Aryan classes of society, with Vedic mantras. Compare, e.g., Manu, DharmaSdstra (+ 200 A.D.) 2, 16; 26. The funeral ceremonies are for instance accompanied by mantras which are mostly taken from Vedic funeral hymns, such as

R.V. 10, 14;

16; 18; AV. 18, 1-4 6. At the end of a funeral ceremony authorities prescribe the so-called Santikarma or pacificatory rites for the well- being of the living . The formulas uttered during it have regard to life

1 G. van der Leeuw, Wegen en Grenzen 2, Amsterdam 1948, p. 155 if. 2 See, e.g., van der Leeuw, Religion in essence and manifestation, London 1938,

p. 422 ff. 3 R. B. Pandey, Hindu Sarmsk'ras. A socio-religious study of the Hindu sacra-

ments, Benares 1949. 4 Women are not allowed to hear the Veda. 5 For a complete description of the Vedic funeral rites and the mantras used

in performing them see W. Caland, Die altindischen Toten- und Bestattungs- gebrduche, Amsterdam Academy 1896; the same, A Itindischer A hnenkult, Leiden 1893.

6 I refer to Die Religionen Indiens, I, Veda und ilterer Hinduismus, Stuttgart I96O, 133.

Oriens i6 17



258 J. Gonda

and averting of death, effective measures being taken to ward off evil and to return to the ordinary way of life. The relatives by blood assemble, a fire is kindled and those present are requested to sit down on the hide of a bullock of a red colour, while pronouncing the following mantras: "ascend on this life-giving skin, as you wish to live to a decrepit old age ... Go, 0 Death, the other way etc." In modern times the women are no longer required in the rite and the hide is no longer utilized, but the mantras are still pronounced; meanwhile those present touch a red bull. On the departure of the last man the priest should place a circle of stones behind him to prevent death from following those who are returning home. He does so while pronouncing mantras which are an exact description of the ritual act and a formulation of his intentions: "I place these stones for the living .. ., may we live a hundred years, driving death away from this heap".

According to the dharma texts it is part of the daily observances of an ascetic to mutter, on a variety of occasions, mantras. For instance, before partaking of begged food he should place it on the ground and announce it with

R.V. I, 50, I and I, 115, I (cf. Baudh. DhS. 2, 10, 18,

4-15), two stanzas which are, in the ritual, frequently prescribed to accompany gifts and oblations; after bathing he should announce it to Brahman with TA. io, I, io, etc. 1. The first stanza, which is of very frequent occurrence and manifold application 2, forms part of the Sfirya (Sun) hymn,

R.V. I, 50, I-Io; it runs as follows: "There his rays lift up

the god J~tavedas (Fire and Light), that the whole universe will see the sun". RV. I, 115, I is likewise dedicated to the Sun: "The face of the gods has arisen brightly, the eye of Mitra, Varuna, Agni; it has filled heaven, earth and atmosphere; Siirya is the 'soul' of the moving creation and of the stationary".

That the mantras belong to those 'entities' which were already at an early date considered manifestations or representatives of the One or of the Lord may appear also from Maitri Up. 6, 16 "the offerer and the enjoyer (of the sacrifice), the oblation, -the Mantra, worship, Visnu, Prajdpati, everyone whatsoever is the lord, the witness who shines in yonder orb (the sun)". The sacramental power of mantras is no doubt referred to in the Chdndogya Up. 7, 4, 2: as the mantras are dependent on living creatures, so the performance of ritual acts depends on mantras.

As already stated, mantras are to accompany, to sanctify and 'ratify' the ritual acts, permeating them with the transcendent power of the

1 H. D. Sharma, Contributions to the history of brahmanical asceticism, Poona 1939, P. 40 f.

2 See M. Bloomfield, A Vedic concordance, Harvard 19o6, p. 369.




divine Word 1. This consecratory function manifests itself in a large number of cases in which modern men would not expect it. By pronouncing the proper mantra the sexual act is for instance raised to the rank of a rite resuscitating and wielding that particular part of the universal and omnipresent creative force which is active in the creation of new human life: Brhaddr. Up. 6, 4, 21. "Then he spreads her thighs apart, saying: "Spread yourself apart, Heaven and Earth" (identification with the cosmic and mythic prototype). After having inserted his member in her and joined mouth with mouth, he strokes her three times as the hair lies, saying: "Let Visnu make the womb prepared. Let Tvastar (the god who makes the implements of the gods etc.) shape the (various) forms! Let Prajdpati (the deity presiding over creation) pour in etc.", these verses and some which are to follow being mantras and constituting an almost literal quotation of

R.gveda Io, 184. Two stanzas occur also in

the Atharvaveda (5, 25, 3 and 5) as parts of a text which is to accompany a rite for successful conception and in the Grhyasfitra (a ritual handbook containing directions for domestic rites and ceremonies) of Hiranyakesin (I, 25, I) among the rules and formulas of the "impregnation-rite"

2. The authoritative texts on dharma such as Y jfiiavalkya I, 99 prescribe japa, i.e., muttering of the Gdyatri 3 and other Vedic mantras, as the principal part of the morning and evening adoration 4. By reciting these verses a man becomes pure (Visistha DhS. 28, 10-25). It is even taught (Visnu DhS. 55, 21) that a brahman attains the highest perfection by japa alone. The japa should (ibid. 64, 36-39) comprise very sacred texts, particularly the Gdyatri (RV. 3, 62, io) and the Purusasiikta (io, 90o), as there is nothing superior to these. A Hinduistic text (Vrddhahdrita 6, 33; 45; 613; 213) lays down rules for the number of times a mantra should be repeated (the 'special' numbers io8 or ioo8 are obligatory). Japa without counting the number is fruitless 5.

From the number of those Vedic mantras which remained in use for over twenty centuries I mention the formula agne vratapate vratam carisydmi "0 Agni (the god of fire), lord of vows! I will observe my vow (; may I accomplish it; may it be successful for me)" which, occurring, e.g., in the Vdjasaneyisamhitd of the White Yajurveda (I, 5) was to be

1 Cf., e.g., also W. Eidlitz, Der Glaube und die heiligen Schriften der Inder, Olten 1957, p. 92 ff.

2 See also P. V. Kane, History of Dharmas'stra, II, i, Poona 1941, p. 201 ff. 3 See further on. 4 Kane, History, II, I, p. 313; 685 ff. 5 The counting could be done by means of a rosary: see W. Kirfel, Der Rosen-

kranz, Walldorf-Hessen 1949. The term japamdled "Gebetskranz" occurs only in comparatively recent manuscripts.



260 J. Gonda

spoken by a sacrificer who together with his wife was about to take the prescribed vow of abstinence during the performance of religious ceremonies (see, e.g., 8atapathabrahmana I, I, I, 2). The same mantra was in the second half of the XVIth century A.D. still prescribed by the author of the Prdya'cittaprakta 1 in cases when somebody wished to undertake a vow or penance.

The recitation of mantras may also serve as a substitute for definite religious duties. Thus, if one is ill or otherwise unable to undergo the regular daily bath or ablution one may resort to the mantrasndna- (lit. "the mantra-bathing") which consists in sprinkling water with the stanzas RIV. 10, 9, 1-3 "ye waters are indeed refreshing; procure vigour for us that we may see great delight; make us participate in your most auspicious juice ... you quicken us and make us live (anew)".

The significance of mantras in Indian religions can indeed hardly be over-estimated 2. They are one of those elements of the Indian culture which existed already before the dawn of history and survive, until the present day, in a variety of functions and applications. There even is a Hindu saying that the whole world is subject to the gods, the gods to the mantras, the mantras to the brahman, and therefore the brahmans are our gods 3. This belief becomes more understandable if we remember first, that the brahmans are a manifestation of the fundamental power- concept Brahman and, in the second place, that a mantra possesses the same kind of creative force which was present at the creation of the universe.

Whereas the three Aryan or twice-born classes are entitled to formulas from the Vedas, for the conglomeration of the lower classes, collectively known as SMidras, texts from younger works, e.g., the purdnas, are used. Because the Veda was forbidden to women as strictly as to sildras a result was that, with the exception of the marriage ceremony, every domestic sacrament was performed without mantras in the case of girls (A'valdyana-grhyastitra I, 15, Io; Manu 2, 66). These circumstances have no doubt contributed much to the increasing use of non-Vedic mantras and the replacement of old Vedic stanzas and formulas by so- called Hinduist formulas which may be considered to be at least in part of younger, and in part of older extra-Vedic origin.

In Hinduistic texts 4 it is taught that whereas formerly the Vedic

1 See Kane, History, IV, p. 124. 2 See, e.g., also Sh. Bh. Dasgupta, Aspects of Indian religious thought, Calcutta

1957, p. 22 ff.; E. Thurston, Omens and superstitions of Southern India, London 1912, passim.

3 L. S. S. O'Malley, Popular Hinduism, Cambridge 1935, P. 190. 4 See, e.g., also A. Daniblou, Le polythdisme hindou, 1960, p. 501 ff.; Arthur




method of worship comprising inter alia the muttering of the Gayatri could suffice, it is in the present Kali age not possible to worship according to that method. Of course, the twice-born who wilfully or negligently omits to recite this fundamental mantra makes himself so to say lower than a foreigner, unworthy of taking the name of God, because that which makes a brahman by its presence and a foreigner by its absence is the great eternal and universal mantra power, and the Gdyatri is a mass of radiant mantra energy (tejas). One should, nevertheless, adopt, in the present age, other mantras which are to stimulate one's faculties with divine radiant energy. The superiority of the power inherent in mantras is, in Hinduism, illustrated by many mythical and legendary tales. When for instance Visnu had to fight the two demons Madhu and Kaitabha who had stolen the Vedas and thus created great confusion, he was unsuccessful as long as he relied on his physical energies; when, however, he had resorted to his "mantra energy" he ultimately destroyed them (Jaydkhya-samrhitd).

In order to illustrate the efficacy' attributed to mantras in post- Vedic times some quotations from various texts may be subjoined here. "That demon will not be able to destroy my son, for he is a hero, thorough- ly versed in mantras and energetic" (Mbh. I, 161, 14). When no particular hymns are prescribed for the removal of sins Vedic mantras are powerful and become purifiers if accompanied by tapas ('asceticism') and the verses from the Sdmaveda may, from ten times as the minimum, be repeated for the same purpose (Sdmavidhina-brdhmana I, 5, 2). Not only in the texts belonging to the Atharvaveda, but also in such 'handbooks' as the Rigvidhdna 2, so much importance was attached to the words of the Veda that numerous hymns of the IRgveda are prescribed for the removal of sins, diseases, misfortune, the conquest of enemies etc. etc. "What is the use of many mantras and the performance of

Avalon (Sir John Woodroffe), Principles of Tantra 2, Madras 1952, ch. IV and ch. XI; the same, Shakti and Shhkta 3, Madras 1929, ch. XXIV; B. Bhattacharyya, An introduction to Buddhist esoterism, Oxford 1932, p. 55 ff.; C. G. Diehl, Instrument and purpose, studies on rites and rituals in South India, Lund 1956, passim; S. Bh. Dasgupta, Aspects of Indian religious thought, Calcutta 1957, p. 22 ff.; W. Y. Evans- Wentz, Tibetan Yoga and secret doctrines 2, Oxford 1958, passim.

1 Sometimes a simile or comparison may help us in forming an idea of the process supposed to take place when a mantra produces the effect desired. In the ?risamputikd (quoted by S. Bh. Dasgupta, Obscure religious cults as background of Bengali literature, Calcutta 1946, p. 119)

the actual presentation of the desired object through the 'power of attraction' stimulated by the right use of a mantra is compared to the production of juice from sugarcanes through pressure, to that of light from wood through friction, to that of cream produced in milk etc.

2 See my English translation of the RIgvidhAna, Utrecht 1951.



262 J. Gonda

religious observances (vratas)", the author of the Visnuite Nrsimha- purina exclaims (63, 6), "when the mantra Om namo Nardyandya is capable of securing all desired objects ?" According to tradition, the rsi Durvdsa had given to Kunti, the mother of the epic heroes, the Pdindavas, who had shown respectful devotion to him, a mantra by means of which she might have a child by any god she pleased to invoke. She called upon the Sun-god and became by him and without any detriment to her virginity the mother of the hero Karna (MahibhSrata I, III).

