God's Holiness

Copyright 1988 by Rosemead School of Psychology Biola University, 0091-6471/410-730

Journal of Psychology and Theology 1988, Vol. 16, No. 3, 213-221

Theory and Practice

God's Holiness and Humanity's Self-Esteem

WILLIAM G. BRITT, IIILoma Linda University Medical School Loma Linda, California

The postulate that the holiness of God has a direct bearing on the self-esteem needs of human beings is integratively explored. Gods holiness is defined and elucidated in relation to both Old and New Testament believers. The process by which believers partake of his * holiness is tied to his dwelling among them. Self-esteem is defined from a psychological perspective. Both the basic components and specific facilitators of human self-esteem are identified and are shown to be satisfied by partaking of his holiness.

means separation, a cutting off, apartness, to divide, to withdraw, to set apart (Bavinck, 1951/1977; Douglas, 1962; Hoekema, 1971; Wood, 1975). Earliest references did not include an ethical meaning, but more of a separateness from the common (Bavinck, 1951/1977) and dedication to the sacred (Douglas, 1962). Hagios in Greek and Hellenistic writing signified the object of awe, whether in reverence or aversion, and was used as an epithet of the gods. Herodotus used the term to denote sanctuary (Kittel, 1964). The same thought of separation and consecration as qados occurs since New Testament writers Hebraicized the term (Douglas, 1962). Jehovah MKaddesh is an expression of Jehovahs character and his design for his people (Lockyer, 1975). Once again, the meaning is to set apart or separate, is applied to times, places, and persons, and has God as the main point of contact (Stone, 1944). When applied to God, it does not refer to process, but to essence, for God is absolutely and eternally holy (Lockyer, 1975).

From these root definitions theological definitions are drawn. God is absolutely separate from and exalted above all His creatures (Thiessen, 1949, pp. 128-129).

The purpose of this article is to integrate the data of Scripture with the data of psychology in an attempt to discover an aspect of truth about humanity. The hypothesis is that as a result of the holiness of God, individuals can have high self-esteem by the very nature of the loving relationship they have with God. A framework is suggested based upon an explora- tion of Gods holiness and from this framework the basis for self-esteem is developed, tying in the antecedents and factors of self-esteem from psychological research. Thus, as a necessary component of self-esteem is identified, Gods provision for meeting that need is shown based on his holiness.

Gods Holiness DefinedDefinitions of Gods holiness come from at

least three linguistic sources. One is the Hebrew word for holy, qados, the second is the Greek word hagios, and the third is the name of God in the Old Testament, Jehovah M KaddeshJehovah who sanctifies. Qados

Requests for reprints should be sent to William G. Britt, III, PhD, Department of Psychiatry, West Hall, Loma Linda University Medical School, Loma Linda, California 92354.

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HOLINESS AND SELF-ESTEEM

holy the fact that he would dwell (shakan) in their midst (Deut. 7:6; 26:19). Their relationship to him made Israel a set apart people, the highest expression of a covenant relationship. God instituted rituals and laws to insulate Israel from others until they could be used. Israel was made positionally holy by virtue of covenant relationship and was to exhibit actual holiness by having no contact with the cults and rites of other nations, by forsaking sin and following the law, and by worshipping Yaweh as the only God. Thus the ethical quality of holiness entered into its total meaning (Bavinck, 1951/1977; Cole, 1973; Douglas, 1962; Kittel, 1964; Stone, 1944; Wood, 1975).

Old Testament believers had to constantly humble themselves reverently before God. The fear of the Lord was knowing his own littleness, confessing faults, abasing himself in Gods presence (Packer, 1975, 183-184). People had to keep their place and distance from holy God. Atonement is always de- manded when man relates to God. He must effect the atonement, demonstrated by use of the coal in Isaiah. God must also be the active agent in separation and sanctification. The name Jehovah M*Kaddesh implies divine help in making believers holy and includes participation in Gods nature (Bavinck, 1951/ 1977; Kittel, 1964; Lockyer, 1975; Stone, 1944). Thus Israel was holy because God made them his possession, dwelt among them, and was their God. Sanctification must include the process required to make the object lose its common character and to imbue it with a distinctive character. Since it is a process, sanctification is not accomplished once for all. God must continually dwell with and empower believers for them to live holy lives. Thus holiness is the framework for Gods relationship to his people, causing him to discipline when holiness is violated, in order for him to keep his people set apart, but also to protect, deliver, hear, and comfort them (Bavinck, 1951/1977; Stone, 1944).

