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GMO : Level 1 - Summary on GMO, Genetically modified crops

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Scientific Facts on

Genetically ModifiedCrops

Source document:FAO (2004)

Summary & Details:GreenFacts (2005)

About this study

Information on our 3-level structure

Context - We are regularly confrontedwith genetically modified foods, be it inthe news or on our plates.

In what way are GM crops differentfrom conventional crops?

What is known about their possible risksfor human health or theenvironment?

Questions on GM crops

1. What is agricultural biotechnology?

2. How can biotechnology be applied to

agriculture?

3. Does conventional plant breeding have effects

on health and the environment?

4. Are GM plant foods safe to eat?5. What effects could GM crops have on the

environment?

6. What are the implications of GM technologies

for animals?

7. Are GMOs regulated by international

agreements?

8. Conclusions

9. Other views

This study is a faithful summary of the leading scientific consensus report

produced by the FAO (Food & Agriculture Organization):

"The State of Food and Agriculture 2003-2004" More...

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1.1Biotechnology refers to any technique that uses living organisms, or parts of these organisms. Such

techniques are used to make or modify products for a practical purpose. Modern medicine, agriculture, andindustry make use of biotechnology on a large scale. More...

1.2Traditional biotechnologies such as the use ofyeast to make bread or

wine have been applied for thousands of years. Since the late 19thcentury, knowledge of the principles of heredity gave farmers new tools for

breeding crops and animals. They selected individual organisms withbeneficial characteristics and developed hybrid crops.

New methods have been developed since the discovery of the DNA

structure in 1954. For instance, micro-organisms can be used to produce

antibiotics, and the hereditary material in plants can be changed to make

them resistant to pests or diseases. More...

Source: European Commission

Conclusion Level 1 Questions More in Details

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2. How can biotechnology be applied to agriculture?

2.1Genes are the pieces ofDNA code which

regulate all biological processes in livingorganisms. The entire set of geneticinformation of an organism is present in everycell and is called the genome. More...

2.2The genetic material is structured in a

similar way in different species, which makesit easier to identify potentially useful genes.

Certain species of crops, livestock, and

disease-causing organisms have been studiedas model species because they help usunderstand related organisms. More...

Work on wheat at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute.Source: FAO

2.3Certain fragments ofDNA that can be easily identified are used to flag the position of a particular gene.

They can be used to locate and select individual plants or animals carrying beneficial genes andcharacteristics. Important traits such as fruit yield, wood quality, disease resistance, milk and meatproduction, or body fat can be traced this way. More...

2.4Plants can be obtained from small plant samples grown in test tubes. This is a more sophisticated form

of the conventional planting of cuttings from existing plants. Another laboratory technique, in vitro

selection, involves growing plant cells under adverse conditions to select resistant cells before growing the

full plant. More...

2.5 In conventional breeding half of an individuals genes come from each parent, whereas in genetic

engineering one or several specially selected genes are added to the genetic material. Moreover,

conventional plant breeding can only combine closely related plants.

Genetic engineering permits the transfer ofgenes between organisms that are not normally able to cross

breed. More...

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2.6 For example a gene from a bacterium can be inserted into a plant cell to provide resistance to insects.

Such a transfer produces organisms referred to as genetically modified (GM) or transgenic. More...


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3. Does conventional plant breeding have effects on health and the environment?

In conventional plant breeding, little attention has been paid to the possible impacts of new plant varietieson food safety or the environment. Nonetheless, this kind of breeding has sometimes caused negativeeffects on human health. For instance, a cultivated crop variety created by conventional cross breeding cancontain excessive levels of naturally occurring toxins.

The introduction of genetically modified plants has raised some concerns that gene transfer could occur in

the field between cultivated and wild plants and such concerns also apply to conventional crops. Suchtransfers have occasionally been reported but are generally not considered a problem. More...


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4. Are genetically modified plant foods safe to eat?

4.1 Foodstuffs made of genetically modified crops that are currently available (mainly maize, soybean, and

oilseed rape) have been judged safe to eat, and the methods used to test them have been deemedappropriate. These conclusions represent the consensus of the scientific evidence surveyed by the

International Council for Science (ICSU) and are consistent with the views of the World Health Organization

(WHO).