Without the special consecratory mantras a temple or the image of a god remains a mere building or a 'profane' image, not an object filled with the divine essence, worthy of worship, capable of helping the devout in their attempts to reach their higher goals. Thus Rudra-mantras are to be muttered in establishing an image of Rudra, Visnu-mantras in consecrating an image of Visnu. Brahmd-mantras are to be pronounced in consecrating the image of Brahms etc. (Matsya Pur. 266, 39). The formulas to be pronounced run for instance as follows: "I establish the Sun-god who holds a lotus in the hand and who has long arms". The mantras are identical with the god; for instance, the five mantras used in establishing a five-faced image of 8iva are equivalent to these five faces which represent the god's jThna, Tatpurusa, Aghora, Vdmadeva and SadyojSta aspects. A few references may suffice to give an idea of the importance of mantras in connection with the erection of a temple 1. Among the substances to be used in building a sanctuary are bricks, which, being made of earth, share in the nature of earth. Through the fire in which they are baked the sacrificial essence remains burnt into the brick, in its substance, which is earth. They are settled with the settling (sddanam) mantra which makes them lie steady and firmly established (Vdjasaneyi Samhitd 12, 53 "thou formest a layer, sit steady with that deity as thou wast wont to do with (the mythical fire-priest) Afigiras .. ."). When the bricks are laid other 'rhythmic formulas' (mantras) are recited to ensure that they lie steady and firm. At another moment formulas are pronounced to ensure that the bricks and the other parts of the structure will function well, that the building will be the house of God and his concrete manifestation. Before constructing a 'fireplace' for the Vedic sacrificial fire the expert "goes through the whole prescribed process of construction imagining all the while that he is placing every brick in its proper place with the mantra that belongs to it" 2

1 S. Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, University of Calcutta 1946, p. 104; 136; 140 etc.

2 Cf. Baudhayana Sulva Sitra 2, 62 ff.




The ceremony of bringing the goddess Kali into an image, i.e., of transforming the mere statue of carved stone into a sacred object by inducing the divinity to live in it, is-to mention another instance- described as follows (Mahinirv~natantra 6, 70 ff.): "Having thus invoked the goddess into the 'figure' one should install her vital breath into it by means of the 'Foundation' (Pratistha) mantra: Having first recited (the mantras) aum,

hr.m, kri.m, ?ri.m and svdhd, one should exclaim: 'let the

life of this deity be here' etc. Next one should recite the five mantras and pronounce (the formula): 'may jiva (the individual soul) of the goddess be in this image and may the image have all the senses of the goddess'. Again reciting the five mantras one should say: 'speech, mind, sight, smell, hearing, touch be unto it'. Afterwards one should recite twice the mantra 'may the prdna (vital breaths) of the goddess come here and live happily for ever, svdhd'. After welcoming the goddess ("hast thou had a good journey?") ..., one should recite the principal (mfla) mantra for purifying her image and sprinkle it thrice with sacred water. Then ... one should worship her". It should in this connection be remembered that the aspect of divinity is twofold, one, 'coarse', being represented by the image, the other, 'subtle', by the mantra.- Objects of minor cults, for instance votive stones known as ndgakals, which are set up by women desiring children in honour of snake- divinities, are likewise consecrated with a special ritual and sacred formulae, i.e., mantras.

Bathing when done with the proper mantras washes away all sins. When for instance bathing in the sacred pool belonging to the temple of Siva in Benares which according to the tradition (BrahmapurBna 56, 72 f.) was built by Mdrkarndeya the devotee has to dip his head three times, to utter a mantra "Save me who am immersed in the sea of mundane existence, swallowed by evil, senseless, 0 thou who art the destroyer of the eyes of Bhaga, 0 enemy of Tripura, homage to thee!". Afterwards he must go to the temple, worship the god with the so-called milamantra, i.e., the principal or fundamental mantra of his religion, viz. Om namah Sivdya "Om, adoration to Siva", with the Vedic Aghora mantra (oim aghorebhyo 'tha ghorebhyo aghoraghoratarebhyah, sarvatah sarva sarvebhyo namas te 'stu rudra ripebhyah "Om, be there adoration to thy reassuring manifestations, 0 Rudra, and to the terrific ones, to the (manifestations) which are (at the same time) reassuring and terrific, O Sarva, to all these (manifestations) in all respects" 1 and a mantra

1 In this form the mantra occurs in the Mahanirayana Upan. 282. See also Maitr.

Sa.mh. 2, 9, lo, etc.



264 J. Gonda

belonging to the category taught in the purinas, the large body of Hinduistic religious literature, for instance: "0 three-eyed One, adoration to thee, O thou who bearest the (half-)moon as an ornament, save me, O thou who art diversely-eyed, great god, adoration to thee". Such prayer-like mantras are far from rare: "O Lord who art invincible through the all-conquering thousand spokes (of thy discus), I am taking refuge in Thee" (Ahirbudhnya-Samhiti, 37).

In his Arthakistra Kautilya instructed that there should not be any sowing without the appropriate mantras: "Always, while sowing seeds, a handful of seed bathed in water with a piece of gold shall be sown first and the following mantra recited: 'Adoration to god Prajdpati Kasyapa; (the goddess) Sitd (who presides over the furrow and agriculture) must always prosper in respect to seeds and wealth' " (2, 24, 41). From other texts, e.g., Rdjatarafigini (XIIth cent.), it appears that the crop on the fields were watched by mdntrikas, i.e., guards who exercized their function by means of mantras (I, 234).

That even great philosophers took an interest in mantras may appear from Rdminuja's (? Iroo) attitude to them. He is not only the author of a special work on the daily rites connected with purification, adoration and meditation (Nityagrantha) but is also related to have conferred the five sacraments on his disciples who desired to be initiated: a branded disc and shell (Visnuist 'symbols') on the shoulders (tdpa), the mark of the religious community on the front, a religious name, the mantras, and the ritual presentation to the image of the god 1. One of his successors, the famous scholar Vedintade'ika (? 1380) wrote a considerable number of theological works in explanation of the mantras which, together with some other texts, were considered to be of fundamental significance. Among the mantras to be imparted to those who are initiated into the ?ri-Vaisnava school of thought and devotion is also the so-called caramagloka, i.e., Bhagavadgit 18, 66 "Abandoning all duties, come to Me alone for protection; I shall release thee from all evils; be not grieved".

The great teacher of an ecstatic Visnuist devotionalism Caitanya (? 1485-1533) "fut protege au moment de sa naissance par deux mantra dit Visnuraksd et DevirakSi. On croyait que la recitation de ces deux mantra empechait les mauvais esprits de nuire A l'enfant. On les repetait en faisant a I'exterieur le tour de la chambre natale" 2. Of Caitanya's wife

1 K. Rangachdri, The Sri Vaisnava Brahmanas, in Bull. Madras Govt. Mus., N.S., Gen. Sect. II, 2, Madras 1931, p. 35 f. Cf. also H. W. Schomerus, Der Qaiva- Siddhanta, Leipzig 1912, p. 372 f.

2 J. Helen Rowlands, La femme bengalie dans la litterature du moyen-dge, Paris 1930, p. 110.




it is told that "elle ne mangeait que du riz sans sel. Elle s'asseyait devant deux pots d'argile: l'un contenait du riz, I'autre 6tait vide. Elle rdp6tait seize fois le mantra de Hari (Visnu) en tenant un grain de riz: puis elle plagait le grain dans le pot vide. Elle continuait ainsi jusqu' A midi. Elle ne mangeait jamais que ce qu'elle avait consacr6 de cette fagon ..." 1 The master himself who laid down, by his precept and example, sincere zeal and devotion, and a passionate love for Krsna as the only means of salvation, elevated the simple recitation of God's names to the level of a high spiritual discipline as a sacred mantra.

In Bengal whenever a person suffers from an illness presenting any unusual features, it is attributed to possession, and the remedy is sought, not in medicine, but in exorcism. "The exorcist or ojha is believed to have in his power a bhit (evil spirit), and by means of mantras he forces his own familiar spirit to drive away the one which is causing the trouble" 2. The control of such 'evil spirits' is indeed assured by the use of certain mantras, which every exorcist learns, and usually keeps secret, unless he imparts-sometimes only on his death-bed-them to his son or his successor in office. To give an instance 3: "Bind the Evil Eye! Bind the fist! Bind the spell! Bind the Bh?it or the Churel (the spirit of a woman who has died in child-birth)! Bind the witch's hands and feet! Who can bind her? The teacher can bind her! I, the disciple of the teacher, can bind her! Go, witch, to thy shrine wherever it may be! Sit there and quit the afflicted person!" These modern exorcists, like their predecessors in the Atharvaveda, often invoke divine beings, for instance the ape-deity Hanuman and noted 'witches' to assist in the ceremony.

It is needless to dwell on the existence of mantras which counteract the influence of enemies or of less potent mantras, which cause or avert death, inspire love or hatred, prevent thieves from entering a house, enable a man to cross rivers or to overcome other difficulties 4, to conjure snakes (Rajatarafigini 5, 102), to win the favour of girls or women or to find them a husband, etc. The whole existence of an Indian prince or peasant is, a modern Indian author 6 holds, regulated by mantras, which have no less than sixteen different functions: they enable the devotee, to realize final emancipation; to worship the manifested forms of the divine; to honour the minor deities; to communicate with the gods; to

1 Ibidem, p. 209 f. Cf. also R. C. Majumdar, in R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker, The History and Culture of the Indian people, VI, Bombay I960, 568.

2 E. A. Gait, Census Report, Shillong 1892, p. 132.

3 W. Crooke, Religion and folklore of Northern India, Oxford 1926, p. 134. Com- pare, e.g., also B. Bonnerjea, Ethnologie du Bengale, Thesis Paris 1927, p. 135.

4 See, e.g., J. Herbert, Spiritualitd hindoue, Paris 1947, passim. 5 B. K. Majumdar, Principles of Tantra, p. 38.



266 J. Gonda

acquire supranormal abilities; to feed the gods and the deceased ancestors; to communicate with the dead, with spirits etc.; to avert evil influences; to exorcize demons; to cure men of diseases; to prepare officinal water; to destroy living beings; to counteract the strength of poison; to exert influence on thoughts and deeds of other people; to have control over men, animals, spirits etc.; to purify one's body.

The sacramental force of a mantra is apparent from its use as an initiatory formula, for instance at the ceremony of receiving a new member in a religious order 1. Generally speaking the guru (religious teacher or spiritual mentor), initiates the adept into the mysteries of the sacred words. Mastery over spells (mantravidyd) came therefore to be considered as a creditable qualification of teachers and spiritual guides 2. In assigning a particular mantra to a disciple the Hinduist gurus are generally speaking very punctilious, seeing to it that they do not mistake the right deity and choosing the one who may be in spiritual attunement with the neophyte 3. The accuracy of the mantras, which are not rarely composed in an enigmatic language, was moreover jealously guarded. In order to 'live' and to be efficacious a mantra must have been handed down orally from the very first 'seer' who 'saw' it in a suprasensual way and be pronounced by a person who believes in it. It is 'the power of the mind which makes it efficacious'.

The mantras were generally recited or chanted in accompaniment of the rites 4. Hinduism, like Vedism, however, regards as rites a large number of acts which in our modern view would be classified as social or economic, hygienic or utilitarian actions or performances. For instance when a person is about to pass away his relatives should, according to medieval authorities 6, make him give a gift of cows, land, gold etc. The verbal declaration of the donations is made in the words: "I shall make gifts for the attainment of heaven (for the removal of all sins)". At the time of making the gifts a number of non-Vedic mantras are to be recited.

The so-called prdya'cittas, i.e., "expiations" or "rites of atonement",

1 See, e.g., M. Monier-Williams, Hinduism, 1877, ed. Calcutta 1951, p. 70; G. W. Briggs, Gorakhnath and the Kanpha.ta Yogis, Oxford 1938, p. 28; 32; K. Ranga- chari, The 9ri Vaisnava brahmans, Madras 1931, p. 22.

2 See, e.g., P. B. Desai, Jainism in South India, Sholapur 1957, P. 74. 2 For the esoteric character of mantras see also S. Dasgupta, A history of Indian philosophy, III, Cambridge 1940, p. 102; see also B. Bhattacharyya, An introduction to Buddhist esoterism, Oxford 1932, P. 59.

4 The number of Vedic mantras included in the ritual handbooks for the performance of the domestic rites

(G.rhyasUtras) comes, for instance, approximately to 2500.

5 See Kane, History, IV, p. 182.




are likewise performed to the accompaniment of appropriate mantras 1. For instance, when in order to atone for a crime or a transgression of a rule a special porridge should be prepared, a series of formulas was to be pronounced over it, beginning with: "thou art barley, thou art the king of corn, thou belongest to Varuna ... as a dispeller of all evil, trans- mitted as a means of purification ... thou art nectar; purify me of all evil, of any sin I have committed, and so on". Not infrequently the mantra expresses the speaker's intentions very accurately: thus in sacrificing by way of expiation, one's own hair as a preliminary to a (symbolical) voluntary death in fire one has to pronounce the words: "I sacrifice my hair to Death; I clothe Death with my hair". Under certain circumstances the mantras are to be muttered three times, "because the gods are three times in accordance with truth" (Maitrdyani- samhitd I, 4, 8) 2. Special potent mantras could, when accompanied by ascetic behaviour, serve as prdyadcittas

(Sdmavidhdna-brdhman.a I, 5, 2).

Thus in the religious practice of the Hinduist period-and, we can be sure, also in the unwritten tradition of earlier times-the concept of mantra covers also all potent (so-called 'magical') forms of texts, words, sounds, letters which bring good luck to those who know or 'possess' them and evil to their enemies, spirits, demons, casters of the evil eye etc. 3. As charms these mantras need not always be spoken. They are efficacious also when written, wrapped in cloth, inscribed on plates of stone, wood or metal, and carried about in amulets 4, attached to walls, or swallowed. The charms written on prayer flags, so common in Lamaism, produce a 'prayer' at every separate flutter of the cloth. When inscribed on paper, the ink in which they are written is sometimes drunk, or the mantras themselves are kept in metal cases or inscribed on metal to serve as talismans.