The ingredients Israel needed to feel special, protected, loved, and strengthened were provided by the holy God, who, moved by love, entered into relationship with his

However, there is a different element that is unlike the separateness of gods and goddesses: that is the moral content revealed in the Old Testament (Cole, 1973). Gods holiness is not merely an attribute, but his essential nature (Wood, 1975). It is an expression of the perfection of his being which transcends everything creaturely (Kittel, 1964). Thus, the holiness of God is not so much a separate attribute as a qualification of all that God is and does (Hoekema, 1971, p. 31). Holiness has an excellence above Gods other per- fections, in that none other is used with such frequency by the angels. In addition, he swears by his holiness, as if He were more concerned in the honor of it than all others (Chamock, 1797/1969, p. 450).

Chamock gives a summary definition of Gods holiness:Negatively, it is a perfect freedom from all evil, estrange- ment from any imaginable contagion. Positively, holiness is the rectitude or integrity of the divine nature, or that conformity to it in affection and action to the divine will as to His eternal law, whereby He works with a becomingness to His own excellency and whereby He has a delight and complacency in everything agreeable to His will and an abhorrence of everything contrary thereunto, (p. 452)

Finally, Gods holiness: (a) gives him his grandeur and majesty; (b) is set in contra- distinction to heathen deities; (c) produces his beauty; (d) causes him to be jealous and determined to preserve his own position relative to all other free beings; (e) demonstrates his moral excellence and freedom from all limitations in his moral perfection; (f) is the outshining of all that God ishis attributes blend together into holiness (Douglas, 1962; Stone, 1944).

Gods Holiness in Relation to Old Testament Believers

Holiness expresses a relation of God to the world (Bavinck, 1951/1977). Since God is separate from evil and too pure to behold it, anything associated with him must also partake of holiness or be burned by his purity. Thus, he must require people to be separate from evil. He established a divine covenant with Israel, and gave as a basis for their being

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uppermost There was no holy it, or collective, or institution, but holy ones (Kittel, 1964; Stone, 1944; Wood, 1975). Holiness was now seen as a complementary experience of being in Christ and Christ being in the believer (Wood, 1975). The believer was brought into union with God more in this attribute than any other, and partook not just of holiness, but Gods holiness (Chamock, 1797/1969).

Another change occurred in sacrifice, in that animal and plant material was exchanged for personal sacrifice of the body. The ethical and moral part of holiness now was based on a new state, not new action. Communion of the saints (the holy) is that of the reconciled in Christ mutually serving one another (Kittel, 1964, pp. 88-108). The concept of the holy became central in determining the nature of Christianity. Believers now are seen as positionally holy (their state) and experientially holy (the process whereby the Holy Spirit sanctifies them). Positional holiness includes the following:

(a) [it is] accomplished by the shed blood of Jesus. . . (b) [it] bears no relationship to the believers daily life. . . (c) the believer is declared forgiven, righteous, justified, purified... (d) the believer is as perfect as He is perfect, as set apart as He is set apart. . . (e) [it] depends only on Union and position in Christ. (Chafer, 1926/1974, pp. 206-207)

Experiential holiness is the process of in- corporation of positional holiness whereby believers are set apart in their daily lives depending on their degree of yieldedness, separation from sin, and degree of Christian growth (Chafer, 1926/1974).

The Temple as an Instrument of Holiness

This section \yill deal with the concept of how God made his people holy through dwelling among them. God introduced his desire to dwell or tabernacle (shakan) among his people in Ex. 25:8: And let them construct a sanctuary for Me that I may dwell among them. Specific instructions were given to Moses as to the pattern of construction in verse 9: According to all that I am going to

people. This notion is important as self-esteem is considered, especially since holiness always refers to a relationship.