However, the lack of evidence of negative effects does not mean that new genetically modified foods arewithout risk. The possibility of long-term effects from genetically modified plants cannot be excluded andmust be examined on a case-by-case basis. New techniques are being developed to address concerns, suchas the possibility of the unintended transfer ofantibiotic resistant genes.

Genetic engineering of plants could also offer some direct and indirect health benefits to consumers, for

instance by improving nutritional quality or reducing pesticide use. More...

4.2Scientists recommend that food safety assessment should take place on a case-by-case basis before

genetically modified food is brought to the market. In such assessments, foodstuffs derived from geneticallymodified plants are compared to their conventional counterparts, which are generally considered safe due totheir long history of use. This comparison considers to what extent different foodstuffs can cause harmfuleffects or allergies and how much nutrients they contain. More...

4.3Consumers may wish to select foods on the basis of how they are produced, because of religious,

environmental, or health concerns. However, merely indicating whether a product is genetically modified ornot, without providing any additional information, says nothing about its content nor about possible risks orbenefits. International guidelines are being developed for labelling genetically modified foods. More...


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5. What effects could genetically modified crops have on the environment?

5.1 Agriculture of any type has an impact on the environment.

Genetic engineering may accelerate the damaging effects of

agriculture, have the same impact as conventional agriculture, orcontribute to more sustainable practices.

Growing genetically modified or conventional plants in the field hasraised concern for the potential transfer ofgenes from cultivated

species to their wild relatives. However, many food plants are not

native to the areas in which they are grown. Locally, they may haveno wild relatives to which genes could flow.

Farmer in a field of maize in BoliviaSource: FAO

Moreover, ifgene flow occurs, it is unlikely that the hybrid plants would thrive in the wild, because they

would have characteristics that are advantageous in agricultural environments only. In the future,genetically modified plants may be equipped with mechanisms designed to prevent gene flow to otherplants.

A controversy has arisen about whether certain genetically modified plants (which are insect resistantbecause they carry the Bt gene) could harm not only insect pests but also other species such as the

monarch butterfly. In the field, no significant adverse effects on non-target species have so far been

observed. Nonetheless, continued monitoring for such effects is needed. More...

5.2Genetically modified crops may have indirect environmental effects as a result of changing

agricultural or environmental practices. However, it remains controversial whether the net effect of thesechanges will be positive or negative for the environment. For example, the use of genetically modifiedinsect-resistant Bt crops is reducing the volume and frequency ofinsecticide use on maize, cotton and

soybean. Yet the extensive use ofherbicide and insect resistant crops could result in the emergence of

resistant weeds and insects. More...

5.3The broad consensus is that the environmental effects of genetically modified plants should be

evaluated using science-based assessment procedures, considering each crop individually in comparison toits conventional counterparts. More...


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6. What are the implications of GM technologies for animals?

6.1 Animal feeds frequently contain genetically modified crops and enzymes derived from genetically

modified micro-organisms. There is general agreement that both modified DNA and proteins are rapidly

broken down in the digestive system.

To date no negative effects on animals have been reported. It is extremely unlikely that genes may transfer

from plants to disease-causing bacteria through the food chain. Nevertheless, scientists advise that genes

which determine resistance to antibiotics that are critical for treating humans should not be used in

genetically modified plants. More...

6.2As of 2004, no genetically modified animals were used in commercial agriculture anywhere in the world,but several livestock and aquatic species were being studied. Genetically modified animals could have

positive environmental impacts, for example through greater disease resistance and lower antibiotic usage.

However, some genetic modifications could lead to more intensive livestock production and thus increasedpollution. More...

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Next Question Top

7. Are GMOs regulated by international agreements?

7.1 Certain barriers to international agricultural trade have been reduced by the World Trade Organization(WTO). A WTO agreement adopted in 1994 establishes that countries retain their right to ensure that the

food, animal, and plant products they import are safe. At the same time it states that countries should notuse unnecessarily stringent measures as disguised barriers to trade. More...

7.2Several international agreements relate to the environmental aspects of genetically modified crops. The

Convention on Biological Diversity is mainly concerned with the conservation and sustainable use of

ecosystems but also with environmental effects of GMOs. A part of this convention is the Cartagena

Protocol on Biosafety, which regulates the export and import of genetically modified crops.

