Glossary-Index · Glossary-Index References for maps, ﬁgures, or tables are set in italics. accommodation: narratives of, 1, 2, 3 acculturation: narratives of, 1, 2, 3

Glossary-Index

References for maps, figures, or tables are set in italics.

accommodation: narratives of, 1, 2, 3acculturation: narratives of, 1, 2, 3. See also

assimilationadministration. See Guangxi,

administration ofagricultural and economic life. See under

Guangxi provinceai (strategic pass): symbol for, 130Ai Mu (jr. 1558), 174almanacs. See encyclopedias and almanacsan fu shi (pacification commissioner),

61. See also native chieftainsAnlong Si : tax quota for, 73Annam : annexation of, 23, 37, 64, 76,

91, 158; in early Chinese history, 7, 10;mercury in, 49; Ming borders with, 8,100, 101; as Ming concern, 127; andSiming Fu, 75, 76, 77, 89

Anping Zhou : size of, 68assimilation (tong hua): narratives of, 1, 2,

3, 205; rhetoric of, 184, 195, 196–97.See also acculturation; civilization; guihua; xiang hua

autonomous administrative areas (zi zhiqu), 105, 199–200

Ayuwang , Mount (Zhejiang), 173

Ba : as category, 191Bai Gui (1419–75), 160bai miao tu . See miao albumsBaiyue : as category, 195Baman . See Eight Manbandits and banditry, 118; in Bazhai, 101;

along Fu River, 25, 135; in Gutian,122–25; in Huaiyuan, 106–07; aspersistent problems, 91, 93, 126; inRattan Gorge, 117–22; sources of,112–17. See also disorder

Banyizhongnu : as category, 142,143, 149, 191

bao (military fort): symbol for, 130bao (“watch”) and bao jia (“watch

and tithing”), 38Bao Ruji (js. 1607): Record of Things

Heard in Guizhou (Nan zhong ji wen), 166

“barbaric people” ( ye man ren), 197Barth, Fredrik, 5Bazhai , 98, 101–102, 118bei (defense): Fan Zhongyan on, 163ben xin (disposition): of native people,

138bi ji (informal jottings), 14, 21, 176.

See also sourcesbian min (registered subjects), 107. See

also minbie zhong (variant), 146, 147Bin Zhou (Liuzhou): as campaign

base, 87; drought and plague in, 50Bing : as category, 142, 191; depictions

of, 147Bo : as category, 141Bobai county (Wuzhou): decline of

population in, 110Book of Poetry (Shi jing), 103border zones. See borderlandsborderland, southern: expansion as

demarcation and categorization in, 5,8–9; historical narratives of, 1–4; inMing dynasty, 8, 18; perceivedboundaries between “central plains”and, 47; perils of (see perils); in Qingdynasty, 186–90; sources on, 166–67; asterm, 18. See also Guangdong; Guangxi;Guizhou; Huguang; Sichuan; Yunnan

borderlands: construction of boundaries ashistory of, 5, 11–13, 205–206; northernversus southern, 8, 18, 160, 163–64;sources on, 165–70; and state-building,6–7, 185. See also frontiers

227

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228 Glossary-Index

boundaries: dialectics of, 208; expansionas construction of, 5, 11–13, 205–206;history as transformation of, 19,204–206; Ming construction of, 8–9,11–13; state-building and formation of,6–7, 185. See also “Chinese” and“non-Chinese”; “Han” and “non-Han”;min and man yi

Bozhou (Sichuan), 72, 75, 102Brook, Timothy, 170, 182bu zheng shi si (provincial

administration commission), 29, 31bu zu (“tribes”), 198Buyi : as “minority nationality,”

204

Cahill, James, 179Caijia : as category, 141Cangwu county (Wuzhou): floods in,

49–50Cao Bang (Annam), 100Cao Shuji , 44n35Cao Xuequan (1574–1646):

Descriptions of Famous Sites of Guangxi(Guangxi ming sheng zhi ),175

cartographic symbols, 130, 132. See alsomaps

Cen Bao , 82n29Cen Bin , 82–83Cen Boyan , 82Cen Hanzhong , 82Cen Jian , 85Cen Jixiang , 100Cen Jun , 86Cen Langguang , 82Cen Meng (1490–1526), 73, 92, 95;

alleged crimes of, 86–87; demise of, 88;demotion of, 86; frightful of, 89;rebellion of former headmen of, 96;reinstatement of son of, 97. See alsoCens (Tianzhou); Tianzhou

Cen Peng (d. 35 CE), 70Cen Pu , 85–86Cen Shao , 85Cen Shaoxun , 102Cen Yan , 82n29Cen Ye , 71Cen Ying (d. 1478), 82–84, 95. See

also Sien (Fu)Cen Yong , 85Cen Yongchang , 82Cen Yunhan , 102–103Cens : of Guangxi, 74–75; of Guishun

Zhou, 103; of Right River region, 82–90,

100–101; of Sicheng Zhou, 70; of Sien(Fu), 83

Cens (Tianzhou), 83; alliance betweenMacs (Cao Bang) and, 103; militaryprowess of, 89; in Qing dynasty, 187;transgressions of, 96; in Xunzhou, 120.See also Cen Meng; Tianzhou

censuses, population, 200–201“central dominion” (zhong guo): as term,

17; under Zhou dynasty, 8. See also“China”

Central Guard (Guilin), 113Central Institute (University) of

Nationalities ( ), 200“central plains” (zhong yuan; zhong zhou):

perceived boundaries between southernborderland and, 47; as term, 17

centrality, concept of: in Shang and Zhoudynasties, 8

centralizing state. See state, centralizingCenxi county (Wuzhou): as center of

violence, 118; maps of, 132, 132–34;“Lang” of, 188, 189

Chang’an Zhen (Liuzhou): tigers in,52

chao (native settlements), 107, 119, 128,130

charity schools ( yi xue). See under schoolsChen Jian (js. 1607), 53–54. See also

Gazetteer of Wuzhou PrefectureChen Jin (1446–1528), 39, 121, 135Chen Lian (1370–1454), 27–28Chen Sui (1457–1504), 64, 73, 90Chen Xian , 48Chen Yongbin (js. 1571): Annotated

Illustrations of the non-Chinese in Yunnan( Yunnan zhu yi tu shuo ),166

Cheng , Prince of, 160. See also Jingtaiemperor

Cheng Tinggong (js. 1475), 142–43.See also General Gazetteer of Guangxi(1493)

Cheng Zhengyi (js. 1571): Notes onthe non-Chinese Natives in Sichuan (QuanShu tu yi kao ),166

Chens (Quan Zhou), 46chi patents: for native chieftains, 62Chiang Kai-shek (1888–1975): on

unity of Chinese people in China’sDestiny, 193

chieftain system. See native chieftaincy,institution of

chieftains. See native chieftains






Glossary-Index 229

“China” (Zhongguo): (national) history of,xiii, 4, 184; as term, 17; transformationof boundaries as history of, 204–206.See also “central dominion”;nation-state, making of

China, People’s Republic of. See People’sRepublic of China

“Chinese” (hua; huaxia; xia): as category,3, 17; as civilization, 2, 4; constructionof boundaries as history of, 204–206,208; and “Han,” 3, 192–93, 195; asidentity, xiii, 206; Ming dynasty as, 10;as nation (Zhonghua min zu), xiii, 4,193–95, 198. See also “Han”; min zu

“Chinese” and “non-Chinese”: boundariesbetween, 3, 157, 159–70, 181–83, 205;as conceptual binary, 3, 10; dialecticalrelationship between, 208. See also“Han” and “non-Han”; markers; minand man yi; “non-Chinese”

Chinese Communist Party, 184, 185; on“minority nationalities,” 198–202. Seealso People’s Republic of China

Chinese state. See state, centralizing“Chineseness”: as historical, 204–205; as

situational, xiiiChongshan Xian : conversion of, 31chu (“civilized”), 25city walls, 33n19civilian militias (min bing; min zhuang),

38–39civilians. See mincivilization: “current” of, 28; efforts on,

34, 71–72, 96; rhetoric of, 57, 94, 108,140, 182, 185, 187; through wen jiao,103, 104, 158, 162. See also assimilation;enlightenment

clans, notable, 46. See also native clansclimate. See under Guangxi, geography ofCollected Statutes of the Ming (Ming hui

dian), 14, 71colonization, 1, 5. See also expansioncommercialization. See economy,

commercialization of“Common Guidelines” (Gong tong gang

ling), 199confrontation: narratives of, 1–2, 3, 205Confucian schools. See under schools“Constitution of the Chinese Soviet