Gods Holiness in Relation to New Testament Believers

In the Old Testament, believers were set apart (positionally sanctified) by Gods call, and purified (experientially sanctified) by heart devotion expressed in obedience to laws, rituals, and sacrifices, which were designed to set the stage for a new covenant which would change the way Gods holiness was experienced The basis for this change was Jesus Christ, who is called hagios.As a servant of God, Jesus is the holy sacrifice, innocent, offered vicariously for the guilt of the people of God to open up access to the sanctuary. Only He who Himself is hagios, whether it be God, priest, or victim can exercise hagiazein (expiatory sanctification). Christ as hagiazon (sanctifier) in Heb. 2:11 must Himself be hagios. (Kittel, 1964, pp. 102-103)

Major changes now occurred in Gods attitude toward believers and their attitude toward him. Believers were able to deal with God as their Father, and the covenant became a family one. Stress now is not on the difficulty or danger of drawing near to the holy God, but on the boldness and confidence with which believers may approach Him, based on faith in Christ (Packer, 1975, pp. 183 184). Holy God is seen as loving Father, approachable without fear. Jesus became the Sanctifier, and believers were elected to holiness and set apart on the basis of his redemption. Thus a new people of God arose within the old (Heb. 13:12), in which Jesus was the center and the Holy Spirit the agent of sanctification. The Gentiles were grafted in as holiness was now imparted to humanity upon regeneration. As holiness took on a more !dividual character, individual ekklesiai were considered holy together with their members. Believers were referred to individually as hagios, or saints. The inheritance of God was now distributed among the saints. Believers now were consecrated or sanctified by contact with the Holy One, Jesus, who indwelt them. They were hagiasmenoi, in a state of having been sanctified. The personal factor became

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first dwelling among the people. David desired to build it, but because of his involvement in wars, God said that he instead would allow Davids son to build it (see II Sam. 7:12-13). Solomon was chosen by God to build the temple, and he planned the temple carefully, selecting the best materials and craftsmen (see I Kings 5:2, 4-6). Solomon used the finest materials, the best wood from Lebanon, and pure gold to overlay the inside. And the house, while it was being built, was built of stone prepared at the quarry, and there was neither hammer nor axe nor any iron tool heard in the house while it was being built (I Kings 6:7). Why such care for the temple that no sound of construction would be heard? Because Solomon was aware that God was going to dwell there, and that he required a unique method of construction. God once again filled the temple with his glory and thus consecrated, or made holy, the new temple.And it came about when the priests came from the holy place, that the cloud filled the house of the Lord, so that the priests could not stand to minister because of the cloud, for the glory of the Lord filled the house of the Lord.. . . And the Lord said to him, Solomon . . . I have consecrated this house which you have built by putting my name there forever. (I Kings 8:10-11; 9:3)

Thus both the tabernacle and the temple were called holy (Wood, 1975). The temple was not holy because of the materials, but because humans could worship God there (Miller & Miller, 1952) and because God dwelt in it.

Moving to the New Testament era, Paul began to discover the mystery hidden for ages. Paul was thoroughly familiar with Gods pattern of indwelling physical temples. Now, however, with the coming of Messiah, God would no longer indwell physical temples, but human ones. Paul said,Of the church I was made a minister. . . that I might fiilly carry out the preaching of the Word of God, that is, the mystery which has been hidden from the past ages and generations; but has now been manifested to His saints, to whom God willed to make known what is the riches of the glory of this mystery among the Gentiles, which is Christ in you. (Col. 1:25-27)

What Hebrew would ever have dreamed that God would indwell people! After all, his temples were so finely built, with such care

show you, as the pattern of the tabernacle and the pattern of all its furniture, just so you shall construct it. God desired that the finest materials go into the tabernacle and exercised great care in selection of the builder and skilled craftsmen to work on it. Moreover you shall make the tabernacle with ten curtains of fine twisted linen and blue and purple and scarlet material; you shall make them with cherubim, the work of a skilled workman (Ex. 26:1). God so desired this tabernacle to be built correctly and perfectly, that he actually sent the Holy Spirit to indwell the builders and give them divine wisdom and skill.See, I have called by name Bezalel. . . and I have filled him with the Spirit of God in wisdom, in understanding, in knowledge, and in all kinds of craftmanship. . . in the hearts of all who are skillful I have put skill, that they may make all that I have commanded you: the tent of meeting (Ex. 31:2-3, 6-7)

The question might be asked, why did God go to such lengths to build a temporary dwelling place? He was teaching Israel about holiness, that what was set apart and consecrated to him must be divinely built with the finest materials, the best craftmanship, so the world would know that what the God of the universe chose to indwell was special to him, and qualitatively different from anything else in the world. Two events occurred after the completion of the tabernacle. God told Moses before completion of the tabernacle, I will meet there with the sons of Israel, and it shall be consecrated by my glory. And I will consecrate the tent of meeting and the altar (Ex. 29:43-44). To consecrate is to set apart, to make holy. The instrument of consecration is Gods glory: . . . thus Moses finished the work. Then the cloud covered the tent of meeting, and the glory of the Lord filled the tabernacle (Ex. 40:33-34). Thus God makes holy what he will dwell in by filling it with his glory, setting the object apart from anything on earth. It indeed becomes uniquely special to him.