Thus until the present day mantras both written and pronounced, are held a very powerful protection against witchcraft, diseases, evil spirits. Holy names occurring in them are sovereign means of preventing the evil influences from finding flaws in the material, design or consecration of these protective objects. Patients are not only rubbed with consecrated oil, or rubbed and beaten with magically potent objects; they are also freed from the 'spirits' by a continuous recitation of mantras, to which the evil powers cannot offer resistance. Formulas written on

1 See W. Gampert, Die Siihnezeremonien in der altindischen Rechtsliteratur, Prague 1939, P. 59; io8; 178; 221 etc.

2 For the 'liturgical' three see also Heiler, Erscheinungsformen, p. 165. 3 Jacfar Sharif, Islam in India, Oxford 1921, p. 187; 244; 251; 259. 4 See, e.g., Briggs, Gorakhnath and the Kmnpha.ta Yogis, p. 178.



268 J. Gonda

palm leaf are, in Orissa and elsewhere, even nowadays, hung on the door in order to secure a house against the entry of evil 'spirits'. In times of epidemics villages may be protected by bamboo posts to which flags or other powerful prophylactic devices are attached, furnished with tdntric mantras--or in Moslim milieus, texts from the Koran, written with ink or the blood of moles or bats 1. Among those communities where the belief in mantras is still widely spread are the Oraons, or Kurukh, as they are called in their own language, a Dravidian agricultural tribe of Chota Nagpur. Pupils spend, every week, a whole night in learning mantras and purificatory or apotropaeic rites. Sometimes a great divine guru is said to produce something wonderful: one of the pupils seems to learn all the mantras and incantations by intuition or revelation. Even in modern times many a one believes that a considerable variety of magical acts may be performed, provided the adept has found the proper mantra 2

A mantra may therefore be described as a power (Sakti-) in the form of formulated and expressed thought. "There is nothing necessarily holy or prayerful about a mantra", Sir John Woodroffe 3 observed with regard to the usages and opinions prevalent in Tantrist circles. "Mantra is a power (mantrasakti-) which lends itself impartially to any use. A man may be injured or killed by mantra; by mantra a kind of union with the physical ?akti- is by some said to be effected; by mantra in the initiation ... there is such a transference of power from the guru to the disciple that the latter swoons under the impulse of it; by mantra the sacrificial fire may and, according to ideal conditions, should be lighted; by mantra man is saved, and so forth".

IV No unanimity existed among the ancient Indian authorities with

regard to the definition of mantra 4. The Veda consisting of mantras and brahmanas (see, e.g., Sdyana, 1 gveddbhhsya, bhilmika, p. 3 "), the former are--e.g., in Jaimini's Mimamsddariana 2, I, 32 f.--defined as "texts indicating things connected with the performance of actions", a view rejected by Sdyana because of the extreme heterogeneity of the

1 A. N. Moberly, Amulets as agents in the prevention of disease in Bengal, Memoirs As. Soc. of Bengal, I (Calcutta 1906), p. 227 ff.

2 P. Dehon, Religion and customs of the Uraons, Memoirs As. Soc. of Bengal I (Calcutta 19o6), p. 176 ff.

3 Arthur Avalon (Sir John Woodroffe), The serpent power, Madras 1950, p. 83 f. 4 A brief survey of opinions is presented by K. Satchidananda Murty, Revelation

and reason in Advaita Vedanta, Waltair-New York 1959. r Poona edition.




mantras. According to others mantras throw light on the things and the deities of the rituals (Madhusfidana Sarasvati, Prasthdnabheda, p. 3). The Veda, however, "reveals the means of obtaining the transcendent goal of man" (Sayana, ibid., p. 22), or "makes known the transcendent means of obtaining the desirable and avoiding the undesirable" (the same, on the Taitt. Sarmh., Upodghata, p. 2); it is the only source of knowledge of dharma and brahman (IRVbh., bhilm., p. 24).

Now, according to the traditional theory of the Indians the Veda is eternal truth: "the sacred metrical texts of the Veda are not made, they are eternal" (na hi chanddmsi kriyante, nitydni chanddmsi). This infallible, all-embracing and omniscient corpus-"that which is in it is elsewhere, which is not in it is nowhere" (Mbh. I, 62, 33 P. yad ihdsti tad anyatra, yan nehdsti na tat kvacit)-is traditionally considered to have emanated from Brahman, the fundamental, eternal and omnipresent Principle, that is to say, to be Brahman in the special form of Word 1. It has been formulated and 'exhaled' by deities who are, in this connection, given the somewhat deceptive title of "maker of the Veda" (vedakartd)-a term which for instance when attributed, in Mahdbhhrata 3, 3, 19, to the Sun (Sfirya), is coupled with veddisgah "auxiliary part of the Veda preserving the whole and serving its proper understanding and employ- ment) and vedavdhanah "bringing the Veda". That is to say, God (e.g., in the later epic, Visnu) emits the Veda as he does all else at the beginning of every new aeon, and particular divinities, especially those connected with light (e.g., Agni, the god of fire and light) transmit them, hymn by hymn, by the supranormal way of inspiration to those exalted men called rsi, the receivers of the eternal truth, who being gifted with the power of vision (dhih) 'see' the words of the Veda, and transform them, in their heart and mind, into sacred texts, into the rhythmical sacred speech, which coming from the Unseen enables the man who knows how to use and to recite them to wield extraordinary influence, to come for his benefit into contact with the Unseen. Although the term "makers of mantras" (mantrakrt, mantrakartd) is occasionally given to these inspired poets (kavih), this term should not create the misunderstanding that the mantras are products of human effort. It is, according to the formulation of the Mahibh~rata (12, 328, 50) the Self-existent, i.e., Brahman, who created the Veda in order to praise (i.e., to strengthen by means of powerful eulogies) the gods (stutyartham iha devdndm veddh s.rstdh svayambhuvd).

1 See, e.g., Renou, in etudes v6diques et pAnin6ennes 6, Paris 1960, p. I ff.; A. Holtzmann, in ZDMG 38, p. 188; E. W. Hopkins, The great epic of India, New York 1902, p. 3 f.; J. Gonda, The vision of the Vedic poets, 's-Gravenhage 1963.



270 J. Gonda

The Vedic verses being used as liturgical and sacramental texts and formulas for sacrifices, differences of opinion arose with regard to the relation of words in a sentence or their relative importance with reference to the general tenor of the utterance. Another point of dispute was, for instance, the use to which a definite text might be applied as a mantra, because many Vedic verses and stanzas were used in connection with a considerable variety of ritual acts 1 and the relations between text and action often were far from evident. It was the so-called philosophic school of the Pi~rvamim~msi 2 which founded a systematized code of principles according to which the Vedic mantras could be interpreted for ritual purposes. One of its other objects was to demonstrate and establish the nature of the mantras themselves and to prepare by means of speculations with regard to word, soul, perception, the validity of the Veda, etc., a rational ground for its doctrine of mantras and their practical utility.

The large metrical parts of the Vedic literature consisting of mantras it is small wonder that their nature and composition were also made a subject of those philosophers who applied themselves especially to linguistic problems. It was taught that the fixed combination of words marked by a definite and rigid syntactical order did not allow any alteration whatsoever (Nirukta, I, 15) 3: a doctrine which is in con- formity with the 'orthodox' view that the mantras are eternal. The use of synonyms was-to mention only this-not permitted 4. The main- tenance of this principle was however also necessary to prevent the Vedic verses i.e., the mantras, from being affected by distortions and corruptions. To repeat a mantra incorrectly was a sin. The Vedic mantras have their reputed unchangeability in common with comparable religious, juridical, sacramental formulas or authoritative texts of other more or less traditional communities. There is no denying that the fixed form serves to differentiate them also from the bhdsad, the current or spoken language, which, as all things human and sublunary, is changeable. It was, and is, strongly believed that these formulas, vested with a capacity beyond human understanding, if properly pronounced with strictly

1 A recent study is P. K. Narayana Pillai, Non-R gvedic mantras in the marriage ceremonies, Trivandrum 1958.

2 See, e.g., A. B. Keith, The Karma-Mimadmsa, London 1921. 3 Cf., e.g., Prabhatchandra Chakravarti, The linguistic speculations of the Hindus,

Calcutta 1933, P. 103. 4 However, in practice the mantras have generally speaking proved to be far

from invariable; of the text-units which in many cases are used by more than one Vedic 'school' it is estimated that about io.ooo show variations (M. Bloomfield and F. Edgerton, Vedic variants, I, Philadelphia 1930, p. i1).




enjoined rhythm, accent, intonations, and movement of hands, have the capacity of achieving the result desired, for instance of influencing the higher powers, and of making the deities invoked active, of working miracles. While pronouncing them one must, however, concentrate one's thought firmly on the god whose power is contained in the formula. "That is called mantra by the [evocative] meditation (manana-) upon which the soul in the living being (jiva-) acquires freedom from sin, enjoyment of heaven, and liberations, and by the aid of which he acquires the fruit of his fourfold endeavour (i.e., religious obligations, subsistence etc.)" 1.

The psychical attitude in which mantras are to be recited is far from being indifferent. The disciples of the famous preacher of the Krsna- Rddhd faith Caitanya (1485-1533) 2 for instance formulated elaborate rules with regard to the mood in which Krsna's name and the mantras of their community should be recited and meditated upon 3. It is, in general, deemed necessary that in studying and reciting mantras a large number of very intricate directions are observed. The mind of the adept should be completely calm and purified, the recitation must not take place before a definite state of mental concentration has been reached; no sign of fatigue may be perceptible. Moreover, the more a worshipper advances in his japa the more does he partake of the nature of the deity he worships and the sooner will he effect his salvation. In the practice of praising the gods the number of mantras is therefore an instrument of power. The effect is assured only if the number is complete. Hence the unmistakable predilection for 'homage' consisting of a large number ("thousand") of names. It is for instance taught that praising Visnu with a thousand names removes sins and gives good things for this life and the life to come 4. A mantra which under ordinary circumstances is to be read io8 times, must be recited ioo8 times if there are difficulties to be overcome. Reports speak of brahmans muttering the name of the god Subramanyan 5 x 100 x loo8 times while showering flowers over his image 5.

It should, however, be added that there were also milieus in which the greatest efficacy was attached to meditation in which there is no

1 Gdyatri Tantra, quoted by A. Avalon, Principles of Tantra 2, Madras 1952, p. 263. See also the same (Sir John Woodroffe), Introduction to Tantra Shastra 2, Madras 1952, p. 81 ff.

2 See, e.g., D. Ch. Sen, Chaitanya and his companions, Calcutta 1917. 3 W. Eidlitz, Die indische Gottesliebe, Olten 1955, p. 179. 4 Ramanujacariyan, Sri- Visnu-Sahasra-Ndma-Stotra, Preface. Hence the exist-

ence and popularity of treatises such as Sivasahasrandma-stotra "Praise of the thousand (loo8) names of ?iva" (e.g., Mahabhdrata 13, 17). Cf. also S. Siauve, Les noms vddiques de Visnu, Pondich6ry 1959.

5 Diehl, o.c., p. 332.



272 J. Gonda

muttering at all, and that also among those who considered the personal intimate devotion called bhakti the best religious attitude mantras were not always considered a necessity 1.

As implied in the above part of this article the function of mantras does not end in conveying an ordinary sense 2. It is even generally admitted that they exert extraordinary power with which they are vested not so much through expressing that sense 3 as through their 'sound-vibrations' 4. They often have no ordinary meaning at all 5. Or they have, in addition to a 'gross sense', a 'subtle sense' which may be explained in different ways, namely from the different standpoints of various religious systems. For instance, the Vedic syllable Om means, according to the Ahirbudhnya-Samhitd, 51 ff. O(ta) m(ita), i.e., "(Every- thing) limited (mitam) is threaded (otam) (on Him)" (gross sense), or Brahman, Visnu and Siva etc. (subtle sense). According to the belief rationalized and systematized by the philosophers of the

Mimdms.- school, the sound produced in pronouncing a word is eternal and a sound- representative of an eternal principle 6. The Vedic mantras exist eternally,

1 Cf. Bhaktivijaya 15, 175 (J. E. Abbott and Pandit Narhar R. Godbole) I, Poona 1933, P. 257.

2 In this connection passing mention must be made of the remarkable doctrine, attributed to an ancient authority, Kautsa, but also found in the Mimimsasiitras (I, 2, 32): the mantras do not convey a meaning at all because the words as well as the order in which they occur are traditionally fixed or determined. This doctrine must however not be misunderstood. "La d6termination de la parole est d'une importance capitale dans les mantra et l'emporte sur leur sens litt6ral, en tant qu'elle fixe leur forme et rend impossible la transf6rence grammaticale et lexicale par des modifications de position et des substitutions de mots suivant le sens qu'on voudrait exprimer. C'est d'ailleurs uniquement en raison de sa forme d6termin6e que le mantra poss6de une valeur rituelle" (D. S. Ruegg, Contributions a l'histoire de la philosophie linguistique indienne, Paris 1959, P. 27). 3 As appears from the mantras quoted in this article they often express a perfectly clear exoterical sense (not rarely homage or praise), but from the esoterical point of view this sense is not necessarily connected with the true value, though it may have a mnemonic value.

4 It is not even always considered necessary that a brahman should understand the meaning of the formula he utters, and for those who hear them the exact meaning, couched in words of a dead language, is almost always incomprehensible. According to some authorities (see P. V. Kane, History of Dharmasdstra, IV, Poona 1953, P. 51) it is necessary to understand the meaning of Vedic rites in the great Vedic ?rauta-rites, but not in the smirta-rites, i.e., those of the traditional Hinduistic orthodoxy who did no longer perform the ?rauta-rites (Die Religionen Indiens, I, p. 217).