Republic,” 199courier stations ( yi ), 64, 127, 130. See also

postal relay stationsCrossley, Pamela Kyle, 4, 186, 188cultural hierarchy, assumption of, 185customs. See under markers

da ge , custom of, 181. See also markersDa Ming yi tong zhi See Union

Gazetteer of the Great Mingda zheng (large-scale expedition),

concept of, 126Dai Yao (js. 1568), 72Daliang : as category, 142, 143, 149,

191; as type of Yao, 154Dan / : as category, 141, 142, 143,

191Dan : as category, 142, 144, 191; in

Huaiyuan, 147, 181dao shui (“sword tax”), 149dao xue . See Learning of the WayDateng Xia . See Rattan GorgeDatong defense area (Shanxi), 159Daxin county, 70de Bary, Wm. Theodore, 182Deng Tingzan (1430–1500), 91,

124Di : as category, 8, 142, 144Di : as category, 167, 168, 169. See also

hybrid creaturesdi li (geography; “coherence of the

earth”), 27, 28, 174. See alsogeographical knowledge; Guangxi,geography of

di mo (“veins of the earth”), 27Di Qing (1008–57), 70, 77diao jiao (surgical strike), concept of,

126Dingluo , Fort, battle of, 88diseases. See malaria; miasma; plagues;

perilsdisorder: propensity for (see under

markers); sources of, 74, 112–16,138–39. See also bandits and banditry

Dong : as category, 142, 143, 144,147n12, 149, 191, 197; depictions of,147; in Huaiyuan, 145, 147, 181

Dong / : as category, 141dong / (native settlement), 106,

147n12Dong Yuanru (js. 1601), 33n20Dongan county (Guangdong), “Lang”

in, 149Donglao : as category, 142na, 143;

masquerading as Yao, 140. See alsoGelao; Lao

Dongyue : as category, 164“downstreaming,” practice of, 17droughts. See nature-induced disastersdu (wards), 134Dubei , Great King of, 152Duara, Prasenjit, 184






230 Glossary-Index

Dujie Zhou : chieftain of, 99; taxquota for, 72

Duxiu Shan (Peak of SingularBeauty), 30

e (intractable) “Zhuang,” 124–25economic life. See under Guangxi provinceeconomy, commercialization of: and

increased mobility of population, 170,171–172; and pressure on literati, 182

education. See Imperial Academy;institutes of nationalities; schools;“special education”

Eight Man (Baman): as category, 153elephants, 51–52, 62empirical knowledge: emphasis on,

178–82. See also firsthand observations;geographical knowledge

Encheng Zhou , 69, 70encyclopedias and almanacs (lei shu), 167,

169–70. See also sources“enlightened people” (wen ming ren), 197enlightenment (kai hua): rhetoric of, 184,

185, 196–97. See also civilizationenvironment, natural: as barriers, 163,

164; and China’s expansion, 2, 11–12,51–55

Esen (d. 1455), 159, 160. See alsoMongols

Essential Information for Governing Guangxi(Dian Yue yao zuan ), 106, 120,128–30, 131, 132, 133, 141, 142,143–44, 144–45. See also Yang Fang

ethnic groups. See min zuethnic identities: as constructed, xiii“ethnic landscape,” 13, 206“ethnic” markers. See markersethnicity, concept of, 3ethnology (min zu xue): as academic

discipline, 197European empires (in the Americas), 7evidential learning (kao zheng xue), 180.

See also empirical knowledgeevolution, rhetoric of, 196–97expansion: as demarcation and

categorization, 5, 208; narratives of,1–4; and natural environment, 2, 11–12,51–55; and state-building, 6–7

fa (to manifest), 29famines. See nature-induced disastersfan (“non-Chinese” in western regions),

138, 188Fan Chengda (1126–93), 22–23;

depictions of Yao in Descriptions of

Forests and Marshes of the Gui Region(Gui hai yu heng zhi ), 151–53

Fan Zhongyan (989–1052), 163Fang Yizhi (1611–71), 180fang zhi . See gazetteers, localfarmer-soldiers (geng bing), 39. See also

native soldiersFeathereds: as category, 169. See also

hybrid creaturesFei Xiaotong , 2n2, 202Feng Bin (js. 1529), 36Feng Jun (js. 1460), 110Feng Run , 102field investigations, 197, 200, 201First Emperor of Qin (r. 221–210

BCE), 10, 11. See also Qin dynasty“First Nations,” 6firsthand observations: importance of, 139,

141, 143, 150, 176, 177, 178, 188, 190.See also empirical knowledge

fiscal problems: of princely estates, 30; ofwei suo system, 34, 39. See also taxcollection

Five Marchmounts (wu yue), 173Five-part Series on Nationalities Issues (Min

zu wen ti wu zhong cong shu),201–202

floods. See nature-induced disastersFried, Morton H., 1frontiers: “new” history of, 19; in

state-building, 6; as term, 18. See alsoborderland, southern; borderlands

fu lao (senior advisor), 69Fu River : disorders in region, 25, 39,

118; military campaign of 1572–73, 98,135–36; as strategic route, 25, 33

Fu Youde (d. 1394), 73

gai tu gui liu (conversion of nativedomains into regular administrativeunits), 186–87

Ganza, Kenneth, 179–80gao patents: for native chieftains, 62Gazetteer of Huaiyuan County (Huaiyuan

xian zhi ), 147, 181–82Gazetteer of Nanning Prefecture (Nanning fu

zhi ), 147Gazetteer of Pingle Prefecture (Pingle fu zhi

), 115n14, 182Gazetteer of Qingyuan Prefecture (Qingyuan

fu zhi ), 146, 147Gazetteer of Quan Zhou (Quan zhou zhi

), 114n13Gazetteer of Rong County (Rong xian zhi

), 196






Glossary-Index 231

Gazetteer of Siming Prefecture (Siming fu zhi), 64–67, 76

Gazetteer of Taiping Prefecture (Taiping fu zhi), 68, 148

Gazetteer of Wuzhou Prefecture (Wuzhou fuzhi ), 53, 132, 134, 149, 154. Seealso Chen Jian

Gazetteer of Yongfu County ( Yongfu xian zhi), 156, 157

Gazetteer of Yongning County ( Yongningxian zhi ), 196

Gazetteer of Zhaoping County (Zhaopingxian zhi ), 136

gazetteers, local (fang zhi), 14, 127, 141,170, 174, 190, 196. See also individualtitles

ge wu (investigation of things), 180Gelao / : as category, 141, 142na,

143; masquerading as Yao, 140. See alsoDonglao; Lao

Gelao : as “minority nationality,” 201Geling : as category, 146. See also Linggenealogies: of native clans, 69, 70General Gazetteer of Guangxi (Guangxi tong

zhi ; 1493), 141–42, 191General Gazetteer of Guangxi (1531):

categories of man yi in, 142, 143, 191; onelephants, 51–52; on environment, 20,25, 28; on officials, 67; population datain, 41, 42; on Tianzhou and Sien, 85; on“Yao,” 152–53; on “Zhuang,” 155

General Gazetteer of Guangxi (1599):categories of man yi in, 142, 143, 191; onenvironment, 46; on “Gelao” and“Donglao,” 140; map of Cenxi, 132,133; map of Quan Zhou, 130, 131;military population data, 36; on nativechieftains, 56; registered populationdata, 40, 41; on tigers, 52; on “Yao,”154. See also Su Jun

General Gazetteer of Guangxi (1733), 21,146n10, 147n12, 148, 190–92

General Gazetteer of Guangxi (1801), 191,192

geng bing . See farmer-soldiersgeng hua (obstructive), 128geographical knowledge: demand and

supply, 170–71, 174–78. See alsoempirical knowledge; si yi: sources on

geography. See Guangxi, geography ofGladney, Dru C., 4, 13, 202gong (tributes). See tributary relationsgong sheng . See “tribute students”Gong tong gang ling . See “Common

Guidelines”

Gongyao (Tianzhou), battle of, 88gou wei shan (dog’s tail blouse),

154grand coordinator (xun fu), office of, 29Great Wall, 8, 159, 160, 163gu poisoning, 48–49; and Zhuang

women, 156, 182Gu Xiancheng (1550–1612),

174Gu Xingzu (ca. 1390–1460),

117Gu Yanwu (1613–82): Strengths and

Weaknesses of the Various Regions of theRealm (Tian xia jun guo li bing shu

), 178Guan Daxun (js. 1565), 33n20Guangdong province: as borderland,

18, 29; disorders in, 119; in earlyimperial period, 7, 10; grain from, 50;“Lang” in, 149; migrants from, 45;population density of, 44; soldiers from,38. See also borderland, southern