The International Plant P rotection Convention was adopted to prevent the spread of pests affecting

plants and plant products. It identified potential pest risks related to GMOs that may need to be considered,such as the potential development ofinvasivespecies or effects on beneficial insects and birds. More...


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8. Conclusions

8.1 Agricultural biotechnology can be seen as both:

q a scientific complement to conventional agriculture, aiding for instance plant breeding programs, andq a dramatic departure from conventional agriculture, enabling transfer ofgenetic material between

organisms that would not normally mix.

Agricultural biotechnology has international implications and may become increasingly important for

developing countries.1 However, research has tended to focus on crops important to developed countries.More...

8.2To date, countries where genetically modified crops have been introduced in fields, have reported no

significant health damage or environmental harm. Moreover, farmers are using less pesticides or using lesstoxic ones, reducing harm to water supplies and workers' health, and allowing the return of beneficial

insects to the fields. Some of the concerns related to gene flow and pest resistance have been addressed by

new techniques ofgenetic engineering.

However, the lack of observed negative effects does not mean that they cannot occur. Scientists call for acautious case-by-case assessment of each product or process prior to its release in order to addresslegitimate safety concerns.

Science cannot declare any technology completely risk free. Genetically engineered crops can reduce some

environmental risks associated with conventional agriculture, but will also introduce new challenges thatmust be addressed. Society will have to decide when and where genetic engineering is safe enough. (FAO

2004) More...


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Top

9. Other views and links

This summary is based on "The State of Food and Agriculture 2003-2004", of the FAO (Food and Agriculture

Organization), a leading scientific report produced by a large international panel of scientists.

It is considered by most scientists as a consensus document and other recent scientific assessments reach

similar conclusions, though some people and organizations put forward different views.

q GreenFacts other views & factual links page on genetically modified crops

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GMO : Level 2 - Details on GMO





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Level 2 - Details on GM Crops


1.1 How is agricultural biotechnology defined?

1.2 How have agricultural technologies evolved over time?


2.1 What are genes?

2.2 What can be learnt from studying the genetic makeup of a species?

2.3 What are molecular markers and how are they used?

2.4 How can laboratory techniques help in growing and selecting plants?

2.5 How can genetic engineering transfer characteristics from one species to another?

2.6 What characteristics can be transferred to plants?



4.1 Could genetically modified plant foods have health effects?

4.2 How should genetically modified food safety be assessed?

4.3 How should genetically modified foods be labelled in the market place?

5. What effects could genetically modified crops have on the environment?

5.1 What direct effects could genetically modified plants have on the environment?5.2 What indirect effects could genetically modified plants have on the environment?

5.3 How should these environmental effects be assessed?

6. What are the implications of GM-technologies for animals?

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GMO : Level 2 - Details on GMO

6.1 What are possible effects of genetically modified animal feed?

6.2 What are possible effects of genetically modified animals?

7. Are GMOs regulated by international agreements?

7.1 How is international agricultural trade regulated?

7.2 Do international conventions address environmental effects of GMOs?

8. Conclusions

8.1 Conclusions on agricultural biotechnology

8.2 Conclusions on environment and health effects

Back to Summary Level 2 Questions More in the Source Document

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GMO : 1. What is agricultural biotechnology?





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1.1 How is agricultural biotechnology defined?1.2 How have agricultural technologies evolved over time?

1.1. How is agricultural biotechnology defined?

Biotechnology can be described as any technology that uses livingorganisms to make or modify a product for a practical purpose. Sometraditional techniques have been used for thousands of years, for instance,natural yeasts have been used to make bread, beer, and wine through a

process called fermentation.

In the last century, more sophisticated techniques have used other micro-

organisms to make antibiotics, amino acids, vitamins, and other useful

products. Modern biotechnology, developed during the past 30 years,

usually makes changes to the hereditary material of a living organism by a

technique called genetic engineering or genetic modification.

Source: European Commission

Modern biotechnology is currently used industrially to make useful products such as vaccines, antibiotics,

enzymes, and hormones such as insulin.

In crop plant breeding, biotechnologies are used to develop plants resistant to pests, diseases, drought,

heat, or cold, as well as to improve the nutritional content of plant food. More...