5 That is why experts were particularly fastidious with regard to the right pronunciation of mantras. See, e.g., also F. O. Schrader, Introduction to the Pdica- ratra, Adyar 1916, p. 141; 143.

6 See, e.g., P. Ch. Chakravarti, The philosophy of Sanskrit grammar, Calcutta 193o, esp. p. 87 ff.; Sudhendu Kumar Das, Sakti or divine power, Calcutta 1934; S. Bh. Dasgupta, Aspects of Indian religious thought, Calcutta 1957, P. 22 if.;




representing principles which are co-existent with the very cosmic process and they are even to survive that process. They are aspects of the eternal truth revealed to worthy men in the form of sound 1. These ideas came to be linguistically and philosophically founded on the theory of spho.ta,

the imperishable, eternal, and self-existent bearer of the word sense which is not created or constituted by the sounds of an enunciation, but being inherent in them exists over and above them, producing the knowledge of the meaning. Sphota which bears a perma- nent relation to the things signified is so to say the essence of the sounds used in language which produces the cognition of things. We cannot enter into a detailed discussion of this remarkable theory which foreshad- owed one of the most fruitful discoveries of modern linguistics and must limit ourselves to some casual references to its import in connection with the belief in mantras, which is in religious practice closely associated with 'mystical', psychological and mythological concepts and lines of thought.

The doctrine of mantras is therefore closely connected with the theory of the eternal Word 2 which is the subtle link between concept and utterance and which in the Hinduist akta system of soteriologic thought is identified with God's Sakti or creative power-in a personal form represented as His spouse,-a category intermediate between God, who is pure consciousness, and Matter, which is unconscious. The Eternal brahman exists in its form as the sound-brahman (?abda-brahman, i.e., qualified or saguna- brahman), the substance of which is all mantras, in the embodied souls (jfivdtman). It is from this gabda-brahman that the whole universe

Umesha Misra, Physical theory of sound and its origin in Indian thought, Allahabad University studies, II, 1926; J. N. Farquhar, An outline of the religious literature of India, Oxford 1920, p. 201.

1 Hence also the doctrine that in the highest stage in which speech is believed to exist (i.e., the non-manifested, transcendent stage which, being devoid of all succession in time, exists only in pure consciousness or in spiritual contact with the basis and essence of our being), speech is also called mdntri vek "mantric speech". For a better understanding it may be recalled to mind that according to the Indian philosophers of grammar the sound of a word is only the outward manifestation of that word (vaikhari form); it presupposes a subtle form (madhya- ma), in which the words are not articulated as aerial vibrations, but are articulated as mental processes. This state presupposes the still subtler form (pasyanti), in which the word and the concept for which it stands lie inseparable as a potency like the seed of a tree before sprouting. Behind this potential state is the state called pard, i.e., the above-mentioned highest state.

2 The high importance of human speech was early understood and made the object of speculative thought; see, e.g., Chdnd. Up. 7, I and 2 and, in general B. Essers, Vdc, Thesis Groningen 1952. See also N. Macnicol, The living traditions of the Indian people, London 1934, p. 70. On alphabet and power see also G. van der Leeuw, Religion in essence and manifestation, London 1938, p. 435. Oriens 16 18



274 J. Gonda

proceeds in the form of sound (sabda) and the objects (artha) denoted by sound or words. "This is the meaning of the statement that the goddess (devf) (i.e., the sakti) and the universe are composed of the signs for the sounds which denote all that is" 1. If this ?akti genesis of the mantras is lost sight of, the Thntric schools of thought hold 2, they will be as futile as the autumnal clouds which give forth thunders but seldom pour down rain. The philosopher Ksemardja (XIth cent.) even argued that there does not exist any real difference between a mantra-which is the mind-energy of the devotee-and the Supreme Principle of Divine energy 3. Every sound of a language is therefore instinct with the power of God's ?akti, and mantras framed from them are omnipotent formulas, replete with unconceivable power, at the service of the initiate 4. Every mantra being a divine creation or emanation the whole body of them is identical with the ?akti 5.

For instance, the so-called pran.ava,

i.e., the 'mystic' syllable Osm- originally a 'numinous primeval sound' which is still uttered with the utmost reverence-is throughout many centuries regarded as a positive emblem of the Supreme. It is said to have flashed forth in the heart of Brahmd, while he was absorbed in deep meditation. It unfolded itself in the form of the Gdyatri, which, in its turn, became the mother of the Veda's 6.

The mantras relating to the gods represent their essence-they are in a sense identifiable with them,-and the gods have, according to the teachers whose views are reproduced in this paragraph, no power other than that of the mantras, each of them being represented by a special mantra, in which the deity has revealed one of its particular aspects. One may also say that-as already observed in a former part of this article-the power of a divine being resides in its name or formula which therefore is a means of establishing connections between the divinity

1 Sir John Woodroffe, Shakti and Shakta 3, Madras 1929, p. 453. 2 For particulars see S. K. Das, p. 176. 3 It is my intention to devote a separate article to this point. 4 According to the tradition the patriarch Manu was the first to perceive the

mental formulas which are the subtile forms or 'body' of things and ideas and to explain them to men, creating by doing so the first human language, the primordial speech of mankind, the most authentic derivative of which is Sanskrit, the language of the sacred formulas.

6 See, e.g., also E. A. Payne, The ?dktas, Oxford 1933, p. 18 f. 6 According to the authors of the brdhmanas the Vedas with all the mantras

are the thousand-fold progeny of Vdk (Speech), who is also identified with each of the Vedic metres (cf., e.g., TaittS. 5, I, 9, I; PBr. 5, 7, I). Cf. also R V. 0io, 125, 3. This idea of Vdk bringing forth the mantras gave rise, in the later Trika school of thought (i.e., the Kashmirian ?ivaism), to the idea of the Mdtrkd Sakti (maternal power) of Pari Vak (the Highest Speech). See also S. K. Das, p. 25 ff.




and its worshippers, a means also of conjuring up any divine being. Thus it becomes clear that for instance the name Krsna is in the Narasirn- hapurina called a mantra granting all bliss 1. "The body of god proceeds from his mental formula, from his 'wordseed' " 2. The mantras are in this trend of thought eternal and indestructible 'prototypes' from which the phenomenal forms can always be derived. When we use them we come into touch with the very nature of the idea it represents. They enable man to transgress the limits of his phenomenal existence 3.

The gabda or sound of a mantra is conceived as a 'spiritual' sound, produced by the worshipper's mind heard by the heart and understandable only by the initiated. "Kraft und Wirkung eines Mantra sind abhangig von der geistigen Haltung, dem Wissen, der Verantwortlichkeit und der seelischen Reife des Individuums" 4. Each being, in all states of existence, and each inanimate object possesses a bodily form attuned to a certain frequency of vibration. That is to say, there is associated with each organic creature (sub-human, human and super-human) and with each phenomenal object or element, a particular rate of vibration. If this be known and formulated as sound in a mantra and if it be used expertly it is considered capable of disintegrating the object with which it is in vibratory accord, or of impelling deities to emit their divine influence. To know the mantra of any deity is therefore to know how to set up psychic communication with that deity 5. A mantra is from this point of view a syllable or series of syllables, of the same frequency as the (usually invisible) being to which it appertains; by knowing it one is able to command the elements and phenomena of the universe. In employing mantras one is therefore to concentrate one's mind upon the mystic process of the transmutation which is to result. Realization of

1 See P. Hacker, Prahldda, Wiesbaden 1959, p. 159. According to the Visnuist philosopher Vallabha the only God is Krsna-Visnu, the mantras only are his name, and the only work his service.

2 Ydmala-tantra, quoted by A. Daniblou, Le polythdisme hindou, 196o, p. 502. 3 In order to illustrate the importance attached to mantras also by those intel-

lectual leaders who founded the great schools of thought it may be observed that Kandda, the first to give a systematic exposition of the atomistic pluralism and philosophy of distinctions, the scientific and analytic VaiSesika (see, e.g., S. Radha- krishnan, Indian philosophy, II, London 1923 (51948), p. 176 ff.), explicitly teaches that it is Vedic "works", such as holy ablutions, fasting, sacrifice, retired forest life, and the muttering of mantras which lead to the unseen mysterious virtue through which the desired object will be achieved.

4 Lama Anagarika Govinda, Grundlagen tibetischer Mystik, Ziirich-Stuttgart 1947, p. 16 f.; 25.

5 For particulars see, e.g., also W. Y. Evans-Wentz, The TibetanBook of the Dead2, Oxford 1949, 220 ff.; the same, Tibet's great yogi Milarepa 2, Oxford 1951, P. 37, n. 2.



276 J. Gonda

a mantra (occurrence of mantra-caitanya) is the union of the consciousness of the sddhaka with that consciousness which manifests in the form of the mantra. It is this union which makes the mantra 'work'. "Worte sind Siegel des Geistes, Endpunkte-oder richtiger Stationen-unend- licher Erlebnisreihen, die aus fernster, unvorstellbarer Vergangenheit in die Gegenwart hineinreichen und ihrerseits Ausgangspunkte zu neuen unendlichen Reihen werden, die in eine ebenso unvorstellbar ferne Zukunft tasten. Sie sind das HOirbare, das am Unh6rbaren haftet, das Gedachte und das Denkbare, das aus dem Undenkbaren waichst" 1. "Om in seinem dynamischen Aspekt ist der Durchbruch des individuellen zum fiberindividuellen Bewusstsein, der Durchbruch zum 'Absoluten', die Befreiung vom Ichsein, von der Ich-Illusion" 2. "Special emphasis is put upon mantra, an infallible means to liberation. Mantra is concentrated thought of great power. It is built upon ?abda (sound), nada (resonance), and prdna (breath), synonymous of cosmic energy. In gross form ndda supports the things of the universe as their soul, in subtle form it is represented by the Absolute Goddess. The subtle form is realized in the gross one. So mantra, breathing, japa, generate vibrations of ndda as soul of the universe. ... Ndda (vibration) and Riidna (illumination) are two parallel manifestations of ?akti ..." 3. Some schools of

yogis went so far as to assume that the 'sounds' produced by the process of breathing ('ha' + 'sa'), becomes a mantra, viz. hamsa-which as a noun meaning "goose" or "swan" is a name for the 'soul' or spirit,- the so-called unmuttered gdyatri (ajapagdyatri). By involving this mantra the breathing process adds effectively to its own definitive superfluity.

In those Hinduistic circles which being characterized by sacral magic based on the conviction that there is a consistent connection and cor- respondence between the (psychical) microcosmos and the (physical) macrocosmos are known as tantristic, mantras are credited with an unlimited power4. Nothing, not even the final emancipation from mundane existence, is considered impossible if one knows how to recite a particular mantra in accordance with the fixed rules 5 and how to realize, by means of these mantras, the identity of oneself with the great cosmic powers, which are, like our own soul-and-body only a manifesta-

1 Lama Anagarika Govinda, Grundlagen tibetischer Mystik, Ziirich 1957, P. 3. 2 Lama A. Govinda, o.c., p. 140. 3 Briggs, Goraknath and the Kanpha.ta Yogis, p. 282. Cf., e.g., also J. Herbert,

L'enseignement de Ramakrishna 9, Paris 1949, p. 191. * The reader may, in general, be referred to the many books by Arthur Avalon

(Sir John Woodroffe), which should, however, be consulted with some caution. 5 Cf., e.g., Sadhanamald, ed. B. Bhattacharyya, Baroda 1928, p. 575; P. 31.




tion of brahman 1. A definite mantra called lokandtha enables the man who knows how to use it to obtain remission of mortal sins. The complete attainment of anything from purely mundane affairs such as success in love to achievements on the highest spiritual level may be realized by means of a special mantra. Branches of science may, through them, be mastered without study, a state of absolute safety be acquired without delay. The formula which gives a perfect rdsumb of the essence of brahman, Om sac cid ekam brahma lit. "Om (absolute) being, (absolute) consciousness, one is brahma" secures not only final emancipation but also success in worldly affairs, safety against evil and dangers etc. The man who knows the power which is inherent in this mantra is blessed, his family has become ritually pure. The literature of Pdficardtra Vis.nuism which though constituting a group of Hinduistic systems partly based on Tantrism is not without starting-point in the Vedic tradition 2, deals not only with cult, ceremonies, dharma, bhakti, yoga, etc. but also with mantraMstra, i.e., a kind of 'mystic and esoteric linguistics' applying itself to the secret sense of mantras in order to exercize power over the potencies manifesting themselves in them. The Pdficardtrins believe in the esoteric nature of the mantras which are regarded as the energy of God (Visnu) as pure consciousness. The first manifestation of this power can only be perceived by the great yogins, the next is the identity of a name and the object or objective power denoted by it. The evolution of this objective power is the third stage. Together with the evolution of every sound of the language there is also the evolution of the objective power of which it is the counterpart 3. Whereas the energy of the vowels is transformed into audible sounds 4, the consonant sounds are considered to be the prototypes of different manifestations of world-energy, which again are regarded as 'symbols' of different deities or superintendents of energy. An assemblage of some of the sounds stands therefore for an assemblage of types of energy, for complex power. The meditation and worship of these may consequently be expected to bring these objective powers under control of the man who knows how to deal with mantras. "While the Vedic Aryans subject themselves to severe punishments and self-torture to atone for the crimes committed, the Pificardtras have

1 In tantric literature the term mantra- was, by way of popular etymology (see above), generally associated with man- "to think" and trd(i)- "to rescue, liberate" so as to suggest that it is that which liberates when properly meditated upon and ritually pronounced.