God carried the same pattern through when a more permanent temple was to be built for him. He was very particular as to who would build it, just as he was with the tabernacle, his

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What is the value of having high self- esteem? An adequate view of oneself serves as the premise upon which persons can build their lives in a useful and productive manner. Individuals can think clearly, concentrate upon definite goals, and completely commit themselves to tasks. Otherwise, persons tend to devote attention, time and energy to trying to establish a secure premise of self-identity in each situation instead of being able to function because they already have such a premise (Wagner, 1975, p. 13). Research has indicated that persons with high self-esteem are less dependent on situational pressures and feel and behave more competently, actively, ex- pressively, successfully, with less destructive- ness and anxiety (Mischel, 1976). Other research indicates these persons are more emotionally stable, confident and secure, group dependent, carefree and adventurous, extraverted and sociable, tending toward leadership, more assertive, trusting, autono- mous, achieving, respected by peers, and effective in meeting goals (Marko, 1974; Wilson & Wilson, 1976).

Contrariwise, those with low self-esteem were more discouraged, depressed, felt unlove- able, were fearful of angering others, felt isolated from others, extremely shy and timid, aloof and less adaptable, emotionally unstable, introverted, submissive, insecure, lacked self- assurance, tended toward neurotic reactions, and demonstrated less ability to cope with stress (Marko, 1974; Mischel, 1976). It is quite clear that high self-esteem is requisite to optimal functioning.

Components of Self-EsteemIn order to relate holiness to self-esteem, it

is necessary to know what comprises a persons self-esteem. Many researchers have addressed this question and arrive at different sets of components. Only the main components will be dealt with. Since these components form self-esteem in the child, how does Gods holiness meet these needs? The first pre- supposition is that God, having created people, created them with these needs so that they would respond to his ability to meet them, and his name would be glorified by those

and expensive material. The pattern remained the same for this human temple as for the physical one. The finest materials were selected in building it and a master builder built it, God himself (see Ps. 139:13-16). For we are Gods fellow-workers; you are Gods field, Gods building (I Cor. 3:9). God has consecrated the human temple and he tabernacles there. Do you not know that you are a temple of God, and that the Spirit of God dwells in you? If any man destroys the temple of God, God will destroy him, for the temple of God is holy, and that is what you are (I Cor. 3:16-17).

The glory of God dwells in the human temple as indicated in II Cor. 3:7-13. In this passage Paul indicates Moses veiled his face, because the glory of God faded, but the surpassing glory of God indwelling believers will never go away.

In summary then, God has a certain pattern for the places within which he dwells. The place must be well planned, fashioned in a special way, with the finest craftspeople and a carefully selected builder. God then makes the temple holy by indwelling it with his glory and his person. Thus, the method by which God reveals his holiness to his people is to dwell among them and finally in them, that they may partake of his holiness and thus be sanctified. With this foundation and a proper understanding of these concepts, self-esteem needs can be met.

Self-EstemSelf-concept, self-image, and self-esteem

are terms used interchangeably referring to the image people have of themselveshow they see themselves. The concept suggests a personal judgment of ones worth based on input received through life, especially from parents.

Self-esteem has been described as a learned constellation of perceptions, cognitions, values most of which come from observation of responses one gets from other people, especially those present earliest and most consistently, the parents (Wylie, 1961, pp. 121- 122).

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the basis for developing a sense of well being, personal autonomy, freedom of feeling, and freedom in relationships (Norem-Hebeisen, 1976).

The sense of worth is also met by Gods holiness. He demonstrates the worth of his people by setting them apart to ethical purity. Their worth needs were met in that they had the highest of standards to meet, perfection, with God as the active agent in sanctification.