Guangxi province, 24; agricultural andeconomic life in, 46–49, 85, 114–15; incomparative perspective, 10–11, 26–27,28–29, 177; development of, 28–29,177; in early imperial period, 7, 10–11;perils of (see perils); tenancy in, 114,122, 136–37. See also borderland,southern; Guangxi Zhuang AutonomousRegion

Guangxi, administration of: bureaucraticstructure, 29, 31; creation anddistribution of administrative seats,31–33; elimination of official posts, 31,34, 67, 110; incompetence of officials,34, 67, 94, 96, 138; infrastructureprojects, 33. See also fiscal problems

Guangxi, geography of, 22–29; climate,26–27, 37, 93; di li and qi energy, 27,28–29; “extraordinary” landscape,22–23; karstic topography, 26; rainfall,26–27, 50–51; regional diversity, 25–26;river system, 11, 23–25, 26, 177

Guangxi, population of, 40–46, 108–12“decline,” 40, 41, 109–110; distribution,45–46, 107, 110–11, 127–28, 129, 130,132; estimates, 44; official data and itslimits, 40–44, 111. See also man yi;migration; min; min and man yi

Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region: establishment of, 199–200

“minority nationalities” in, 201Guanyang county (Guilin), 43n33,

128, 129






232 Glossary-Index

guard (wei) and battalion (suo) system, 11,34–40. See also military officers andsoldiers

Gui River . See Fu RiverGuideways through Mountains and Seas

(Shan hai jing), 167, 168, 170gui hua (transformation through

submission): rhetoric of, 184, 185. Seealso assimilation; xiang hua

Guilin (commandery), 10Guilin (prefecture): accessibility of,

46; clans of, 46; landscape of, 22–23,26; population of, 41, 42, 45–46, 111;tenancy in, 114 “Zhuang” in, 155

Guilin (provincial capital): nativesoldiers in, 91; princely estate at, 29–30;routes to, 23–25; “Zhuang” attacks of,123, 124. See also Lingui county

Guilin shan shui jia tian xia(“the mountains and waters of Guilinare the most splendid ofall-under-heaven”), 22–23

Guiping county (Xunzhou), 118, 120Guishun Zhou , 88, 100–101, 103Guizhou : as borderland, 18, 29;

geography of, 177; miao albums of, 190;native domains in, 58; native soldiersfrom, 120; as province, 8; rebellions in,92; tax exemption for, 73; “Zhuang”migrants from, 157. See also borderland,southern

Guo : as category, 191Guo Fei (1529–1605): Descriptions of

the non-Chinese in South of the Range(Lingnan zhu yi zhi ), 166

guo jia , 192, 193. See also nation-state,making of

guo shan bang (“certificates ofmountain crossing”), 17. See also Yao

Guo Yingpin (1500–86), 98,135–36

Guo zi jian . See Imperial AcademyGupeng Zhen , 101–102. See also

native police officesGutian county (Guilin): disorders in,

122–24; renamed Yongning Zhou, 125;military campaign of 1570–71, 98,124–25; “Yao” in (Song dynasty),152. See also Yongning Zhou

“Han”: as category, 3, 4, 18, 186; and“Chinese,” 3, 193, 198, 202;construction of identities as history of,208; Ming dynasty as, 10; as min zu, 3,193, 195, 196, 198, 206; people (in

Ming), 98, 110. See also “Chinese”; minzu

han (chill; cool), 27“Han” and “non-Han”: boundaries

between, 3, 187–88; commonalitiesbetween, 197–98; as conceptual binary,3, 206; dialectical relationship between,208; as members of she hui, 196; rejectedas history’s building blocks, 4, 6. See also“Chinese” and “non-Chinese”; majorityand minority; markers; “non-Han”;“unitary multi-national state”; unity anddiversity

Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), 15,115, 162

han er zhi (ferocious and crude), 25Han Yong (1422–78): on decline of

military population, 36; militarycampaigns of, 119–20, 122, 135. See alsoRattan Gorge; Yao

Hanlin Academy, 161hao ren nu shou (“when content

[the man yi act like] they are humans;when discontent [they behave as if] theyare beasts”), 106, 116

Harrell, Stevan, 207“haunts.” See chaoHazelton, Keith, xixhe po suo (fishing-tax office), 34headmen. See native headmenHechi battalion, 37Heijdra, Martin, 16, 44Heng , Mount (modern-day Hunan), 173Heng , Mount (Shanxi), 173Heng Zhou (Nanning), 47–48, 146,

176. See also Wang JiHistory of the Liang (Liang shu ), 150History of the Sui (Sui shu ), 150Hongwu emperor (r. 1368–98):

“Ancestral Instructions” (Zu xun), 165;edicts to chieftains, 56, 76; andelephants, 51; enfeoffment of princes,29, 30; and institution of nativechieftaincy, 57–58, 61, 71, 72, 103, 104;message to officers, 37n25; on nativeclans, 74–75; “Proclamation ofAccession,” 57; rhetoric of wen jiao, 104,158

Hongzhi emperor (r. 1488–1505),161, 162

horses: as “tributes,” 61, 62Hostetler, Laura, 188, 190Hou Dagou , 119, 121Hou Gongding , 121Hou Shenghai , 121






Glossary-Index 233

hu (“non-Chinese” in the north),115

hua (“Chinese”), 17, 94, 96, 146, 149,164

hua (civilized; transformed), 18. See alsogui hua, kai hua, tong hua, xiang hua,xian dai hua

Hua , Mount (Shaanxi), 173hua and yi, 160, 161, 162, 163, 182, 183.

See also “Chinese” and “non-Chinese”hua yi zhi fang (defense of the

boundaries between “Chinese” and“non-Chinese”), 161

Huaiyuan county (Liuzhou), 145:categories of man yi in, 144, 147, 181; ascenter of violence, 106–108, 118;customs of man yi in, 147, 181–82“Yao” in (Song dynasty), 152; “Yaobandits” in, 107

Huang Fang (js. 1508), 52Huang Fu (1363–1440), 23Huang Gang (d. 1438), 78–79Huang Guangcheng (1383?–1413),

76, 77, 78, 80Huang Hong (1401?–57), 76–77,

78–80, 81Huang Hudu (1347–98), 76, 77, 80Huang Qing zhi gong tu . See

Illustrations of the Tributaries of the QingImperium

Huang Qiu , 79Huang Shang , 80, 81Huang Shao (d. 1505), 80Huang Tai , 80Huang Wenchang , 80Huang Xiaoyang (d. 1450), uprising

of, 138, 139Huang Yinglei , 80Huang Yu (1426–97), 48–49Huang Zhen (d. 1468), 79, 80Huang Zhong , 109Huangs : of Guangxi, 74–75; of Shangsi

Zhou, 77Huangs (Siming), 78; as buffer against

Annam, 89; entrenched power of,75–81; family history of, 77; marriagepractices of, 77; relations with Mingcourt, 76–77, 79–81. See also Siming Fu

Huaxia : as “lineage” (xi), 195huaxia (“Chinese”), 17, 162Hucker, Charles O., xixHuguang province: as borderland, 18,

29; migrants from, 45, 114; nativedomains in, 58; soldiers from, 38, 88,120. See also borderland, southern

Hui (Muslims), 192, 193, 196, 201hui hao (labels) and hui zhang

(markers), 197hun er tong (“mixing with and

assimilating to”), 164Hunan province: miao substatutes in,

187Huo Ji (1516–75): Annotated

Illustrations of the Northern Borders ( Jiubian tu shuo ), 166

Huo Tao (1487–1540), 26hybrid creatures: illustrations of, 167–170

“iconic circuit,” 170identities: as constructed, xiii, 5–6,

202–204, 207; prisoners of modernist,xiii

illustrations: of hybrid creatures, 167–70;of “non-Han” (in Qing dynasty),188–190. See also maps

Illustrations of the Tributaries of the QingImperium (Huang Qing zhi gong tu),188–90

Imperial Academy (Guo zi jian), 71, 161;students ( jian sheng), 65–66, 67, 112“tribute students” (gong sheng), 71

inscriptions, stone, 14, 15–16, 23n5, 69,70, 77, 103. See also sources

institutes of nationalities , 200

ji mi (“loosely reined”) domains, 7, 75.See also native domains

Ji Zongdao (js. 1499), 114jian (scoundrel), 136jia : as subdivision in native domain, 68,