2 Cf. Die Religionen Indiens, I, p. 247 f. 3 See especially Ahirbudhnya-sarmhita, ch. 16 and 17. 4 For particulars see also S. Dasgupta, History of Indian philosophy, III,

Cambridge 1940, p. 58.



278 J. Gonda

recourse, for purification in all cases, to the magic power of the sectarian mantras, so deep-rooted their belief in these mantras is. Whatever heinous crimes a Vaisnava may commit, he is sure to be free from sin, according to the Pdficar~tras, by muttering a sectarian mantra, the peculiarity being that the nature of the mantra and the number of mutterings differ with the nature of the crime" 1. Whereas for instance in the case of adultery with the wife of one's guru the ancient authorities prescribe such punishments as lying on a heated bed of iron or embracing the iron image of a woman glowing with heat, a Pdficar~tra Vaisnava who is guilty of this great sin is, according to the Jaydkhyasamhit~ (25, 31 ff.), to mutter the Nrsimhamantra, the number of mutterings varying as the crime is voluntary or otherwise. This text (which is dated about 450 A.D.) is permeated by such a strong belief in mantras that it is asserted that they are not only capable of conferring enjoyment (bhukti-), but even final emancipation (mukti-).

It is also the Jaydkhya-samhitd which maintains that of the two ways to realize samddhi (the intensive meditative concentration which leads to final emancipation) the method of the practice of (concentration on) mantras is more efficacious than that which proceeds through absorptive emotions, because the former does not fail to remove all obstacles to self-realization, that is, to reveal the ultimate reality.-The importance of mantras may also appear from the fact that in the texts of this religion separate chapters were devoted to this subject beside others which deal with images, initiation, self-control, meditation, ritualistic worship etc., that there are also chapters dealing with the chanting of, or meditation on, these formulas etc.

In the ?ivaist kkta systems ?iva's ?akti (creative power) is a category intermediate between ?iva, God as pure consciousness, and Matter, which is unconscious. Mythologically his spouse, this ?akti is not only the creative force but also the cause of bondage and release. She is, however, also the eternal Word and the subtle link between concept and utterance. To this basic theory is attached the whole doctrine of mantras, the whole body of which is identical with God's ?akti, every sound of the language being instinct with her power. An important tenet of the ?ivaist school of philosophic thought which flourished in Kashmir was the idea of pard ?akti (Highest Potence) assuming the form of energy residing, in a latent condition, within the sounds-and the symbols used for these sounds in writing-of the mantras 2. Here also the esoteric aspect of mantras and

1 R. C. Hazra, Studies in the Purdnic records on Hindu rites and customs, Dacca 1940, p. 220 f.

2 I refer to Sudhendu Kumar Das, Sakti or divine power, Calcutta 1934, P. 161.




the spiritual exercises performed with them were considerably developed together with philosophical doctrines.

The doctrine that God's Creative Power is incarnate in sound led to the conviction that the mantra expressing the highest religious belief is not only a bearer of supranormal power, but also the concentrated essence of all divine truth. Thus a special spiritual value is not rarely attached to the mere utterance of the name of the god one adores or of the repetition of the mantra of the religious community which in this connection has been called its 'watch-word' 1: the idea contained in the mantra is, indeed, "the sum of all spiritual truth", "the spiritual food which has to be assimilated by the soul". A mantra is identical with the aspect of the god which is invoked with or by means of it, or to express the same thought otherwise: being the deity itself it expresses an aspect of his being; when the mantra-power is awakened the deity is revealed. Each religious group has indeed its own special adoration-mantra; thus among religious communities of Visnu worshippers Om namo

ndrd-ynndya or Om namo bhagavate vdsudevdya 2. According to pur.nic

authorities those who meditate on that "mantra of twelve syllables" ("O'm adoration to the venerable V. = Krsna-Visnu") do not return to the cycle of births and deaths. The number of the syllables is significant; whereas Visnu's mantras consist of eight or twelve syllables-that of the followers of Vallabha running, e.g., as follows: ri-Krsna saranam mama "the holy Krsna is my refuge"-those of Giva (namah ivdya) have only five. The importance of a special mantra may for instance be illustrated by the tradition that Narahari Sarkdr, a friend and follower of Caitanya who was the first to preach the worship of this XVIth century Bengal Visnuite spiritual guide, did not only write the first hymns devoted to him but prepared also the code and the mantra for his worship 3. Hence also the aversion of the adherents of a particular religion to mantras belonging to another religious community. The opposition between Visnuists and Givaists being ritual and sociological in nature rather than

1 J. N. Farquhar, The crown of Hinduism, Oxford 1913, p. 449.-To add another instance: the chief mantra of the Visnuite Narasirmha religion is glorified in an Upanisad called the N.rsimhapiirvatapaniya by 'mystic' identifications and interpretations; the same text gives also directions for the making, by means of this formula and other famous Visnuite mantras, a yantra, i.e., a diagram, which worn on the neck etc., is considered a potent amulet (Farquhar, An outline of the rel. lit. of India, Oxford 1920, p. 189). The use of this famous formula was not confined to this community, but also expounded in the Ahirbudhnya-Samhita of the Pdiica- rdtrins.

2 See, e.g., also R. C. Hazra, Studies in the puradic records on Hindu rites and customs, p. 97 ; 00o.

3 D. C. Sen, Chaitanya and his companions, Calcutta 1917, p. 102 f.



280 J. Gonda

dogmatic or philosophical, the former were not allowed to perform ?ivaist rites or to pronounce ?ivaist mantras 1. Even the mantras used in different sections of the same religious community may be different; in the Chaurd section of the followers of Kabir there is only one mantra, but in the Chattisgarh section two mantras are given at the time of initiation. Among the followers of Rdmdnuja, the 'Southern School', being more liberal, provides for the teaching of the mantra Om namo ndrdyandya to all classes of people, while the Northern school omits the syllable Om when the formula is taught to non-Brahmans.

These beliefs, being indicative of a special mental structure 2 and which are in substance characteristic of many human communities at a certain stage of cultural development, were systematized and made a corner-stone of their doctrines by the Tantrists 3. The efficacy of mantras constituting their cardinal tenet, the spiritual background of their worship is primarily an effort to awaken the power ('consciousness') of the mantra in order to visualize the deity from inside. Basing themselves on the naive belief that there is a natural connection between a name and the object so named, that there is an inseparable relationship between these-the Visnuists going even so far as to consider the deity and his name coincident or identical-they describe the mantras, which are full of potentiality, as living representatives of deities. A mantra is therefore considered to be the riipa (form) of the deity. Any modification is significant. Thus, if the adherents of the ?ri-Vaisnava faith add the name ?ri to their mantra Om namo ndrdyandya they wish to indicate the importance of the divine grace and the effort of the spiritual aspirant.

This is why at the time of muttering (japa) 4 an adept (sddhaka) is required to ponder over the elements of the mantras and to call to mind the person of the deity presiding over it. What are called bijamantras ("seed-mantras" or basic mantras) are thus names and subtle forms of deities, i.e., of powers. According to Hinduist belief the so-called bfias ("germs", i.e., "sources" or "primary principles") are potent syllables believed to form the essential part of definite mantras which express the special power of a deity or a degree of 'holiness' and are correlated with the very essence of that god or state. Even the cosmos itself is

1 Hacker, Prahlada, p. 172. See also F. E. Keay, Kabir and his followers, Oxford 1936, p. 153.

2 See G. van der Leeuw, L'homme primitif et la religion, Paris 1940. 3 Cf. also M. P. Pandit, Kundalini Yoga, Madras 1959, p. 32 ff. 4 See, e.g., M. Eliade, Yoga, Essai sur les origines de la mystique indienne, Paris

1936, p. 214; J. Herbert, Spiritualite' hindoue, Paris 1947, p. 366 ff.; A. Dani6lou, Le polythdisme hindou, Paris I96O, p. 503 if.




structured and supported by potent formulas of this category '. Each deity has his or her own b'ja; thus krzm belongs to Kdli, rahi to Agni etc. The bijamantra

kl.m associated with the principal mantra enables the

initiate to exert influence on the universe in its entirety because it grants the fulfilment of all desires. The mdydmantra

(hri.m) puts him in a

position to be as small, light, great etc. as he wants, and the Sarasvati (the Indian Minerva) mantra (aim) grants him the highest degree of intelligence 2. Combination of 'basic mantras' may help to express 'complicated ideas'. It may be added that monosyllabic and in themselves senseless words played already an important part in the chant of the Vedic Sdman hymns. "The sacrifice is not (correctly) performed without the Sdman (chant), and the Siman is not chanted without having uttered hiui ... the word hiA means 'breath' " ... (?atap. Br. I, 4, I, I f.); "they sang praises with the gdyatri-stanza without the hiA" (ibid. 2, 2, 4, 1) 3.

The muttering of the divine name is even a special system of japa, which is believed to produce great effect because the name and its bearer are identical. In that case the name-the sound-symbol pregnant with all the potentialities of the Supreme Being-is accompanied by a bzia, because there cannot be an effective mantra without a bija. In the opinions of some authorities ndma-japa must be executed along with meditating over the meaning of the name (artha-bhdvand). That is to say, in repeating, for instance, the name of Krsna one must feel that the god, who is the Supreme Being, is constantly attracting one's whole being towards Himself.

Among those who followed the famous weaver-saint Kabir (? 1440- 1518), who while being influenced by ancient tantric and yogic traditions made them develop into elements of really deep spiritual significance, the idea of mantra grew, on the other hand, to become the inspired message of the spiritual teacher, furnishing, through him, the key to

1 Some particulars on japa are mentioned by P. V. Kane, History of Dharmasdstra II, Poona 1941, p. 685 ff. Mantras were for instance io8 or ioo8 times repeated.

2 Trailokyasammohanatantra, quoted in Haribhaktivildsa 16, 82-85. 3 Generally speaking all bijamantras are tantric in origin, "mais en m~me temps

il est tres int6ressant de d6couvrir que l'incantation Orm utilis6e avec l'incantation principale peut d6truire toutes les actions pr6c6dentes qui pouvaient constituer des obstacles sur le chemin de la lib6ration d6finitive (Haribhaktivildsa 17, 86). L'incantation Om aide donc l'adorateur k trouver le salut. Naturellement Om est 6galement un bijamantra, mais au lieu d'avoir son origine dans la tradition tdntrique, elle remonte k la p6riode v6dique. Aucun bijamantra cr66 la p6riode tdntrique ne sert k l'obtention du salut, ce n'est que par le bijamantra de la p6riode v6dique qu'il peut tre trouv6" (R. V. Joshi, Le rituel de la ddvotion K.rsnaite, Pondich6ry 1959, p. 38).



282 J. Gonda

the meaning of the universe. "Everything connected with the three worlds is contained in the fifty-two letters" (Adi Granth, Gauri I, 2). The word (?abda) is, moreover, the mysterious utterance of speech which conveys knowledge of the unknown and makes wise unto salvation,-an ancient thought of which these simple people were fully conscious. But this truth was especially understood in connection with the name of God, the Satndm ("the name of the one truth and reality"). Kabir was no philosopher, "but speech was obviously a mediation of the unknown, and as such, when that unknown was God, mystic and wonderful. It is not logos, or reason, but rather the testimony of him who knows, however he may have come to know-and that remains obscure-or again it is the name of God, which is itself the unutterable uttered, the hidden manifested" 1

As we now know the image of an Indian deity must conform strictly to the traditionally correct vision of the deity 2. Otherwise it would be useless for the purposes of worship. When fashioning an image the attitude of the artist-who must be a member of one of the upper classes-is to be the same as that of the devotee (bhaktah) who while contemplating it in daily worship endeavours to realize his identity with the god he worships and whose presence is sustained by the image. The artist must produce in clay, stone or metal the exact external counterpart of the inward vision of the god which he has 'seen' in yoga, accomplishing in this way a means of guiding a process of visualization and identification on the part of the devotee who will use the image. "The devotee" the Gandharva-tantra teaches, "having controlled his breath and taken up a handful of flowers, should then meditate on the deity in his heart; and beholding there by his grace that image, the substance of which is consciousness, he must mentally establish the identity of the internal and the external image". Next, the effulgent energy of the consciousness within is to be conducted without by means of the mystic, magic bija- syllable denoting wind, i.e., life-breath, which is yant. That is to say, this syllable which represents and evokes the force of the life-breath within him, must be muttered, so that that force is infused into the flowers. These flowers then function as a vehicle to bring the initiate's life-breath into the external image of the god so as to establish its identity with the essence of the god.

1 N. Macnicol, Indian Theism, Oxford 1915, P. 140 f. 2 See also H. Zimmer, The art of Indian Asia, I, New York 1955, P. 318 ff.;

A. K. Coomaraswamy, Pour comprendre l'art hindou, Paris 1926; D. Seckel, Bud- dhistische Kunst Ostasiens, Stuttgart 1957, passim, and bibliography, p. 257, n. 27; R. H. van Gulik, Siddham, Nagpur 1956.