As cited earlier, the name Jehovah M Kaddesh implies divine help in making believers holy. God demonstrated that becoming holy was a process, and in the new covenant, gave the Holy Spirit to empower believers to become holy. Thus the behavioral expectation was high, but power was given for mastery, with the limitation that believers would not be experientially holy, but would be in union with Christ and partaking of his holiness. Positionally, great worth was given believers because in Gods eyes, the most significant other, the believer is perfect. Consequently, a proper view of Gods holiness in relation to believers imbues them with a sense of worth far beyond that of nonbelievers.

As the self-concept develops, a fundamental mechanism develops: That of a persons behavior being consistent with his assumptions about the kind of person he is, derived from the reactions of others (Bissett, 1972, pp. 255 263). Others have described this mechanism as a feeling of competence, of adequacy, courage, hopefulness in carrying out lifes tasks. The reactions of others means acceptance based on meeting standards. Thus the history of success, status, and position, all play a part in this component (Coopersmith, 1969; Norem-Hebeisen, 1976; Wagner, 1975). Since appearance, performance, and status are key elements of competence, it is evident that such factors as family relationships, personal acceptance or rejection by peers, and perceived adequacy of self are important (Kokenes, 1974; Vacchiano & Strauss, 1968).

A feeling of competence includes a persons feelings about appearance, performance, and status. Acceptance of ones body is a key part of competence, especially in a culture that so

whose needs were met. The concept postulated is that the quality of holiness is the relational process through which they are met.

The first component is related to how a child is accepted by significant others. This acceptance includes the amount of respectful, accepting, and concerned treatment received, including a feeling of belongingnessbeing wanted, accepted, and cared for (Coopersmith, 1967; Wagner, 1975). The child is accepted without conditions, since he or she cannot yet perform. This basic acceptance or rejection is preverbal, prior to conceptualization of the self, and is the foundation upon which children come to love themselves, develop essential trust in the goodness or badness of life, and depend on people (Norem-Hebeisen, 1976; Wagner, 1975; Wylie, 1961).

God first demonstrated his acceptance of his people by initiating the divine covenant based on their being set apart to him. God made Israel his possession, with Israel partaking of his nature as he dwelt among them. Thus the belongingness and acceptance needs of each person were uniquely met by God. God went a step further in sending the holy sacrifice, Jesus, to further deepen the relationship between himself and the believer, now becoming Father to that person. Believers became positionally holy, and were able to experience even more acceptance from God. The apex of a believers acceptance and belongingness is demonstrated in the temple concept referred to earlier. God made, re- deemed, and now indwells the believer, as a suitable temple. For God to dwell in a person is perfect acceptance, considering his high standards for temples and the burning purity of his being.

A second component of self-esteem is the childs sense of personal worth. Worth is based more on the persons introspective attitude of self-approval (Wagner, 1975). It involves the idea of mastery, having control over ones behavior, and of having a realistic view of ones abilities and limitations, and acceptance of them. Initially, worth is based on how consistent the childs behavior is with the expectations of significant others (Bissett, 1972; Wylie, 1961). These components are

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being holy, all these competence needs are met. Holiness can be the basis for congruence in believers as they see a perfect standard to reach, yet realize they possess all of Gods indwelling power available to reach it.

Facilitators of Self-EsteemNow that the basic components of self-

esteem have been examined, specific facilitators are likewise treated. A facilitator of self- esteem that relates back to belongingness and worth is the need to keep the child and his or her behavior separate in parental thinking. It may be necessary to reject the behavior, but not the child (Wagner, 1975). Here is found an example of Gods holiness. He sets believers apart in a loving relationship to him, seeing them as positionally holy, totally accepting them. But his holiness gives him a basis for lovingly chastising believers in the area of behavior. His holiness gives believers a clear idea of what behavior is in keeping with holiness and what is not. Thus believers are not left floundering in a sea of ethical relativism, never knowing how to continue the process of becoming what they are positionally. Coopersmith (1969) discovered that models that provide effective ways of warding off anxiety help develop and maintain high self- esteem by establishing limits and actions that define the events. Uncertainty and personal threat of failure are reduced by having these bounds. Gods holiness supplies the limits with which to help build self-esteem.