Table1: Agricultural biotechnology timeline


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GMO : 1. What is agricultural biotechnology?

1.2. How have agricultural technologies evolved over time?

1.2.1 For about 10 000 years, humans have attempted to improve plant characteristics by selecting and

breeding individuals with desired characteristics. As a consequence, modern plants now differ substantiallyfrom their ancestors.

Classical breeding involves the cross breeding of two individuals of the same or of two very iescloselyrelated species. Each parent donates half of its genetic material (DNA) to its offspring, so non-beneficial

characteristics may be introduced along with beneficial ones. This conventional method is thus slow anddemanding since many generations may be necessary to retain the good characteristics and to eliminatethe bad ones. Conventional or modern biotechnologies can be used to make the process more efficient.

More...

1.2.2Desirable and detrimental characteristics are determined by the genes carried by the parent plants

and may differ as a result of natural variation in genes. Plant breeders have succeeded in increasing thisgenetic variation by treating plants with mutagens that cause changes in the genetic material of the plant.

The individual plants obtained by this method can have genetic characteristics that may be difficult to findin nature. More...


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GMO : 2. How can biotechnology be applied to agriculture?





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2.1 What are genes?

2.2 What can be learnt from studying the genetic makeup of a species?

2.3 What are molecular markers and how are they used?

2.4 How can laboratory techniques help in growing and selecting plants?

2.5 How can genetic engineering transfer characteristics from one species to another?

2.6 What characteristics can be transferred to plants?


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2.1. What are genes?

The code which regulates all biological processes is stored in the DNApresent in every cell of living organisms.

Only a small share of the DNA in a cell actually makes up genes,

which contain coded information. The cells use this information toproduce proteins, the basic building blocks and tools for running

biological processes.

Source: www.uhnresearch.ca

The role of the remaining share of the DNA is not yet clearly understood. The DNA in cells is generally

organized into pairs of corresponding chromosomes with one set of chromosomes being inherited from eachparent. An organism's entire set of chromosomes, and thus its entire set of genetic information, is calledthe genome.

The Human Genome Sequencing Project has decoded the genetic information contained in human cells. The

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project has developed many technologies and methods that can be applied to all living organisms. Otherlarge genome-sequencing projects rely on international collaboration to study certain plants such as rice,

which are considered representative of their biological group. More...



2.2. What can be learnt from studying the genetic makeup of a species?

2.2.1 The most significant breakthroughs in agricultural biotechnology are coming from research into the

genetic mechanisms behind economically important characteristics and from genomics.

Genomics is the study of the complete structure of the genome. It provides information on gene structures

and thus a basis for understanding protein structures As a result, a theoretical model of an organism's

biology may be built from a listing of its genes.

Comparing the relative location ofgenes on the chromosomes and DNA sequences in different organisms

will significantly reduce the time needed to identify and select potentially useful genes. For most types ofcrops, livestock, and diseases, certain species have been studied as model species because they can be

used to understand related organisms. Knowledge of the genome of model species is accumulating rapidly.

More...

2.2.2Different plant species tend to have a genome structure with very similar gene content and gene order

along the chromosomes. This similarity is called "synteny". This means that the location of a gene whichdefines particular characteristics can easily be determined by comparing one genome to another. Therefore,it is not critical for our understanding to undertake the complete sequencing of plant genomes for all of cropplants with the great costs that this would entail.

As a consequence of synteny the knowledge of the biochemistry, physiology, and genes of a specific crop

can now be transferred to other crops. This is particularly important in the case of so-called "orphan crops";

that are used in subsistence agriculture in many parts of the world. These crops have not attracted theresearch money that wheat, rice, and maize have received over the past century. More...



2.3. What are molecular markers and how are they used?

2.3.1Molecular markers are specific fragments ofDNA that can be identified within the whole genome. The

markers are found at specific locations of the genome. They are used to flag the position of a particulargene or the inheritance of a particular characteristic. In a genetic cross, the characteristics of interest will

usually stay linked with the molecular markers. Thus, individuals can be selected in which the molecularmarker is present, since the marker indicates the presence of the desired characteristic. More...