Whereas the images represent the superhuman force of some divinity or divine saviour these powers or powerful beings are believed to exist not only in visual forms-which should be visualized in dhydna, i.e., concentrated meditation-but also in oral and written forms; specifically, in the mantras which are to evoke and conjure these powers into manifestation. The muttering of the right mantras in a silent and continuous repetition of its powerful elements (japa) steadies the mind bent on visualizing a divinity and invites the presence of the same. The mantras constitute the spiritual body, as known to mind and ear, whereas the tangible and visible image is the manifestation for touch and sight. The two supplement and complete each other, because they are parallel revelations of the selfsame divine essence which essentially is beyond both spheres 1.

The theory and practice of mantras is also closely associated with that of gestures (mudrds). As the mudrds are believed to contain all the secrecy of touch as associated with the potency attributed to the physiological (microcosmical)-macrocosmical system, so the mantras are supposed to contain all the secrecy of the potency of sound. Mantra and mudrd presuppose the theory and practice of the yantras or mandalas 2, i.e., complex arrangements of patterns or pictures used in tantrist Hinduism and Buddhism, consecrated areas to be kept pure for ritual and liturgical ends, protecting themselves from disintegrating forces, and-what is more-a representation of the cosmos, in its process of emanation and of reabsorption, as it develops from the one essential Principle; in religious ceremonies it is in a very complex liturgy used as a means of reintegration into the One that is All: the meditator has for that purpose to identify himself with the Supreme Essence or Principle represented by the graphic symbol. "If this concentration is not inter- rupted, in the centre of his own heart, the matrix of all things that can be created, he will see the syllable [mantra] hiam light up and from its incandescence he will see emanating the infinite number of divine forms which place themselves round about him, according to the plan of the mandala. They then reabsorb themselves in Him, thus renewing the primordial drama. The mystic, consubstantiated with the One Being, is transported outside time at that moment. He can then substitute for these visualized forms the more subtle structure of the man1dala, which, instead of such images, presents the mantras or germinal formulae of the Universal Essence" 3. Like mantras, yantras " 'mystic' figures" and

1 Cf., e.g., H. Zimmer, Philosophies of India, New York 1951, p. 23 f. 2 See G. Tucci, The theory and practice of the Mandala, London 1961 (esp. p.

47 f.); and compare Anagarika Brahmacari Govinda, Some aspects of stiipa sym- bolism, in Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art II (1934), p. 87 ff. 3 Tucci, o.c., p. 104 f.



284 J. Gonda

mudrds "gestures" play a role as outward means in the aspiration of a being towards the One and universal with the object of obtaining an inward illumination. The mantras and the other devices are accessory supports of the inward act. They are believed to have as their effect the production of rhythmic vibrations causing a repercussion throughout the indefinite series of states of the being.

The sacred formula or sequence of words may therefore be said to 'symbolize', nay to represent or incarnate the one pure and infinite Subject, the universal ground, "pure light and consciousness", by objectivizing it, leading the spirit lost in the labyrinth of objectivation back to the One, i.e., the pure subject. That is why with the aid of the divine name or with references to the deeds and qualities of the divine the spirit which has gone astray and feels separated so to say recollects that it is pure 'self', pure 'subject', pure 'consciousness' 1.

V From the above it may be clear that a mantra is not a prayer. This is,

however, not to contend that there are no mantras which may be used as prayers, or which are prayers from no point of view. In addition to some examples already given in the preceding pages, the Gdyatri may be quoted as an instance. This most famous stanza R1gveda 3, 62, Io composed in the Gdyatri metre and dedicated to the Sun (Savitar, the divine stimulator conceived of as the divine vivifying power of the sun) is in itself most evidently a prayer for illumination or inspiration; tat savitur varenyam bhargo devasya dhimahi / dhiyo yo nah pracodaydt "that we obtain that desirable (excellent) radiance of god Savitar who is to impel our 'visions' (intuitions, which are to be transformed into mantras)". Being addressed to Savitar it is also called Sdvitri. The Gdyatri is an instance of a 'prayer' which need not necessarily be accompanied by a sacrifice. Its muttering forms, from remote times to the present day, a vital part of a brahman's daily worship. No oblation, offering of somajuice or other sacrificial rite accompanies it when it is, as a so-called sandhyd 2, offered two, or sometimes three times a day --in the morning (, at noon,) and in the evening3. Nowadays it is said at any one convenient time, but mostly in the morning. This mantra, daily repeated by the twice-born, tended to keep alive also the memory of the Sun-god 4, the eternal source of life and inspiration.

1 See also F. Schuon, Language of the self, Madras 1959, p. 15 ff. 2 Religious acts performed by members of the three highest classes of society

at the junctures of the divisions of the day. 3 For some particulars see Avalon, Principles of Tantra 2, p. 270 f. 4 For the worship of Sfirya see my Veda und dilterer Hinduismus (= Die Religionen




The authorities on Vedic ritual prescribe the instruction in the Gayatri as part of the upanayana ceremony: a boy is to be taught and initiated by a spiritual guide (guru) who invests him with the sacred thread, teaches him, in a very elaborate and ceremonial way, the Gdyatri etc. Formerly this ceremony preceded a long period of education during which the boy was also initiated into the Veda 1. In more recent times the Gayatri is whispered three times into the boy's ear and the latter has to repeat it as many times. As the mantra is not repeated in the presence of others, guests etc. have to leave the room. After that ceremony the boy is permitted to participate in the rites and to recite verses of the Veda 2. The ceremony itself makes the youth a dvi a, i.e., imparts him his second or spiritual birth. "That birth which a teacher acquainted with the whole Veda in accordance with the rules procures for him through the Sdvitri is real, exempt from age and death" (Manu 2, 148). According to some authorities on Vedic ritual 3 the Sdvitri into which a brahman youth was to be initiated must be the Gdyatri stanza. For a ksatriya, however, it must have the form of a

tris.tubh stanza, viz. R.V.

I, 35, 2, in which Savitar is said to approach on a golden chariot, looking at world and creatures and, when bringing darkness, causing them to rest. A member of the third class (vaigya) must be initiated by means of a jagats stanza, e.g., RiV. 4, 40, 5 (which praises Agni, as sun, atmospheric, ritual and domestic fire etc.) or I, 35, 9, in which Savitar is described as moving between heaven and earth and warding off diseases 4.

For the application of the Sdvitri one might refer to Satapatha- Brdhmana 2, 3, 4, 39 "Then follows the verse dedicated to Savitar,-for S. is the impeller (prasavitd) of the gods; and thus all his (i.e., the sacrificer's) wishes (kdmdh) are fulfilled (sam.rdhyante), impelled as they are by S. (savitrprasitdi eva) . . .". Whereas in 13, 6, 2, 9 the recitation of the stanzas VS. 30, 1-3, one of which is the Sdvitri, is said to please or propitiate

(prn.dti) the god Savitar, so that he impels (prasauti) the

performers of the rite, the BrhaddraInyaka-Upanisad 6, 3, 6 (= Sat. Br. 14, 9, 3, II) combining this mantra with other formulas already pre- scribes its use in an elaborated rite, viz. a ceremony and incantation for

Indiens I) Stuttgart 1960, p. 94 f. and J. N. Farquhar, An outline of the religious literature of India, Oxford 1920, p. 151 ff.

1 See A. Hillebrandt, Ritual-Literatur, Strassburg 1897, p. 53 f. 2 For a somewhat detailed description of the ceremony as performed in modern

times see M. Stevenson, The rites of the Twice-born, London 1920, p. 27 ff.; P. Thomas, Hindu Religion, customs and manners, Bombay, p. 89 f. 3 I refer to Hillebrandt, o.c., p. 54. Cf., e.g., i?zkhayanag.rhyasitra

2, 5, 4-7. 4 A long article could be written on the 'mysticism' of the metres. The gayatri

"the smallest metre" is for instance said to have, as a falcon, carried off the Soma from heaven (gatap. Br. I, 7, I, I; I, 8, 2, Io).



286 J. Gonda

the attainment of a great wish: sipping from a definite mixed potion one should pronounce the Svitri together with the Sweet-verses while pronouncing the wish: "May I become all this, 0 Earth, Atmosphere, and Sky!" The traditional translation of the verb dhimahi is here also "let us meditate" 1. For worship of the sun, i.e., of the Atman in the form of the sun the stanza is used MaiUp. 6, 7, stating that according to the brahmavcdina1h the sun, Savitar, is to be sought by one desirous of the Atman. "Because Savitar is God (devah) I meditate (cintaydmi, explication of dhimahi) upon that which is called his light (bhargah)". The last line is explained as follows: buddhayo vai dhiyas tad yo 'smdkam pracodaydt "thoughts are meditations; and he will stimulate these for us".

It is small wonder that the Sivitri like so many other important concepts in Indian thought could be represented as a person. As such she is Sdvitrf, the wife of Brahmd; in Hinduism she became the object of worship 2. It may be added that the two names of the mantra give rise to two female figures: according to the purdnic mythological tale 3 Gdyatri was procured by the god Indra to Brahma as a substitute for Sdvitri who, being engaged in managing household affairs, could find no time to attend a sacrifice instituted by her husband!

In the purinas stories are not wanting the underlying motive of which is to raise the position of the Vedas, to attract the public to their study by holding out a prospect of omniscience to those who read them and to win more respect for the Sdvitri, "the mother of the Veda" 4.

The same tendency is obvious in the case of individual spiritual leaders and founders of so-called sects (which in some cases are, rather, religions). Gorakndth (who may have flourished about the beginning of the XIIIth century 6) for instance taught that by the mere desire to recite the Gayatri which is the giver of final emancipation, the yogins are freed from all sins and demerit (Goraksa'ataka 44); "knowledge and insight

1 See, e.g., also E. Senart, B.rhad-dran.yaka-upanisad,

Paris 1934, P. III: "l'6clat du dieu, consid6rons-le". Similar reinterpretations-and until the present day differences in translating-may, e.g., be signalized with regard to RV. 5, 82, I turam bhagasya dhimahi; the last quarter quoted in ChUp. 5, 2, 7 is translated by R. E. Hume, The thirteen principal Upanishads, Oxford 1934, P. 230 "the Giver's strength may we attain!", by Radhakrishnan, Princ. Upan., p. 425 f.: "we meditate on the strength of the god".

2 For particulars Avalon, Principles of Tantra, p. 268 ff. 3 R. C. Hazra, Studies in the puranic records on Hindu rites and customs, Dacca

1940, p. 121.

4 See e.g. Hazra, o.c., p. 238 f. 5 J. N. Farquhar, An outline of the religious literature of India, Oxford 1920,

p. 253.




like this neither was nor shall be". In order to give an idea of the severe self-discipline involved in the practices of the Indian ascetics O'Malley 1 quotes the case of a teacher who ordered those who resorted to him the repetition of the Gdyatri until the total of a million times had been reached; moreover, each time that it was repeated the disciple had to meditate on its meaning. Those whom he judged to be weaker vessels were merely ordered to write the name of RMma on bits of paper and to throw these into the river.

What, however, deserves our special attention is that this famous and important mantra had already at an early moment become the object of esoterical speculation and 'mystic' explanation. In the Brhaddranyaka- upanisad (5, 14) the sacred Gayatri mantra is esoterically explained. The long passage begins with the observation that the formula "earth, atmosphere, heaven" (bhiamir antariksam diyauh) makes eight syllables, that is, one "foot" (part) of the gdyatri metre (which consists of three times eight syllables) 2. "He who knows the 'foot' of the Gayatri to be such wins as much as there is in these three 'worlds' ". That man is, in a similar way, said to be possessed of all that which there is in the threefold knowledge of the Veda, because the words rcas, yajamsi, sdmdni (the names of the three categories of mantras contained in the three Vedas 3 make, again, eight syllables. He wins, moreover, as much as breathes in this world. There is, however, a fourth 'foot', the visible, which is above-the-darksome, i.e., the Sun. The man who knows that foot to be thus glows, like the Sun, with lustre and glory. The Gdyatri is based upon that fourth, visible foot, which in its turn rests on truth, which again is based on life-breath. At this point of the argument the conclusion is drawn that the Gdyatri mantra protects the life-breath of the man who learns it, because the formula is "thus founded with regard to the dtman, the 'self' or 'soul' ": it protects (trd) the gaydh, i.e., literally "the house, household", but here, for the sake of this 'etymological' explanation, interpreted as "the life-breaths" 4. The first foot of the

1 L. S. S. O'Malley, Popular Hinduism, Cambridge 1935, p. 198 f. 2 Among the subjects developed in the later Tantric speculations is also the

doctrine already found in the Upanisads that the metres have an important influence on life. Being credited with a special psychological significance they correspond with our emotions; there exists a relation between the specific character of the metre and the specific spiritual oscillations in our being (see also M. Sircar, Hindu mysticism according to the Upanisads, London 1934, P. 251).

3 The.rcas (RI.gveda) are to be recited, the yajimnsi (Yajurveda) are to accompany the sacrificial acts; the samani (Simaveda) are sung.

4 This passage has recently been discussed also by Dr. J. M. van Gelder, Der Atman in der Grossen-Wald-Geheimlehre, 's-Gravenhage 1957. As is well known etymologies or pseudo-etymologies are, in the brdhmanas, often used as arguments. See, e.g., my article in the periodical Lingua 5 (1955), p. 61 ff.