The body of Christ is also called to holiness. A group of people therefore partake of Gods holiness, as they experience his love, subscribe to his standards of purity, and draw upon his sanctifying power. As a result, parents who are in the body of Christ have the reinforcement needed to be holy models to their children. Self-esteem in children is strongly related to their feelings toward significant others (ODonnell, 1976), which includes not only parents but those persons who interact with the child outside the home. In his research, Coopersmith ( 1969) discovered several qualities of parents whose children have high self-esteem. In examining these qualities, we find that they are similar to those

emphasizes the physical body. The concept of the temple plays a key role in acceptance of the body. First, God demonstrates that the tabernacle he lives in must be built of the finest materials and by a carefully selected builder. Next, God consecrates the temple, and his glory fills it. With these high standards for his place of dwelling, God then reveals the mystery of all ages, that God sees fit to dwell in the bodies of believers. He reveals that he is the builder, that the finest materials were used, and that he consecrates and fills with glory the human temples of believers. One can see how importantly God views the body and how accepting he is of it. Remarkably, in order for him to indwell a persons body, that person need not change one strand of hair. Thus the body of the believer is holy, as was the tabernacle, and God is just as jealous of each human tabernacle as he was of earlier ones (see I Cor. 3:16-17). The God of the universe can accept ones body as his temple without physical change, giving each believer a basis for doing so.

In the area of performance, the concept of holiness meets the need to feel competent. By setting believers apart from the world, God gives them a higher standard of performance than for the world. Thus believers are com- peting in a different class than nonbelievers. Second, although believers are called upon to be ethically holy, they are only called upon to be what God has already declared them to be positionally. Thus Gods acceptance is com- plete because of Jesus sacrifice. God in his Word refers to believers as holy ones, for that is how he sees them. Next, since believers are holy, they partake of Gods holiness as he sanctifies them by indwelling them over a period of time. He is always accepting of the believers position wherever that person is in this sanctification process. Consequently, believers have the power to perform without the pressure of rejection. They have the freedom to fail. As to status, what greater status could a person have than to be indwelt by the God of the universe and totally accepted by him? Scripture indicates in Colossians and Ephesians the many positional blessings that are true about believers. In

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loving acceptance, clearly defined and enforced limits, and respect for individual action within the limits breed high self-esteem (Cooper- smith, 1969), and also comprise the components of Gods holiness as he deals with believers.

Finally, several studies have examined self- esteem and imaging of God. One indicates that persons with high self-esteem viewed God as a loving, kindly Father, whereas those with low self-esteem related to God as vindictive, impersonal, controlling and stem. It was hypothesized that persons with low self- esteem are uncomfortable with the view that God is loving and accepting because it is inconsistent with their view of themselves (Benson & Spilka, 1973). Another study found a positive relationship between self- esteem and family communication and between acceptance of self and belief in an accepting God. Thus high self-esteem was related to a loving God image and quality of family communication was the common variable (Chartier & Goehner, 1976). These studies emphasize the important interrelationship between a correct view of God and a correct view of oneself as well as the importance of parents in establishing both.

In conclusion, the contention of this article has been that since God created human beings, he knows best how to respond to them in a way that will cause them to reach their full potential. The process for a persons fulfillment is a loving relationship with God based on his holiness, in which people are set apart from the world, given the high standards of purity, and indwelt by God who empowers them to reach for those standards. Needs of belongingness, worth, and competence can be met in the concept of holiness, both positional and experiential. When the body of Christ is holy, models for the development of high self- esteem in children are available. A major finding is that God indwells believers as temples and makes them holy by privileging them to partake of his holy nature. Believers self-esteem can be enhanced as they contem* plate the fact that God has so accepted them that he has chosen to live in them and fill them with his glory.

expected of people living in Gods holiness. The first quality is that the mothers (and presumably fathers) of children with high self- esteem tend to have high self-esteem themselves. Thus parents operating as set apart to God would tend to have high self-esteem if they correctly understood Gods holiness. The parents in Coopersmiths study stress superior achievement in their children, thereby developing self-competence. Less tension and conflict was found between these parents, whereas divorce and separation were frequent among children with low self-esteem. Fathers had a closer and more congenial relationship with the children, and there was a clear designation of leadership in the home, either one parent or the other making the major decisions, as opposed to both equally. In a home following Gods standards for holiness, based in his love, these qualities would also be expected because of scriptural teaching to that effect.