2.3.2Molecular markers can be used to locate and select individual plants or animals carrying genes that

affect economically important traits such as fruit yield, wood quality, disease resistance, milk and meatproduction, or body fat. Measuring such characteristics by conventional methods is much more difficult,time-consuming, or expensive, since it requires the organism to grow to maturity. More...

2.3.3Molecular markers have been used to select individual plants to create mildew resistant varieties of

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pearl millet, a cereal grown for food, grain and straw in the hottest, driest areas of Africa and Asia. More...

2.3.4Molecular markers are useful to measure the extent of variation at the genetic level, within and

among populations. This can guide genetic conservation activities for crops and livestock, as well as forestryand fisheries.

For example, global surveys indicate that about 40% of domestic livestock breeds are at risk of extinction.Most of these breeds are found only in developing countries, and there is often little knowledge about themor about their potential for improvement. They may contain valuable genes that confer beneficial

characteristics such as disease resistance that may be of use for future generations. Modern biotechnologiescan help to counteract trends of genetic diversity loss in the food and agriculture sectors. More...

2.3.5Molecular markers have been widely used to identify the genetic makeup of organisms and for

obtaining their genetic fingerprint. Such knowledge can be very important in forest management,

endangered species conservation, and livestock breeding and tracing. More...



2.4. How can laboratory techniques help in growing and selecting plants?

2.4.1 Gardeners routinely make new plants simply by planting

cuttings from existing ones. Micropropagation, making plants

from small plant samples grown in test tubes, is merely a moresophisticated and efficient variant of this technique.

It is often a very effective way of producing very large numbers

of nearly identical plants from one individual plant with desiredcharacteristics. This technique is extensively used in hundreds oflaboratories around the world for example for generating disease-free banana plants, and has potential applications in forestry.More...

Work on wheat at theIndian Agricultural Research Institute.

Source: FAO

2.4.2For in vitro selection, plant cells are grown in laboratories under adverse conditions. This allows the

selection of cells that, for example, are resistant to diseases or tolerant to herbicides, metals, salt, or low

temperatures before growing the full plant. However, in vitro selection is still of limited use for somecharacteristics like wood quality or stem form in forest trees, since these characteristics only become

apparent in fully grown plants. More...



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2.5. How can genetic engineering transfer characteristics from one species to another?

Genetic engineering differs from conventional plant breeding. In conventional plant breeding half of the

genes of an individual come from each parent, whereas in genetic engineering one or a few specially

selected genes are added to the plant genome.

Moreover, conventional plant breeding can only combine closely related plants. Genetic engineering permits

the transfer ofgenes between organisms that are not normally able to cross breed because they are not

genetically compatible. The transferred genes are called transgenes. They can come from another plant

species, or even from a completely different organism (e.g., bacterial genes). These transgenes are then

replicated and inherited in the same way as natural plant genes.

Genetic engineering of plants usually makes use of a type ofbacteria which has the natural ability to

transfer DNA to some plants.

When the bacterium infects the

plant, it penetrates the plants

cells and transfers its modifiedDNA to the plant.

The DNA may also be introducedby physical means. Carried onmicroscopic particles of tungstenor gold, the DNA is literally shotinto the plant nucleus, using a

gene gun. Once the DNA

reaches the cell nucleus, it inserts

itself at random into one of thehost chromosomes and can

express the desired character.The genetically modified plant isthen grown from the transformedcell.

Overview of how transgenic crops are createdSource: www.bioteach.ubc.ca

A number of economically valuable characteristics have been introduced into plants by genetic engineering.

Most of the genetically modified crop plants used so far have transgenes that provide resistance to

herbicides or insects. To improve crop production and soil management, research is now exploring how to

increase the variety of transgenic characteristics to include resistance to drought, heat, cold, acid soils, and

heavy metals. These characteristics will increase the range of soils and climates that are able to supportagriculture. More...


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2.6. What characteristics can be transferred to plants?

2.6.1Transgenic plants can provide food with enhanced nutritional content. For example, genetically

modified Golden Rice contains two daffodil genes and one bacterial gene that together result in elevated

levels ofprovitamin A.

Another project involves producing rice with increased levels ofprovitamin A, protein, and iron. The

"protato" is a genetically engineered potato which contains more protein than usual because it carries agene from the edible South American amaranth plant. In India, where potato is the staple food of poor

people, the protato could increase the availability of certain essential amino acids. Opponents of this project

argue that potatoes do not contain significant amounts ofproteins to start with, so even doubling the

protein content would actually only make a small contribution to solving India's malnutrition problem.