288 J. Gonda

stanza is, as a gift, equivalent to the wealth of the threefold universe, the second foot is equivalent to the threefold knowledge of the Vedas etc. The warning is added that one should not teach a pupil the Sivitri as an

anus.tubh metre, because, according to some authorities, the anustubh is equivalent to speech and in this way speech would be imparted to the pupil. From this we may infer, first that there existed already at an early moment (VIth cent. B.C.) at least one variant of this famous strophe, and, in the second place, that the Indians were, then already, keenly aware of the fact that speech may be reduced to a definite or systematic order by means of the metres. Towards the end of the chapter the author subjoins a 'magical' application: should the man who knows the Gdyatri bear hatred towards anyone, he should (while reciting the mantra) pronounce the words: "may his wish not prosper!"

One of those upanisad-like texts which constitute a considerable part of the Gopathabrdhmana 1 is the interesting so-called Gdyatri-upanisad (I, I, 31-38) 2. In this treatise there is question of the study of "the Sdvitri gdyatri of twentyfour 'wombs' (yoni) and twelve pairs (mithuna), of which the Bhrgus and Afigirases (two mythical families of priests) are the eye, in which the complete universe is contained". The words of the formula are made the object of an esoterical interpretation: the question as to what the inspired sages (kavayah) mean by savitur varen yam is answered thus: "the desirable of the sun" is the Vedas and their metrical text (veddmi chanddmsi); the "brilliant light of the god" is explained by the inspired sages as "food", dhiyah as "works" 3. Next Savitar, the Sun, and the Sdvitri are successively identified with a large number of entities, which are declared to be yonis, and pairs, for instance the sun is identified with manah ('mind'), the Sdvitri with speech; both are considered a yoni, and together they constitute a pair. Thus both Savitar and the Sdvitri are explained as representing twelve 'cosmic pairs', Agni and the earth, Sun and heaven, sacrifice and sacrificial gift etc. Then follows an exposition of the supposed mystic correlation of the three verses (pddas) of the mantra with three sets of fundamental entities of twelve each, the first with the earth, the Rlgveda verses, fire, prosperity, woman, pair, off- spring, (ritual) work, asceticism, truth, brahman (neuter), the brahman (masculine) and vow or observance, religious devotion (vratam) which are successively "connected" or "brought together". The man who knows this and who while knowing this recites the first verse of the

1 M. Bloomfield, The A tharva-veda and the Gopatha-brahmana, Strassburg 1899, p. 10I ff., esp. p. iio.

2 Cf. Rajendraldla Mitra, Gopatha-Brahmanza, Calcutta 1872, p. 19 ff. 3 For this equation see also my The vision of the Vedic poets, chapter on dhi-.




Savitri will, as to life and line of descendants, be secure from interruption. The second verse correlates with the atmosphere, the formulas of the Yajurveda, wind etc., the third with heaven, the chant of the Samaveda, the sun etc. The final member of each series is the vrata. The subject ends with holding out a prospect of prosperity to the man who reverently studies this text and identifies himself with its contents.

In order to give an idea of the soteriological speculations of which much-used mantras, and especially the Gayatri, came in the course of time to be the subject, the contents of the short Sdvitri Upan. may be summarized here. After an introduction in which the Sun (Savitar) is identified with a number of entities which for the greater part are masculine, Savitri with other entities, so as to form pairs (e.g. Savitar as "mind" (manas), Sdvitri as "speech" (vdc)) 1, the formula is explained: the first verse (bhis tat savitur varen yam) refers to Fire, Water, Moon which are desirable (varenyam) etc. "He who understands the Sdvitri thus conquers repeated death. The text may also be applied when one wishes to avert hunger. After some indications with a view to ritual application and meditation the author finally subjoins an extended version of the formula: hrim (a bija) bale mahddevi hrim mahdbale klfim (a bija) catur- vidhapurusdrthasiddhiprade tat savitur varaddtmike

hri.m varenyam

bhargo devasya varaddtmike atibale sarvadaydmfirte bale sarvaksudbhra- mopandlini dhimahi dhiyo yo no jdte pracuryah yd pracodaydd dtmike

pran.avasiraskatmike hum pha.t svdhd. The inserted words are to invoke

the goddess as very powerful, as a giver of success with regard to the four goals of life, as conferring all boons, as the embodiment of all compassion and the destroyer of all hunger and confusion etc. "He who knows thus has attained his purpose and will reside in the same heaven as the goddess S~vitri". - Other instances are found Mahdndr. Upan. 71 ff.; 284.

In later times the much-used stanza has often been the subject of speculations and re-interpretations. The main reinterpretation-which, however, as already observed, occurs already in the Maitri Upan. 6, 7- concerns the verb dhimahi in the second stanza. It is secondarily explained as "may we meditate" (yo 'sya bhargdkhyas tam cintaydmi "upon that which is called his (the sun's, Savitar's, God's splendour do I reflect", Maitri Up.). Hence frequent translations such as: "that excellent glory of Savitar, the god we meditate, that he may stimulate our prayers". It is, however, not advisable to substitute this interpretation for the original one when translating older texts 2

1 This passage is similar to and in part identical with Gopatha-br. I, I, 33. 2 The above translation was given by A. B. Keith (Taittiriya-Sarmhitd, I, 5, 6, 4):

The Veda of the Black Yajus School, Harvard 1914, P. 75 (similarly, TS. 4, I, II, I). Oriens 16 19



290 J. Gonda

Hence also such interpretations as: "Om; let us contemplate upon the Adorable Spirit of the Divine Creator who is in the form of the Sun; may He direct our minds towards attainment of the four-fold aims (dharma, artha, kdma, moksa) of all sentient beings; Om" 1

According to the explication the Self of all that exists in the three regions assumes a visible appearance in the form of the Sun-god. Brahman being the cause of all becomes visible as the great Eye of the world which reveals and vivifies all beings and all things. According to the later interpretation, prevalent in Tdntric circles, Savitar, the Sun, is regarded as the cause or producer of all that exists and of the state in which it exists. He is the deity from which the universe has emanated and into which it will be again absorbed. Time is of and in Him. By bhargah the same interpreters mean the Adityadevata dwelling in the region of the sun in all his might and glory and being to the sun what the dtman ("soul") is to our body. Bhargah is, however, not only the light in the sun, it also dwells in our inner selves. That is to say, that being whom the sddhaka realizes in the region of his heart is the sun in the firmament. The term bhargah referring, in the eyes of these interpreters, to the ideas of ripening, maturing, destroying, revealing and shining; Sfirya in this connection is he who matures and transforms all things, and who reveals all things by his light; it is moreover he who will in his form of destructive fire destroy all things. Semantically speaking, this explication of bhargah is an extravagance. As is often the case, here also an etymological explication is added which not only is incompatible with the former, but

This translation, apart from exhibiting some less felicitous renderings of single words follows the tradition according to which dhimahi belongs, as a present injunctive to the verb dhi-, didhi- in the sense of "thinking, meditating". This form, however "belongs here only as thus used later, with a false apprehension of its proper meaning" (W. D. Whitney, The roots, verb-forms ... of the Sanskrit language, Leipzig 1885, p. 83): compare, e.g., Sdyana's paraphrase: yah savitd devah nah

asmakam, dhiyah karnmai dharmddi-visaya va buddhih pracodayJt prerayet

tat tasya devasya savituh sarvdntarydmitayd prerakasya jagatsras.tuh parameivarasya varenyamn sarvaih updsyatayd inieyataya ca sarmbhajaniyanm bhargah avidyatat- karyayor bharjandd bhargah

svaya.jyotih parabrahmatmakhar tejah dhimahi

vayamn dhy~yamah. Identifying in this explanation the verb with a form of dhyd- "to contemplate, meditate on" the same commentator, however, subjoins several other interpretations. According to the first the words bhargo dhimahi are to be commented upon by: kim tad ity apeksdyama; according to the second they mean:

Pdpana.n tdpakamn tejomandalam dhimahi dhyeyatayd manasa dh~rayema. Explain-

ing, in the next lines, bhargah by annam, he also proposes: yah savitJ devo dhiyah procodayati tasya prasJdad bhargo 'nnddilakhsanan phalamn dhimahi dharayamah; tasyddhdrabhitat bhavemety arthah, quoting GopBr. I, 32, 6. Cf. also K. R. Venkata- raman, in: The Cultural Heritage of India, IV, Calcutta 1956, p. 257, and L. A. Ravi Varma, ibidem, p. 460 f.

1 See J. Woodroffe, Shakti and Shakta 3, Madras-London 1929, p. 457.




also untenable: bhargah would also indicate that the sun divides (bha) all things, produces the different colours (ra) and is constantly going and returning (ga). The term deva "god" according to the same interpretations indicates that Silrya, being a god, is radiant and playful (lild): he is indeed in constant play with creation, existence, and destruction; by his playfulness (radiance) he pleases all. He should be adored and meditated upon (dhkmahi) that we may be relieved of the misery of birth and death. Although the stanza does not expressly state so it is understood that the deity is hoped to direct the devotee along the above four-fold path 1. It may be noticed that among the interpretations given of the Savitri there is also a grammatically impossible one according to which the first word tat (= tesdm) refers to bhilr bhuvah svah "earth, atmosphere, heaven" which are made to precede the ancient formula: "let us ... the light of these, viz. earth, atmosphere, heaven"

2. On the fixed form and stereotyped features assumed by a ritual prayer Heiler3 at the time made some remarks which-with some modifications in order to reduce their evolutionistic character-may be repeated here. 'Die streng fixierte Gebetsformel' is not foreign to so- called primitive peoples. "Am Feste der Erstlingsfriichte spricht der Buschmann-Hiuptling ein Gebet, das jaihrlich in derselben Weise wiederholt wird" 3. "Das biegsame, elastische Schema, das in freier Weise dem konkreten Augenblicksbediirfnis angepasst wird, ist das Bindeglied zwischen der spontanen, formlosen Affektaiusserung und der genau fixierten Formel, die als Traditionsgut weitergegeben wird. Die diesen Erstarrungsprozess bedingenden bzw. begiinstigenden Momente sind die hWiufige Wiederkehr des Gebetsanlasses wie die enge Verbindung mit bestimmten Ritualhandlungen ... Als sekundaire Momente kommen in Betracht ein wachsendes Geffihl der Unsicherheit gegeniiber der Gottheit, das sich nur bei festen Formeln beruhigt, sowie der Mangel selbstindiger Ausdrucksftihigkeit, der zur Beniitzung von Formularen zwingt". "Die Gebetsformel ist streng verbindlich, ihre Wortlaut ist unantastbar, sakrosankt ... Sie besitzt eine ungeheuere Stabilitit ..." 4. There are, however, also ritual formulas which were made or composed with a view to definite aims. "Diese sind jedoch keine freien Gebete, eingegeben von dem Affekt des Augenblicks, sondern absichtlich ver- fasst, komponiert oder doch prdimeditiert nach dem Muster anderer

1 See Sir John Woodroffe, The Garland of Letters2, Madras 1951, p. 265 ff.; see also p. 276 ff. Cf. also the same (A. Avalon), Principles of Tantra, ch. IV.

2 See Sir John Woodroffe, The Garland of Letters2, p. 265. 3 F. Heiler, Das Gebet, Miinchen 1918, p. 133 ft. 4 Cf. also Heiler, Das Gebet, p. 363.



292 J. Gonda

Gebetsformeln. Sie sind meist das Elaborat bewusst schaffender Priester oder Beamten. Die Fassung solcher Gebete muss strengen Anforderungen genfigen". However, notwithstanding the marked predilection for fixed prayers, creeds, hymns etc. instances of variation do, like cases of reinterpretation, not fail to occur 1. Luther, for instance, in praying the Lord's prayer did not keep close to the words of the text, because, he observed, "the same thought can be expressed otherwise, with more or less words" 2.

Vdlmiki, the 'author' of the Rdmdyana who received the name of Rdma-who was considered a manifestation of the god Visnu-as a mantra, was also taught the inverse order of this name: mard, which was explained as "I9vara (Lord) Jagat (World)", i.e., "first God, then the Universe" 3. Another form of variation is frequently prescribed in Hinduist handbooks (purinas, tantras): taking a mantra of a certain number of syllables (i.e., aksaras, vowel + consonant) for a god-e.g., the well-known Om namo bhagavate Vdsudevdya ("Om homage to the reverend Vdsudeva") one has to repeat each aksara according to the formula Om omkdrdya namah svdhd "Om, homage to the syllable Om, svdhd etc." 4. Already in the Brhaddranyaka-upanisad, 6, 3, 6 the three verses of the famous mantra are separated from each other so as to combine with the three verses of RV. I, 90, 6; 7 and 8, constituting in this way three stanzas of four lines

(anus.tubh). Each stanza is followed

by one of the three words bhfir bhuvah suvah (svar) "earth, atmosphere, heaven" which are a frequent accompaniment of the Gayatri. There is in this connection room for the observation that in harmony with a principle of Vedic poetical technics (their 'formulaic' character) part of the elements of R.V. 3, 62, Io combine also elsewhere: cf. I, 159, 5 tad rddho adya savitur varenyaim vayam devasya prasave mandmahe. Such occurrences have no doubt facilitated the production of variants.