69, 97; as “tithing,”. 38, 41najian sheng . See under Imperial Academyjiang hu shi da fu (literati circle),

21Jiang Mian (1463–1533), 64, 92, 116Jiang Wan (1452–1507), 85Jiang Yuan (js. 1430), 79Jiangs (Quan Zhou), 46Jiao /Jiaozhi . See Annamjie (subdivision in native domain), 68Jie Ji (js. 1424), 93–94, 97, 109; on

“Ling,” 146jin shi (metropolitan graduates)Jing : as “minority nationality,” 201Jingjiang prefecture (Song dynasty),

22, 152Jingtai emperor (r. 1450–56), 79, 160Jinhua , Mount (Zhejiang), 173Jingzhou prefecture (Huguang), 54Jiucenglou (mountain), 120






234 Glossary-Index

Jiuhua , Mount (modern-day Anhui),173

ju ren (provincial graduates)jun tun (military colonization). See

guard and battalion systemJurchens, 139, 159

kai hua . See enlightenmentKang : as category, 191Kangxi emperor (r. 1662–1722): and

miao albums, 190kao zheng and kao zheng xue . See

evidential learningke (“guest”), 18Khitans, 139Ku , Emperor, 151Kuan : as category, 138, 142

Lai as category, 191Laian Lu , 61, 82Lancang defense circuit (Yunnan), 173land: clashes over, 12, 108, 113, 115–16,

116–17, 121, 122, 136–37; limitedproductivity of, 46–48, 110; for militaryfarms, 36; for or in native domains, 73,85, 120, 136. See also tenancy

landlord–tenant relationships. See tenancyLang : as category, 191lang bing . See under native soldierslang huo (native headmen), 147lang ji (disorderliness), 148Lang people / : as category, 142,

147–49, 191; of Cenxi, 188, 189;“proliferation” of, 110, 148; in Wuzhou,134, 149

languages. See under markerslao : as generic “non-Chinese,” 26Lao : as category, 4, 8, 19, 138, 141,

142–43, 191Lao . See RauLattimore, Owen, 2Le clan (Annam), 100Learning of the Way (dao xue), 180Left River , 177; region, 59, 60, 64, 89,

126, 148lei (stock; variety), 147lei shu . See encyclopedias and almanacsLi : as category, 8Li : as category, 141, 188Li : as category, 191li (coherence; pattern), 181li (distance) = 0.54 kilometer (approx.)li (“hundred”), 41, 109, 110Li Chi (Li Ji ; 1896–1979): Formation

of the Chinese People, 193–94Li Dongyang (1447–1516), 39

li ji zhi min tian (“to register thepopulation and to catalog people’sland”), 73

li jia (“hundred and tithing”) system,41na

Li Jifu (758–814): IllustratedDescriptions of the Administrative Regionsin the Yuanhe Period ( Yuanhe jun xian tuzhi ), 150

Li Mengyang (1432–1509), 109li mu (administrative clerk), 67Li River , 23, 24, 33Li Shizhen (1518–93): Material

Medica: A General Outline (Ben chao gangmu ), 178–79, 180

Li Wenfeng (js. 1532), 49Li Zengbo , 154–55Li Zhi (1527–1602), 180–81Li Zhou , 82n29Li Zongxian (js. 1460), ordeals of,

20–22, 48liang (tame), 128Libo county (Qingyuan): “Zhuang” in,

155Lin Fu (js. 1502), 97–98; on “Han,”

98Lin Huixiang : History of the Chinese

Nation (Zhongguo min zu shi ),193, 194–95

Ling : as category, 4, 19, 138, 142–43,144, 149, 191; depictions of, 146; inHuaiyuan, 147, 181

Ling (Numinous) Canal , 11, 23, 24,33

ling wai (distinct), 146n10Ling Yunyi (js. 1547), 36, 126. See

also Record of the Office of the SupremeCommander at Cangwu

Linglao : as category, 146. See also LingLingquan county (Guilin): “bandits”

in, 123 “Zhuang” in, 128Lingui county (Guilin): clans of, 46;

relative peace in, 111; types of “Yao” in,154

Lingyun county, 103Linhai (Zhejiang), 172, 173Lipu county (Pingle): military

campaign in, 119 “Zhuang” in, 155Lis (Guangxi), 75literary history (wen xue shi): of “minority

nationalities,” 16literati (wen ren): circle, 21; pressure on,

182–83; travelers, 170, 172–74Litzinger, Ralph, 203Liu Jie . See Liu XifanLiu Jin (d. 1510), 86






Glossary-Index 235

Liu Pu (d. 1461), 37Liu Ren , ordeals of, 22Liu Xifan : Notes on the non-Han of

Guangxi (Ling biao ji man ),197

Liu Yaohui (1522–85), 126. See alsoRecord of the Office of the SupremeCommander at Cangwu

Liu Zongyuan (773–819), 22Liuzhou prefecture: environment of,

26; isolation of min people in, 110;landscape of, 22; native soldiers in, 91;official population data of, 41, 42; tigersin, 52

Liuzhou Guard , 117livelihood, modes of. See under markersLolo. See Yilong (“dragons”), 29Long Zhou , 61, 77, 86Longjia : as category, 141lu (route command), 82lu (“non-Chinese” in the north), 138;

sources on, 166Lu Simian (1884–1957): History of

the Chinese Nation (Zhongguo min zu shi), 194

Lu Su , 96, 97Lu Tiaoyang (1516–80), 38Lu Wanli , 102Lu You , 80, 81Lu Zhao , rebellion of, 85Lu Zhi (754–805), 162luo hou (backward), 196Luo Yuejiong (jr. 1585): Record of

Tribute Guests (Xian bin lu ), 165Luoding Zhou (Guangdong):

“Lang” in, 149Luoluo : as category, 141Lus (Lingui), 46

Ma : as category, 141, 191Ma Duanlin (ca. 1254–ca. 1325):

Comprehensive Study of ImportantDocuments (Wen xian tong kao ),151

Ma Feng , 53–54, 55Ma Jun , 123ma lan dwellings, 156, 157Ma Xuan , 123Mac Kinh Khoan , 100. See also

AnnamMacs (Cao Bang), 100, 103. See also

Annammajority and minority: concepts of, 6;

state-building and making of, 7, 13, 202,206

malaria (nue ji ), 26, 28. See also miasma;plagues

man : as generic “non-Chinese,” 12, 19,26, 43, 57, 58, 70, 107; as “non-Han” inRepublican period, 197, 198. See alsoman yi; “non-Han”

Man : as category, 8, 143; of Fushui ,142na; of Guangyuan , 142, 143,191; of Xiyuan , 142, 143, 191

man yi : as generic “non-Chinese,” 19,43, 57, 90, 107; categorization of,140–49, 187–92; nature of, 116, 137,138, 182; “proliferation” of, 108–12; assource of disorder, 114–17, 137; taxcollection from, 114–15, 125, 134–35,146, 149, 182. See also min and man yi;“non-Chinese”; si yi

man yi zhang guan (squad leader;chief), 61. See also native chieftains

Manchus, 186, 192, 193, 206Mangjia : as category, 141Mao Ruizheng (js. 1601): Record of

the Interpreters of the Ming Imperium(Huang Ming xiang xu lu ),165

Mao Zedong (1883–1976), 199Maonan : as “minority nationality,”

201Maping county (Liuzhou): decline of

population in, 110; tenancy in, 114maps: accuracy of, 130, 134, 144;

cartographic symbols in, 130, 132;demarcation and categorization in,143–45; in local gazetteers, 130–34; inmilitary handbooks, 127, 129–33. Seealso illustrations

margins: groups at, 205. See alsoborderlands

markers: customs and religions, 147, 150,151, 152, 153, 154, 155–56, 157, 182,190, 193, 197, 199, 201; languages,138, 146, 196, 197, 198, 199; marriageand mating practices, 147, 149, 150,152, 153, 154, 157, 181, 182; modes oflivelihood, 107, 146, 147, 150, 151,152–53, 188, 201; physical appearance,146, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153–54,188, 196; places of abode/origin, 107,146, 149, 151, 152, 154, 155, 156, 157,188, 191, 193; propensity for disorder,117, 122, 146, 147, 149, 151, 152, 153,154, 155; Stalin on “nation,” 200–201;Sun Yat-sen on min zu, 192–93. See alsonationality identification;self-representations; sheng and shu