Another area studied by Coopersmith (1969) was parental acceptance. Parents of children with high self-esteem communicate a pleasant, positive set of emotions. The mothers possess higher levels of empathy, genuineness, and positive regard than do mothers of low self-esteem children (Miller, 1976). Mothers are stricter in training the child and the child is happier. These mothers place greater performance demands on their children, rules are enforced consistently and carefully, discipline is regarded as important, and positive reinforcement rather than negative techniques are used. Greater strictness is associated with higher self-esteem (Coopersmith, 1969). God, in his desire for believers to be holy, developed these same guidelines. Consequently, believers are able to have a higher self-esteem when operating according to his holiness.

Research has shown that an authoritative or democratic home tends to foster higher self- esteem (McEachem, 1974). In this type of home, the limits set by parents are well defined and enforced, but are not harsh or unduly restrictive. They give the children a boundary without destroying their belief in their own worth. The parents are more likely to be firm and decisive (Coopersmith, 1969). Thus total

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Miller, M.S., & Miller, J.L. (1952). Harper's Bible dictionary. New York: Harper & Row.Miller, T.W. (1976). The effects of core facilitative conditions in mother on adolescent self-esteem. Journal o f Social Psychology, 100, 147-148.Mischel, W. (1976). Introduction to personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.Norem-Hebeisen, A.A. (1976). A multidimensional construct of self-esteem. Journal o f Educational Psy- chology, 68, 559-565.ODonnell, W.J. (1976). Adolescent self-esteem related to feelings toward parents and best friends. Dissertation Abstracts International, 36, 5274B. (University Micro- films No. 76, 9276)Packer, J.I. (1975). Knowing God Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity.Stone, N.J. (1944). Names o f God. Chicago: Moody.Thiessen, H.C. ( 1949). Introductory lectures in systematic theology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.Vacchiano, R.B., & Strauss, P.S. (1968). The construct validity of the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. Journal o f Clinical Psychology, 24, 323-326.Wagner, M. (1975). The sensation o f being somebody. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.Wilson, J.P., & Wilson, S.B. (1976). Sources of self- esteem and the person x situation controversy. Psycho- logical Reports, 38, 355-358.Wood, A.S. (1975). Holiness. In M.C. Tenney (Gen. Ed.), Zondervan pictoral encyclopedia o f the Bible. Grand Rapids; Zondervan.Wylie, RC. (1961). The self concept Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

AUTHORBRITT, WILLIAM GORDON, III. Address: Depart- ment of Psychiatry, West Hall, Loma Linda University Medical School, Loma Linda, California 92354. Title: Assistant Professor of Psychiatry. Degree; PhD, Rosemead School of Psychology. Specializations: Clinical psychology, clinical neuropsychology.

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Bavinck, H. (1977). The doctrine o f God Grand Rapids: Baker. (Original work published 1951)Benson, P., & Spilka, B. ( 1973). God image as a function of self-esteem and locus of control. Journal for the Scientific Study o f Religion, 12, 297-310.Bissett, D. (1972). Toward a clarification of self-esteem. Psychiatry, 35, 255-263.Chafer, L.S. ( 1974). Major Bible themes. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. (Original work published 1926)Chamock, S. (1969). The existence and attributes o f God Minneapolis: Klock & Klock Christian Publishers. (Original work published 1797)Chartier, M.R., & Goehner, L.A. (1976). A study of the relationship of parent-adolescent communication, self- esteem, and God image. Journal o f Psychology and Theology, 4, 227-232.Cole, RA. (1973). Exodus. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity.Coopersmith, S. (1969). The antecedents o f self-esteem. San Francisco: Freeman.Douglas, J.D. (Ed.). (1962). The new Bible dictionary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.Hoekema, A.A. (1971). The attributes of God: The communicable attributes. In Carl F.H. Henry (Ed.), Basic Christian doctrine. Grand Rapids: Baker.Kittel, G. (1964). Theological dictionary o f the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.Kokenes, B. (1974). Grade level differences in factors of self-esteem. Developmental Psychology, 10, 954-958.Lockyer, H. ( 1975). All the divine names and titles in the Bible. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.Marko, J. (1974). Self-evaluation and personality profile in Cattells 16 PF test. Psychologia a Patopsychologia Dietala, 8, 19-28.McEachem, L.V.H. (1974). An investigation of the relationships between self-esteem, the power motives, and democratic, authoritarian, or laissez-fairre home atmos- phere. Dissertation Abstracts International, 34, 5724A. (University Microfilms No. 74, 5639)

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