Whereas the Vedic Gdyatri is forbidden to fidras and women of all rank, the Tantras have a Gdyatri of their own which does not show such exclusiveness. In the Mahdnirvinatantra 3, og9 ff. the worshippers of Brahman are informed of the Brahma-Gdyatri which confers the successful fulfilment of all aims of life, final emancipation included. It runs as follows: parameivardya vidmahe paratattvdya dhimahi, tan no brahma pracodaydt which is usually interpreted as "let us know the Supreme Lord; let us contemplate the Supreme Reality; and that Brahman must

5 See also Heiler, Erscheinungsformen, p. 325 if. 2 Heiler, Das Gebet, p. 293. 3 See J. Herbert, L'enseignement de Ramakrishna, Paris 1949, p. 270. 4 The complete alphabet could in this way serve as a varied mantra (Kane,

History, IV, p. 900goo f.). For the power inherent in the alphabet see also G. van der Leeuw, Religion in essence and manifestation, London 1938, p. 435 ff.




stimulate (direct) us" 1. It may be observed that apart from the general metrical form this formula has the words dhimahi and pracodaydt, occurring in the same place, in common with the famous IRgvedic stanza. Everything which is done, the text continues, be it worship or sacrifice, bathing, drinking, or eating, should be accompanied by the recitation of this mantra.

In a more extended form and in accordance with a traditional form the Gayatri runs also as follows 2: "This new and excellent praise of thee, O splendid playful sun, is offered by us to thee. Be gratified by this speech of mine; approach this craving mind as a loving man seeks a woman. May that Sun (Pfisan) who contemplates, and looks into, all worlds be our protector. Let us meditate on the adorable light of the Divine Ruler. May it guide our intellects. Desirous of food, we solicit the gift of the splendid Sun (Savitar) with oblations and praise".

In the purdnic and tantric liturgies the ancient Gdyatri was not rarely, in accordance with this tantric model, modified and adapted to the needs and requirements of a Hindu religion. In other cases it was made a model or standard to be followed and imitated by the worshippers of some Hindu god or the adepts of a soteriologic mysticism. Thus it reads in the Garu<da Purdna 23, 5 f. "then he should mutter the Gdyatri 'Om hdm tam mahe'dya vidmahe, vdgvisuddhdya dhimahi / tan no rudrah pracodaydt' ", which means "we (let us) make the Great Lord the aim of our knowledge, let us contemplate the purity of speech, Rudra (= iva) must stimulate us with regard to that". In the Khlikd Purina, 66, 22 there occurs a similar and somewhat extended variant, the stanza consisting of four quarters: kdmdkhydyai ca vidmahe kdmesvaryai tu dhimahi / tatah kurydn mahddevi tata cdnupracodaydt, the goddess to be meditated on being Kdmdkhyd, i.e., Durgd or Kdli. Thus the ancient formula was, while retaining its metre or rhythm and even part of the original words, enriched by new elements so as to be equal to new applications. Those followers of Caitanya whose main interest is a life of devotion may follow elaborate directions for the worship of the guru, Caitanya and Krsna (with Radha). The second part of these threefold ceremonies is characterized, inter alia, by a repeated muttering of the 'Gdyatri' "I know Caitanya, I meditate on Vi'vambhar (= C.); may the knowledge of Gaur (= C.) be revealed unto me" 3. Thus the Gdyatri had, in later times, various developments, many gods and religious movements possessing

1 See, e.g., A. Avalon, The Great Liberation, Madras 1927, p. 55; the same (J. Woodroffe), The Garland of Letters2, p. 267.

2 See, e.g., Thomas, o.c., p. 32. 3 M. T. Kennedy, The Chaitanya movement, Oxford 1925, p. 190,.



294 J. Gonda

their own variation. Preserving an evident analogy with the original pattern these variations contain after a bija mantra, the statement of knowing or recognizing a particular deity (vidmahe), next the 'meditation' (dlhmahi), then the last stage of soliciting the god's guidance and stimu- lation (pracodaydt).

These variations, like the name of the mantra itself, even found their way into Indonesia 1. Moreover, the second verse of the Gdyatri proper, i.e., the words bhargo devasya dhlmahi are-it is true in a corrupted form, barga dewo siadi mahi-found in a remarkable medley of mantras which are to be recited by the priest when putting on the sacrificial thread. The above words are introduced by a formula containing the words vedamantra gdyatri 2.

VI It is easily intelligible that the Vedic mantras used for ritual or

sacramental purposes though believed to be divinely inspired are by the great mass of the people often regarded as merely a spell or charm which will keep off evil and misfortune 3 or bring about supranormal effects 4. Such is the fate of important Buddhist texts of great philosophical value, which degenerated into magical formulas or charms used to assuage all pains or to preserve a man from calamity 5. But also definite Buddhist schools of thought, especially the Vajraydnists 6, a Buddhist variety of Tantrism, believe blindly in the great supranormal power of that concentrated form of transcendental truth and might that are the mantras: "what is there impossible for mantras to perform when applied according to the rules-which, it must be added, are strict, minute, and numerous-" (Sdhanamdld, p. 575). They are even considered to be a means of obtaining the status of a buddha or of washing away the five great sins.

1 See R. Goris, Bijdrage tot de kennis der Oud-Javaansche en Balineesche Theologie, Leiden 1926, p. 18; 44 ff.; 83; 142.

2 For the so-called Balinese Vedas see Goris, o.c., p. 137. 3 The speculations of the medical schools, the so-called "knowledge of a full life-time" (Ayurveda) is closely connected with the Atharvaveda (see, e.g., S. Das- gupta, A history of Indian philosophy, II, Cambridge 1932, ch. XIII): a physician should, according to the Carakasarmhita I, 30, 20 particularly be attached to this authoritative body. The Atharvaveda, consisting of texts mainly intended to counteract diseases and calamities, deals, the author continues, with the treatment of diseases by advising propitiatory rites, offerings, penances, purifications, fasting and mantras.

4 Cf., e.g., E. Thurston, Omens and superstitions of Southern India, London 1912, passim.

5 See, e.g., C. H. S. Ward, Buddhism, II, London 1952, p. 68 f. 6 See, e.g., H. von Glasenapp, Die Entstehung des Vajraydna, in ZDMG go (1936),

p. 546 ff.; R. Tajima, Etude sur le Mahavairocanasiitra, Paris 1936.




Whereas at first the mantras, as far as we know, were mainly used in magico-religious rites, for the purpose of furtherance of wordly interests and protection from danger, in the course of time, and among the Buddhists from the VIIth century onward, an ever-increasing use was made of them in order to prevent evil powers from interfering with the devotee's spiritual life. They became in sections of the religious communities the device par excellence by which the spirit ascends toward the deity, the chief vehicle of salvation, the very key to final emancipation. This was especially the case when in Mahayvnist Buddhism, which incorporating not only numerous Hindu-Buddhist elements but also local, non-Aryan and non-Indian cults, proved to be very accessible to Tantric influences, a large number of general Indian rituals had been adopted. In the eyes of those who believed in their omnipotence and infallibility they can confer even Buddhahood. Thus the whole subject of mantras came to be treated as an elaborate 'science'. Special chapters on 'charms' came, from the IIIrd century A.D. onward to be added to important Buddhist texts, and a special form of Buddhist Tantrism, the Mantraydna, came into existence . As is indicated by its name its doctrines centred round the potent formulas. In a certain stage of development the outstanding figure of the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, who by his miraculous power and by his infinite care and skill affords safety to those who are anxious, acquiring, in the course of time, sovereignty over the world, ended by becoming a great magician who owes his power to his mantras. As the ancient Vedic mantras were inspired by gods or 'seen' by rsis, thus the Buddhist mantras were given to the devout by bene- volent higher beings. The famous Tibetan Om mani padme hiam is one of Avalokite'vara's most precious gifts to mankind.

The mantra-element seems to have been introduced in Mahayana Buddhism first in the form of the dhdrani, the 'mystic' syllable credited with the capacity of keeping up the spiritual life of the initiate. The famous philosopher Vasubandhu (IVth cent. A.D.) gave, in his Bodhi- sattvabhfimi, an exposition of the nature of the dhiranis and a philosophical explanation for the utilization of mantras for the realization of the ultimate truth. Several classes of dhdranis are distinguished, one of them leading to memory, perfect insight, generosity etc., another, the mantra- dhdran.i, to perfection. What may interest us most is that Vasubandhu 2 adds a philosophical explanation of how the mantras enable the initiate to realize the very nature of the dharmas (i.e., potencies, atoms-of-being, or elements-of-existence which through the influence of karma combine

1 See, e.g., G. Rosenkranz, Der Weg des Buddha, Stuttgart 1960, p. 91 ff, 2 Vasubandhu, Bodhis, p. 272 ff. U.W. (Tokyo).



296 J. Gonda

so as to constitute the transient phenomena), that is to say, how syllables such as iti mi.ti kiti bhiksdmti paddni svdhi, the meaninglessness of which is expressly taught, enable the initiate to understand, by pure intuition, that the nature of the dharmas is meaningless and to bring about the revolution of a unique and immutable transcendental meaning which is the real nature of All 1. However, the same Vasubandhu also observed sceptically that herbs rather than mantras are, in case of illness, the curative agent, but that the doctors claim that the drug is successful only through the formula which is their professional secret 2. The fact may indeed not be suppressed that a reaction came in the form of groups of spiritual leaders and yogins who revolted against this 'magical' belief in mantras, rituals and ceremonies etc. and who while stressing esoteric religious doctrines and purely spiritual realization of the oneness with the Absolute, dispensed with these external means: "the truth is not to be muttered as a mantra".

In order to appreciate the function of mantras in Tantric Buddhism the process of muttering (japa) according to the Mahdvairocanastitra may be recalled to mind. After the contemplative recitation, which has four aspects-reciting the mantra while contemplating their elements (the so-called 'heart enlightenment'); distinguishing the sounds of the elements; understanding the significance of the phrases; the regulation of the breath in order to contemplate the mutual interpenetration of the devotee and the Buddha-there follows the recitation accompanied by offerings (flowers etc.) and the 'recitation of realization' which brings about the success (siddhi) desired.

Naturally enough, the relations between mantras and other supranormal power were susceptible to different interpretations. Thus the author of the Mahivairocanastitra (ch. 4) was of the opinion that the miraculous force residing in these formulas was due to the original vow of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, so that by pronouncing them one acquires merit without limits. The Buddha has, so to say, consecrated them and exerted upon them an inconceivable influence. According to the Tibetans it is in order to attain to an enlightened attitude even nowadays necessary, not only to be in harmony with the dharma, learned, and disciplined, but also to be able to grasp and understand what is meant by the mantras 3. In their country mantras appear in

1 See, e.g., also S. Bh. Dasgupta, Obscure religious cults as background of Bengali Literature, Calcutta 1946, passim.

2 E. Conze, Buddhism, Oxford 1951 (1953), P. 181. 3 sGam.po.pa, Jewel Ornament of Liberation, translated and annotated by

H. V. Guenther, London 1959, p. 118.




Tibetanized Sanskrit. For instance, on sitting down to expound and learn the dharma one should recite the mantra which overcomes the power of Mdra (i.e., Death representing the phenomenal world as opposed to Liberation) in order to make sure that no obstacles can arise: "Peace, peace, appeaser of enemies, conqueror of Mdra, thou who wearest a garland of skulls, thou resplendent one, thou who lookest around, art pure and immaculate and removest all stains; thou who lookest every- where, who bindest all evil and art thyself free from the fetters of Mdra ..., let all the devilish impediments vanish"'

The importance of mantras in Indonesian tradition-which in cult and belief has been strongly influenced by India-may appear from the following narratives. "?iva and his wife Devi ?ri were walking once in the mountain Waralau. Moved by the lovely beauty of the place ?iva wanted to enjoy his wife. She would not and while he strove with her two drops of sperma fell into a hollow of the mountain. The god said mantras over them, and they became twins, a boy and a girl ..." 2. When according to the well-known Indian tale Smara, the god of love, wished to disturb ?iva's meditation in order to focus his attention on Parvati, but ?iva did not awake, Kdma concentrating his thoughts so as to produce a mantra let this powerful spell enter ?iva's mind with the result that the latter awoke 3. In the medieval story of the witch Calon Arang the famous rsi Bharadah was unable to restore by means of a mantra a tree which had been burned to ashes by the strong glance of the witch. In another story a child is made a demon by the mantras of a priest and when this man hid himself to listen to the priest's secret instruction and so heard the mantras, the priest had no choice but to ordain him 4.

1 Guenther, o.c., p. 159.--For the reinterpretation of the well-known Tibetan mantra Orm magi padme hum see, e.g., E. J. Thomas, in JRAS 19o6, p. 464.

2 B. de Zoete and W. Spies, Dance and drama in Bali, London 1938 (1952), p. 105. 3 Ibidem, p. 324- 4 Ibidem, p. 305.-For mantras in the island of Bali see also the

Gan.zapati- tattwa, ? 28 (ed. Sudarshana Devi Singal, New Dehli 1958). For the migration of the 'magic syllable' Om (India, Tibet, Further India, Indian Archipelago) see J. J. Boeles, in: India Antiqua (Festschrift J. Ph. Vogel), Leiden 1947, p. 40.



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Gonda- Indian Mantra