Marks, Robert B., 11n16, 44, 51, 52–53






236 Glossary-Index

marriage and mating practices. See undermarkers

mercenary soldiers (mu bing), 38–39,87

merchants, itinerant, 45, 48–49, 116, 170,171–72

mercury, 49Miao : as category, 141, 142, 188, 191,

197, 201; in Huaiyuan, 144, 145, 147,181; language, 198; as “minoritynationality,” 202–203

miao albums (bai miao tu; miao man tu), 190. See also illustrations

miao li (miao substatutes), 187miao yao : as generic “non-Chinese,”

187. See also man yimiasma (zhang), 20, 26, 27–28, 37, 55. See

also perilsmigration, 44–45, 114, 122, 157; in Qin

dynasty, 10, 11military colonization ( jun tun). See guard

and battalion systemmilitary farms (tun tian): disappearance of,

36military officers and soldiers: as agents of

“civilization,” 34; depleted ranks of, 36,37–38; migration of, 44–45;encroachment by, 113; hardship met by,37, 93; indiscriminate killings by,112–13. See also civilian militias;farmer-soldiers; guard and battalionsystem; mercenary soldiers

min (registered subjects): as category,12, 18, 107 “depletion” of, 109–10,111; as landlords, 114, 122, 136–37; asmiddlemen, 115; as minority, 108–109,110–11 “under siege,” 108–109,115–16. See also Guangxi, population of

min and man yi: demarcation of, 12, 107,111–12, 116, 125–35, 138; distributionof, 107, 110–11, 127–28, 129, 130, 132;relations between, 107, 108, 115,116–17, 122. See also bandits andbanditry; hua and yi; man yi; markers;tenancy

min bing /min zhuang . See civilianmilitias

Min Gui (1430–1511), 123min zu : as category, 196, 198; as

constructed, 185; five major, 13, 193,206; Li Chi on, 193–94; Lin Huixiangon, 194–95; “special,” 197; Sun Yat-senon, 192–93; as term, 192. See also“Chinese”; “Han”; “minoritynationalities”; “non-Han”; nation

Min zu wen ti wu zhong cong shu. See Five-part Series on

Nationalities Issuesmin zu shi bie . See nationality

identificationmin zu xue . See ethnologyMing dynasty (1368–1644), 9; borders

with Annam, 8, 100–101; boundaryformation, 8; as “Han Chinese,” 10;Ministry of Personnel, 61, 69; Ministryof Rites, 63; Ministry of War, 61, 110,166; politics, 29, 30, 53, 56–58, 79, 86,158–60, 170, 172, 174; relations withMongols, 57, 158–60, 163; relationswith Southeast Asia, 57; significance,8–10, 185, 206; “universal appeal,” 57,158

Ming hui dian . See Collected Statutesof the Ming

Ming shi lu . See Veritable Records ofthe Ming

Ming state. See state, centralizingminority, concept of. See majority and

minority“minority nationalities” (shao shu min zu):

as category, 6; and “downstreaming,”17; fieldwork among, 200, 201; literaryhistory of, 16; Ming antecedents of, 8–9;official classification of, 200–201; officialhistory of, 203, 207; online communitiesof, 203–204; under People’s Republic,13, 198–204; in post-1949 Guangxi,201; (self-)representations of, 202–204,207; in “unitary multi-national state,”202. See also majority and minority; minzu; “non-Han”; “unitary multi-nationalstate”

Minyue : as category, 164mo (“uncivilized”), 25Mo clan (Xincheng), 95Mo Guoqi , 155Mo Zheng , 93modernization (xian dai hua): rhetoric of,

184, 185Mongols, 57, 79, 115, 158–60, 162, 163;

in Republican period, 192, 193, 206Mongolia, 158, 184, 186, 193Moyao : as category, 150mu (area) = 570 square meters

(approx.)mu bing . See mercenary soldiersmu ye clay, 151Mulao : as category, 141Mulao : as “minority nationality,” 201Muslims. See Hui






Glossary-Index 237

Nadi Zhou (Qingyuan), 48Nandan Zhou (Qingyuan), 93,

155Nanhai commandery, 10Nanning (present-day provincial

capital): floods, 51; Institute ofNationalities, 200

Nanning prefecture: intermingling ofmin and man yi in, 110; lack of rainfallin, 50; official population data of, 41, 42;“Shanzi” in, 146–47

Nanyue : as category, 164nation: national history and concept of,

xiii, 4; Stalin on, 201. See also min zunational history: of China, 4, 206; and

concepts of nation and nation-state, 4national identities: as constructed, xiiiNationalist Party : First National

Congress, 193nationalities. See min zu; “minority

nationalities”Nationality Affairs Commission (State

Council) , 202Nationality Affairs Committee

(National People’s Congress), 200, 201

nationality identification (min zu shi bie),project of, 200–201

nation-state (guo jia), making of: collapseof Qing dynasty and, 4, 192–93;demarcation and categorization in, 185,206; and national history, xiii, 4; Minglegacies in, 185, 206; in Republicanperiod, 184; Sun Yat-sen on, 192. Seealso majority and minority; “unitarymulti-national state”; unity anddiversity

“native”: as term, 18–19; voices, 13, 16,19, 207

“Native Americans,” 6native chieftaincy (tu si), institution of: as

accommodation, 2; as fragile alliance,73–74, 74–81, 81–90, 100–104; legaciesof, 12, 104–105; and limits of state, 12,57, 67, 71–73, 89–90, 100–104; Mingrationales for, 56, 57–58, 58, 81, 89,90–99; and notion of legitimacy, 81,104; theory and practice of, 58–74,100–105; tributary relations as part of,62–63, 104; as vehicle of “civilization,”94, 104; in Yuan dynasty, 58, 61

native chieftains (tu guan; tu si): “civil”versus “military,” 61, 64; “civilization”of, 71–72, 94, 96, 103; co-option of, 7,12, 56, 57–58, 58–74; genealogies of,

69, 70, 71, 77, 102, 103, 104; increasedreliance on, 93–99; reactions against gaitu gui liu by, 187; rules and regulationsfor, 61–74; succession issues of, 69–70,71, 75, 78–79, 85–86, 100; symbolicgifts (formal attires; patents; seals) for,62; as term, 18–19; tributary missionsof, 61, 62–63; use of kinship ties by, 75,77, 81, 88, 104; use of poisons by, 67,87, 89; women as, 62, 69

native clans: entrenched power of, 74–81,81–90

native domains (tu si): administrativestructure of, 64–69; as buffers, 56, 89,98, 99, 101, 104; classification of, 64;conversion of, 31–33, 86, 89, 95, 96,186–87; distribution of, 58, 59–60;increased recognition of, 12, 92–99;“loosely reined” ( ji mi ), 7, 75; regularofficials in, 64–67; schools in, 71–72;size of, 68, 74; subdivisions ( jia; jie;zhou) in, 68; tax collection from, 59,72–73, 94, 109; as term, 19n24;upheavals in, 74, 75, 78–80, 82–83,84–86, 96; warfare among, 74, 75, 80,82n29, 84, 85–87, 99, 100; XuHongzu’s impression of, 99–103

native headmen (tou mu), 68, 80, 85, 96,121

native officials (tu guan): as term, 19n24.See also native chieftains

native police offices (tu xun jian si), 97, 98,101–102, 120–21

native population. See man yinative soldiers (tu bing): as

“farmer-soldiers,” 39; recruitment of,63–64, 90–91, 136; reliance on, 73,90–92, 96; as term, 18–19; unrulinessof, 87, 92; as “wolf soldiers” (lang bing),63, 147–48

“natives” and “settlers”: boundariesbetween, 187; as terms, 18

nature-induced disasters, 27, 49–51. Seealso perils

nei (inside) and wai (outside),boundaries between, 162

nei di (interior), 106“non-Chinese”: as category, 3;

construction of identities as history of,206–208; expansion as demarcation andcategorization of, 5, 8, 13. See also“Chinese” and “non-Chinese”; man yi;markers; si yi

Nong ?: as category, 191Nong Zhigao (fl. 1022–55), 70






238 Glossary-Index

“non-Han”: as category, 3, 4, 18, 206;construction of identities as history of,206–208; as “minority nationalities,”184, 198–204; in modern-day Guangxi,43, 196–98, 200, 201; in Qing dynasty,187, 190; in Republican period, 184,196, 197. See also “Han” and“non-Han”; markers; “minoritynationalities”

nue ji . See malariaNung (Nong) : as “minority nationlity,”