Other projects aim to produce plant oils with lower levels of undesirable fatty acids or to reduce allergens in

common foods such as peanuts, soybean, and cereals. Trees with a reduced lignin content would be usefulfor the pulp and paper industry and would lessen the amount of polluting chemicals used in the productionprocesses. More...

2.6.2 In more than 30% of all arable land, primarily in developing countries, aluminium can be present in

the soil in a form that limits plant growth. To prevent these harmful effects, the usual approach is to addlime to the soil to reduce its acidity. However, this measure is costly and its benefits are temporary,because the aluminium remains in the soil.

A new approach consists of developing new varieties of plants that are more tolerant to aluminium. Forexample, rye is four times more resistant to aluminium than wheat. A gene controlling aluminium tolerance

in rye was identified and its position on the genome determined. Knowing the location of this gene in rye

can help locate it in other crops such as wheat. Thus within a crop species individual plants which are more

resistant than others to aluminium could be identified and selected for further breeding. Alternatively, thegene could also be transferred from rye to other closely related species such as wheat.

These techniques could be applied to improve many characteristics in other crop species. More...







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GMO : 3. Does conventional plant breeding have effects on health and the environment?





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In conventional plant breeding, little attention has been paid to the possible impacts of new plant varietieson food safety or the environment. Conventional plant breeding and artificial selection can create gene

combinations that would rarely survive in nature. In a few cases, such gene combinations have causednegative effects on human health. For example, a cultivated variety of potato was found to containexcessive levels of naturally occurring toxins.

The potential impacts of conventionally bred crops on the environment or on farmers' traditional varietieshave generally not been subjected to regulatory controls. Some of the concerns ofgene transfer between

domesticated and wild plants that have arisen because of the introduction of genetically modified plants alsoapply to conventional crops.

Highly domesticated plants are grown all over the world and migration outside cultivated areas has onlyrarely led to serious problems. Some exchange ofgenetic material (gene flow) between cultivated plants

and their wild relatives has been reported but in general this has not been considered a problem. More...


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GMO : 4. Are genetically modified plant foods safe to eat?





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4.1 Could genetically modified plant foods have health effects?4.2 How should genetically modified food safety be assessed?

4.3 How should genetically modified foods be labelled in the market place?

4.1. Could genetically modified plant foods have health effects?

The question of the safety of genetically modified foods has been reviewed by the International Council ofScience (ICSU), which based its opinion on 50 authoritative independent scientific assessments from aroundthe world. Currently available genetically modified crops and foods derived from them have been judgedsafe to eat, and the methods used to test them have been deemed appropriate.

Millions of people worldwide have consumed foods derived from genetically modified plants (mainly maize,soybean, and oilseed rape) and to date no adverse effects have been observed. The lack of evidence ofnegative effects, however, does not mean that new genetically modified foods are without risk. Thepossibility of long-term effects from genetically modified plants cannot be excluded and must be examinedon a case-by-case basis. More...

4.1.1Allergens and toxins occur in some traditional foods and can adversely affect some people leading toconcerns that genetically modified plant-derived foods may contain elevated levels of allergens and toxins.Extensive testing of genetically modified food currently on the market has not confirmed these concerns.The use of genes from plants with known allergens is discouraged and if a transformed product is found topose an increased risk of allergies it should be discontinued. All new foods, including those derived fromgenetically modified crops, should be assessed with caution. More...

4.1.2One concern about food safety is the potential transfer ofgenes from consumed food into human cells

or into micro-organisms within the body.

Many genetically modified crops were created using antibiotic-resistant genes as markers. Therefore, in

addition to having the desired characteristics, these genetically modified crops contain antibiotic-resistantgenes. If these genes were to transfer in the digestive tract from a food product into human cells or to

bacteria, this could lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria. Although scientists

believe the probability of such a transfer is extremely low, the use of antibiotic-resistant genes has beendiscouraged.

http://www.greenfacts.org/gmo/2-genetically-modified-crops/4-food-safety-labelling.htm (1 sur 3)21/11/2005 9:17:02
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