204

obsessions ( pi ), 180–81officials: inepitude and misconduct of, 34,

67, 94, 96, 112–13, 138–39online communities: and construction of

identities, 203–204outlaws (wang ming zhi peng) and loafers

( you shou ba min), 113Ottoman empire, 7Ouyue : as category, 164

Pan (surname), 152Panhu , 151, 152, 153, 182People’s Republic of China: autonomous

administrative areas (zi zhi qu), 105,199–200; Constitution (1954), 199;field investigations, 201; GuangxiZhuang Autonomous Region, 10,199–200; institute of nationalities, 200;Law of Autonomy for MinorityNationality Regions , 199;nationality identification, 13, 184,200–201; population censuses, 200–201.See also “minority nationalities”;“unitary multi-national state”

perils: for visitors, 11, 20–22, 25–26,26–28, 33–34, 37, 48–49, 99. See alsobandits and banditry; miasma;nature-induced disasters; plagues;poisons; tigers

Peterson, Willard J., 180physical appearance. See under markerspi . See obsessionsPingle prefecture: disorders in, 25; min

and man yi in, 110, 111; officialpopulation data of, 41, 42; “Yao” and“Zhuang” in, 182

Pingnan county (Xunzhou), 118places of abode/origin. See under markersplagues ( yi li ), 11, 37, 50. See also malaria;

miasma; perilsPlaks, Andrew H., 182poisonous vapors. See miasma

poisons: use of, 67, 87, 89. See also gupoisoning; perils

population. See Guangxi, population ofpopulation censuses, 200–201postal relay stations (pu), 33, 130. See also

courier stationsPrakash, Gyan, 208princely estate (Guilin), 29–30pu . See postal relay stationspublishing: boom in, 167–70, 170–71

174–77Puding Fu (Guizhou), 71Putuo Island (Zhejiang), 173

qi (ether; energy), 27, 28–29qi (extraordinary) landscape, 22–23Qian River , 117, 118, 119, 121Qianlong emperor (r. 1736–95), 187,

188, 206Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), 115;

southward expansion, 7, 10, 11, 51Qin Wanxian , 123qing (area) = 5.7 hectares (approx.)Qing dynasty (1636–1912): “alien” rule,

10, 186; approaches to the south, 184,186–88; categorization of man yi, 184,188–92; “civilization” of nativepopulation, 187; conversion of nativedomains, 186–87; Illustrations of theTributaries of the Qing Imperium, 188–90;miao albums, 190; miao substatutes,187; modern nation-state and collapseof, 4, 192; quarantine policy, 187; as“universal empire,” 185, 186, 188

qing jun (conscription), 37, 38, 44–45qing sentiments, 181Qingyuan prefecture: elimination of

administrative posts in, 67; as “end ofheaven-and-earth,” 23; isolation of minpeople in, 110; “Ling” in, 146; nativechieftains and domains of, 43, 67, 93;official population data of, 41, 42; tigersin, 52; tin from, 62–63; “Zhuang” in,155

Qingzhou prefecture (Song dynasty),70

Qiongshan (modern-day Hainan), 161Qiu Jun (1421–95): on boundaries

between hua and yi, 161–65; on nativechieftaincy, 94, 164; on sources ofdisorder in Guangdong and Guangxi,112–13, 115, 119; on trade between minand man yi, 164; Supplement to the“Extended Meaning of the Great Learning”(Da xue yan yi bu ), 161–62






Glossary-Index 239

Qu Dajun (1630–96): News fromGuangdong (Guangdong xin yu ),149

quan (land deeds), 114Quan Zhou (Guilin), 43n33; clans of,

46; floods in, 49; maps of, 130, 131; minand man yi in 128, 129; relative peace in,111

Qufu (Shandong), 173

“race.” See ren zhong; zhong; zhong zuracial identities: as constructed, xiiiRanjia : as category, 141Rattan Gorge (Dateng Xia), 120 : as center

of violence, 117–19, 121; as ChoppedRattan (Duanteng ) Gorge, 119;creation of native domains in, 120–21;military campaigns in, 91, 119,121–122, 135. See also Yao

Rau (Lao) , 204Rauz.net (Zhuang zu zai xian), 204Record of the Office of the Supreme

Commander at Cangwu (Cangwu zong dujun men zhi ), 126–28;maps, 76, 84. See also Ling Yunyi; LiuYaohui, Ying Jia

registered subjects. See minreligions. See under markersren qun (grouping), 196ren zhong (“race”): Sun Yat-sen on,

192Republican period (1912–49): creation of

nation-state, 184, 192–98; five major minzu, 13, 193; rhetorics of assimilation andenlightenment, 184, 185, 195, 196–97

Right River , 177; region, 59, 60, 64,82–90, 102, 126, 148

river system. See under Guangxi, geographyof

Roman empire, 7Rong : as category, 8, 167, 168Rong county (Liuzhou), 106–107; in

Republican period, 196Rong county (Wuzhou), 54, 118Rongshui (Rong Zhou ): “Yao”

in (Song dynasty), 152Rossabi, Morris, 159route books, 174. See also geographical

knowledge; publishingru xue . See schools: Confucianruo dian (weaknesses), 197Russian empire, 7

salt: administration, 31; barter system,171–72; smuggling, 30; trade, 121

san ze wei min, ju ze wei dao (“whendispersed [the man yi] behave as min;when assembled they become bandits”)

, 116Schein, Louisa, 203schools: in Annam, 158; charity ( yi xue),

187; Confucian (ru xue), 64, 71–72, 96;for man yi, 182, 187; for “minoritynationalities,” 200; for “non-Han,” 197

Scott, James C., 208“sedan-chair” ethnographies, 13self-determination/self-rule, 193, 198–200self-representations: of “minority

nationalities,” 202–204, 207Sha : as category, 191shan (tractable) “Zhuang,” 124–25Shan hai jing . See Guideways through

Mountains and SeasShan Yun (d. 1438), 39, 117–18, 122,

148Shandong : as source of native

chieftains, 69, 70, 77Shang dynasty (ca. 1700–ca. 1100

BCE): and concept of centrality, 8Shang Luo (1414–86), 135n41Shangshixi Zhou : conversion of,

31–33Shangsi Zhou : conversion of, 31;

Huangs of, 77Shanzi : as category, 142, 143, 149,

191; depictions of, 146–47shao shu min zu . See “minority

nationalities”shao shu min zu she hui li shi diao cha

(investigation of thesocieties and histories of minoritynationalities), project of, 201

she hui . See “society”she ren (housemen), 36Shen Defu (1578–1642): Random

Gleanings from the Wanli Period (Wanli yehuo bian ), 61, 71

Shen Jiefu (1533–1601): Collection ofRecords ( Ji lu hui bian ), 176

Shen Yi (js. 1448), 109Shen Zhou (1427–1509), 52sheng (“wild”) and shu (“tame”), 138,

139, 139–40n2, 142 “Zhuang,” 155. Seealso Yao

Sheng Wannian (js. 1583), 50Shi jing . See Book of PoetryShi Wanxiang , 112Shin, Nathan C., xvShizhai . See Bazhaishu. See sheng and shu






240 Glossary-Index

Shui : as “minority nationality,” 201Shuixi domain (Guizhou), 103shu li (coarse), 27shu -millet, 151shui ke si (commercial-tax office), 34Shunzhi emperor (r. 1644–61): and

education of miao yao, 186si yi (“non-Chinese of the four

quarters”): sources on, 165–70. See alsoman yi

Sicheng Zhou : Cens of, 70; disputeswith Li Zhou, 82n29; mercury in, 49;native soldiers from, 90, 92; invasion byTianzhou, 87; size of 64; troubles in,102–103, 104

Sichuan province: as borderland, 18,29; rebellions in, 139; native domains in,58. See also borderland, southern

Sien (Fu): Cens of, 83; conversion of,31, 33, 86, 96; elevation from zhou, 82;under Cen Ying, 82–84, 95; invasion ofTianzhou, 86; min people in, 110; nativepolice offices in, 97; population of, 41,42, 84, 85; school in, 71

Sien county (Qingyuan): “Zhuang” in,155

Siji Zhen , 101–102. See also nativepolice offices

Siming Fu , 76; descriptions of, 75;disputes with Annam, 76; recruitment ofnative soldiers in, 90–91; “regular”official posts in, 64–67; reliance onnative soldiers from, 91; school in, 72;size of, 64, 75; troubles in, 78–80. Seealso Huangs (Siming)

Siming Lu , 61Siming Zhou , 80sinicization: China’s expansion as, 2;

concept of, 2n1. See also assimilationSizhou (Guizhou), 75Skinner, G. William, 11n16“society” (she hui): creation of, 196soldiers. See military officers and soldiersSong , Mount (Henan), 173Song dynasty (960–1276): and man yi

labels, 146, 147, 155; and nativechieftains, 69, 70, 77, 84; political crisesin, 159; travelers to Guangxi, 22–23;“Yao” in, 150–53

Song Wenbing : History of the ChineseNation (Zhongguo min zu shi ),193, 194

Song Yingxing (jr. 1615):Exploitation of the Works of Nature (Tiangong kai wu ), 179

Songjia : as category, 141Songxi (Fujian), 176sources, limitations of, 16–17, 141; on

northern borderland, 166; range of,14–16; on si yi, 165–70; on southernborderland, 166–67; for travelers,174–78. See also bi ji; encyclopedias andalmanacs; gazetteers, local; illustrations;inscriptions, stone; maps

Southeast Asia. See “southern seas,”countries of

southern borderland/border zone. Seeborderland, southern

“southern seas,” countries of, 57, 165. Seealso Annam

“special education” (te zhong jiao yu), 197Stalin, Joseph: on “nation,” 201state, centralizing: limited reach of, 29–40,

58–74; representatives and agents of, 18,112, 113; as term, 17. See also Mingdynasty

state-building: construction of boundariesas, 6–7, 185

“stockades.” See zhaiStrassberg, Richard, 170Su Jun (1541–99): categorization of

man yi, 143; categorization of “Yao,”154; on native chieftains, 99; onproductivity in Guangxi, 114; on sourcesof disorder, 113. See also GeneralGazetteer of Guangxi (1599)

Su Kuan , 95su -millet, 151Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925):

“Principle of the Nation” (Min zu zhu yi) 192–93; Three Principles of the

People (San min zhu yi ), 192suo (battalions). See guard and battalion

systemsupreme commander (zong du), office of,

29, 36, 127

Tai , Mount (Shandong), 173Taiping Lu , 61Taiping prefecture : official population

data of, 41, 42Taiping Zhou : subdivisions in, 68Taiwan: quarantine, 187Tan Qixiang , xixTang dynasty (618–907): Qiu Jun on,

162; references to “Moyao,” 150;travelers to Guangxi, 22; “Yao” in,150

Tang Geng (jr. 1396), 37n25Tang Lian (js. 1562), 110






Glossary-Index 241

Tang Xianzu (1550–1616), 181tax collection: decline of, 109–10; and

demarcation of min and man yi, 107,111–12, 150; from man yi, 114–15, 125,134–35, 146, 149, 182; from nativedomains, 59, 72–73, 94, 109. See alsofiscal problems

Tay (Dai) : as “minority nationality,”204

te dian (characteristics), 197te zhong jiao yu . See “special

education”tenancy, 114, 122, 136–37Teng county (Wuzhou), 118, 119Tian Rucheng (js. 1526): career,

140; categorization of man yi, 140–141,142; on “current of civilization” (wenfeng), 28; on ineptitude of officials, 112;on “Ling,” 146; on perils, 25; on RattanGorge, 121, 122; Record of Things Heardon the Torrid Frontier (Yan jiao ji wen

), 140–41, 142, 175; on “Yao,”153; on “Zhuang,” 155–56

tian xia zhi li (“coherence ofall-under-heaven”), 162

Tian Zhen , 36Tians (Sizhou), 75Tianshun emperor (r. 1457–64), 80,

160, 175. See also Zhengtong emperorTiantai , Mount (Zhejiang), 173Tianzhou (Fu), 84; demotion of, 98;

descriptions of, 84–85; efforts toconvert, 86, 89, 95–98; expansion of,82; frightful of, 67; internal strife,85–86; invasion of, 86; reliance on nativesoldiers from, 87, 90, 91, 92; school in,96; subdivisions in, 68; tax exemptionfor, 73; as Tianning , 97; war against,87–89; war with Guishun, 100–101. Seealso Cen Meng; Cens (Tianzhou)

Tianzhou Lu , 61, 82Tibet and Tibetans, 184, 186, 192, 193,

206tigers, 25, 51, 52–55tin, 62–63ting fu (submissive), 128tong hua . See assimilationtong yi duo min zu guo jia

See “unitary multi-national state”“topographical paintings,” 179–80tou mu . See native headmentravel: costs of, 172; for edification, 99,

170, 172; of exiles, 22, 45, 172; oflaborers, 49; of merchants, 45, 48–49,170, 171–72, 174; perils of, 11, 22, 25,

26, 27–28, 33–34, 99, 117; popularityof, 170

travel writings: commemorativeinscriptions, 15; diaries, 23, 25, 99,176; as forms of geographicalknowledge, 175–77; range of, 13,176

tribe, concept of, 1tributary relations, 61, 62–63, 188“tribute students” (gong sheng), 71. See also

Imperial AcademyTsin, Michael, 196tu (illustrations), 129–30; tu li (notes

on conventions), 130; tu shuo(profiles), 129. See also EssentialInformation for Governing Guangxi

Tu : as category of “non-Han,” 196tu (native), 19tu bing . See native soldierstu guan (native official), 19n24. See

also native chieftainstu mu (native chief ), 97tu ren (native people), 138tu si , 19n24. See also native

chieftaincy; native chieftains; nativedomains

tu xun jian si . See native policeoffices

tu zhi fu (native prefect), tu zhi zhou(native subprefect), and tu zhi xian

(native county magistrate), 61. See alsonative chieftains

tu zhong (“central lands”), 8Tumu debacle, 159–60tun tian . See military farms

Union Gazetteer of the Great Ming (Da Mingyi tong zhi ), 85, 175

“unitary multi-national state” (tong yi duomin zu guo jia), 2n2, 13, 184, 199,202

unity and diversity: of Chinese people,192–98, 202

Veritable Records of the Ming (Ming shi lu),14, 79

Vietnam. See Annamviolence. See disorder

wai yi (“non-Chinese from beyond”),104

Waldron, Arthur, 160wan wu zhi suo gui (“where ten

thousands things return”), 28Wancheng Zhou , 77






242 Glossary-Index

Wang Ao (1384–1467), 138, 139, 141,142, 143

wang fu . See princely estate (Guilin)Wang Ji (d. 1540): on Cen Meng,

89n39; Hand-held Mirror for DailyInquiries in the Gentleman’s Hall ( Jun zitang ri xun shou jing ), 47,176; on Heng Zhou, 47–48, 176–77; on“Shanzi,” 146–47

wang ming zhi peng . See outlawsand loafers

Wang Qi (d. 1534), 109Wang Qi (js. 1565): Collected

Illustrations of Heaven, Earth, and People(San cai tu hui ), 169–70

Wang Sen (1653–1726): Anthology ofMiscellanies of Guangxi (Yue xi cong zai

), 21, 48; General Anthologies ofGuangxi (Yue xi tong zai ), 14–15,175; sources used by, 15, 175

Wang Shangxue (js. 1538), 113Wang Shixing (1547–98):

categorization of man yi, 138, 141, 142;on distribution of man yi, 110; on“dragons” (long), 28–29; on firsthandobservations, 177; Further Elucidations onmy Extensive Record of Travels (Guang zhiyi ), 177, 178; on geography ofGuangxi, 27, 177; influence of, 178; on“Lang,” 148–49; on “Ling” and“Dong,” 147; Notes on Travels to the FiveMarchmounts (Wu yue you cao ),174; penchant for travel, 172–74, 181;Record of Extensive Travels (Guang you zhi

), 27, 138, 142; on tenancy,114n13; on “Yao,” 153–54; on“Zhuang,” 157

Wang Shizhen (1526–90),179n64

Wang Shou , 96, 97Wang Shouren (1472–1529):

campaign against “Yao,” 121;deployment of native soldiers, 91; inTianzhou; 96–98

Wang Tongling (b. 1878): History ofthe Chinese Nation (Zhongguo min zu shi

), 193, 194Wang Yangming . See Wang ShourenWang Zhen (d. 1449), 159Wang Zhenggong (1133–1203),

22–23Wang Zongmu (1523–91), 172–73Wanli emperor (r. 1573–1620), 162,

174Ward, Julian, 180

warfare: among native domains (see undernative domains); types of, 126. See alsodisorder

wei and wei suo . See guard andbattalion system

Wei Chaowei , 123Wei Chaozhen , 106Wei Gongxin , 136–37Wei Huan (js. 1529): Notes on the

Northern Borders of the Ming Imperium(Huang Ming jiu bian kao ), 166

Wei Jun (js. 1604): categorization ofman yi, 141, 142, 147; in Guangxi, 176;Miscellanea of Guangxi (Xi shi er ),142, 175, 176–77; Miscellaneous Notes onGuangxi (Qiao nan suo ji ),177n61

Wei Yinbao , 123, 125Wei Zhongxian (1568–1627), 53wen fang (secretary), 69wen feng . See civilization: “current” ofwen jiao (rituals and institutions), 103,

104, 158. See also civilizationwen ming ren . See “enlightened

people”wen ren (“men of culture”): pressure

on, 182–83wen xue shi . See literary historyWest River , 11, 23, 24, 177White, Richard, 2n2Wiens, Herold J., 1wo (“non-Chinese” along southeast

coast), 138wo zhong you ni, ni zhong you wo (“you are

among us, and we are among you”), , 202

“wolf soldiers” (lang bing). See under nativesoldiers

women: as native chieftains, 62, 69; gupoisoning and “Zhuang,” 156–57, 182,196. See also markers: marriage andmating practices

Wu Chengzuo , 102, 103wu gong (military achievements), 104,

158wu yue . See Five Marchmountswu zu gong he (“peaceful

coexistence of five major nationalities”),193

Wu Liang (d. 1381), 106Wu, Peiyi, 172Wu Tingju (js. 1487), 38Wu Wenhua (1521–98), 135; on taxes, 110Wuhu : as category, 8Wuxing (Zhejiang), 176






Glossary-Index 243

Wuxuan battalion (Liuzhou), 37Wuxuan county (Xunzhou), 117Wuzhou prefecture: accessibility of,

46; floods in, 50 “bandits” in, 118–19;intermingling of min and man yi in, 110,134; “Lang” in, 134, 149; militaryheadquarters at, 36, 127; native soldiersin, 91; population of, 41, 42, 45–46;tigers in, 53–54; travel routes to andfrom, 25, 117; “Yao” in, 134, 154“Zhuang” in, 134

xi (“lineage”), 194, 195xi dong settlements, 155xia , 17, 28; See also “Chinese”Xia Yan (1482–1548), 160xian dai hua . See modernizationxian jie tong hua yu Han (“now

all assimilated to Han”), 196Xiandu , Mount (Zhejiang), 173xiang (cantons), 130Xiang commandery, 10, 51xiang hua (coming to transform):

rhetoric of, 106. See also assimilation; guihua

Xiang River , 23, 24, 33Xiangwu Zhou , 61Xiao Daheng (1532–1612): Customs

of the non-Chinese in the North (Yi su jior Bei lu feng su ), 166

Xiao Tengfeng (js. 1568), 67Xie Hu (js. 1487), 67Xie Jin (1369–1415), 77n24Xie Zhaozhe (1567–1624): on

geography of Guangxi, 23; Customs of theSouthern Region (Baiyue feng tu zhi

), 175xin hu ren zhong zhi gai liang

(“human races can indeed beimproved”), 197

Xincheng Xian (Qingyuan):conversion of, 94–95; “Zhuang in,” 155

xing (human nature), 181Xing’an county (Song dynasty): “Yao”

in, 152Xinjiang (Eastern Turkestan), 184, 186,

193Xining county (Guangdong): “Lang”

in, 149xiu er wen (refined and cultured), 25Xiuren county (Pingle): decline of

population in, 110, 111; militarycampaign in, 119; “Yao” of, 188, 189;“Zhuang” in, 155

Xiyan police office (Quan Zhou), 129

Xu Guangqi (1562–1633), 180Xu Hongzu (1586–1641): appetite

for geographical knowledge, 175;emphasis on empirical knowledge, 180;on native chieftains in Guangxi, 99–103;penchant for travel, 172, 181

Xu Lun (1495–1566): Illustrations andDescriptions of the Northern Borders ( Jiubian tu lun ), 166

Xu Song (1781–1848): EssentialDocuments of the Song (Song hui yao

), 151Xu Songshi : History of the People of

the Yue River Region (Yuejiang liu yu renmin shi ), 198

Xu Xiake . See Xu Hongzuxuan fu shi /xuan wei shi

(pacification commissioner), 61. See alsonative chieftains

Xuande emperor (r. 1426–35), 76,158

xun (tranquil), 25xun fu . See Grand Coordinatorxun jian si, native. See native police officesXunxiang Guard, 45, 51, 52n49Xunzhou prefecture: hostile

environment of, 20–21, 26; nativesoldiers needed in, 39, 77, 79, 148;official population data of, 41, 42. Seealso Rattan Gorge; Yao

Xus (Wancheng Zhou), 77

Ya : as category, 191ya (gracious), 25ya (“dumb”) zhang , 28. See also

miasmaYan Congjian (js. 1559): Exhaustive

Inquiries on the Strange Lands (Shu yuzhou zi lu ), 165

Yan Song (1480–1565), 160Yang clan (Bozhou), 75Yang Fang (js. 1577), 39, 128–29,

130. See also Essential Information forGoverning Guangxi

Yang Jing (d. 1382), 57n2Yang Shen (1488–1559): 92; on

firsthand observations, 177; Guidewaysthrough Mountains and Seas Annotated(Shan hai jing bu zhu ), 167

Yang Shubao , 54–55Yang Tiyuan , 178Yanghuang : as category, 141Yangli Zhou : conversion of, 31Yangshuo (county): floods in, 49; min

and man yi ratio in, 111






244 Glossary-Index

Yangzi River system: Ling Canal aslink to, 11

Yao : “bandits,” 22, 77, 107, 117–22; ascategory, 4, 19, 138, 140, 141, 142–43,144, 188, 191, 197, 206; categories of(Daiban ; Daliang ; Gaoshan ;Panlong ; Pingdi ), 154; and guoshan bang, 17; in Huaiyuan, 144, 145,147, 181; in Lingui, 154; Mingdepictions of, 153–54; nature of, 113,116, 182; “proliferation” of, 110; ofRattan Gorge, 91, 117–22; schooling of,182; sheng and shu, 138, 139, 143, 154;subsistence needs of, 121, 153; astax-payers, 114–15, 182; as tenants,114, 136; “white” and “black,” 143,154; in Wuzhou, 134, 154; of Xiuren,188, 189. See also Rattan Gorge;“minority nationalities”

Yao : “bandits,” 152; Fan Chengda’sdepiction of, 151–53; Xu Songshi on,198

Yao : as category in Tang dynasty, 150.See also Moyao

Yao : as “minority nationality,” 201;self-representation of, 203

yao dong (native settlements), 134yao lao : as generic “non-Chinese,” 26Yao Mo (1465–1538), 68, 87–89, 96Yao sha Yao, bu dong chao (“when a Yao

kills a Yao, the imperial court would notbe disturbed [by the Yao]”) ,116

yao wang (“kings of poisons”), 156.See also gu poisoning

ye man ren . See “barbaric people”Ye Sheng (1420–74), 91, 92, 109, 148Ye Xianggao (1559–1627): Notes on

the non-Chinese of the Four Quarters (Si yikao ), 165

Ye Zheng , 34Yellow Emperor , xiii, 194, 198Yellow Registers (huang ce ), 136yi : as generic “non-Chinese,” 12, 19, 43,

93, 96, 98, 106, 107, 113, 142, 163,164, 165, 181. See also hua and yi; man yi

Yi : as category, 8Yi : as “minority nationality,” 201;

construction of identity as history of,207; documents, 16; identity in makingof nation-state, 208

yi . See courier stationsyi di : as generic “non-Chinese,” 113,

162, 163, 181Yi Hai , 21

yi lao (of the Western Plains), 148yi li . See plaguesyi xue . See schools: charityyi yi gong yi (using “non-Chinese”

to tackle “non-Chinese”), 93yi yi zhi yi (using “non-Chinese” to

control “non-Chinese”), 12yi yu (strange country; foreign region),

25Yi yu tu zhi (Illustrations and

Records of Foreign Regions), 170Yi Zhou (Song dynasty), 155Yidu county (Song dynasty), 70Yin : as category, 142, 143, 191yin and yang forces, 163Ying Jia (1494–1554): Record of the

Office of the Supreme Commander atCangwu, 126–28

Yingtian (early Ming capital), 23Yining county (Guilin), 144:

categories of man yi, 144; disorders in,116–17; levels of “submission” of man yiin, 128; “Yao” in (Song dynasty), 152

Yishan county (Qingyuan): encroachedby Sien (Fu), 84, 95; “Zhuang” in, 155

Yong River : flooding of, 51Yongan Zhou (Pingle): creation of,

31, 135Yongding Si (Qingyuan): creation of,

95Yongfu county (Guilin): “Zhuang” in,

155, 156, 157Yongkang Xian : conversion of, 31Yongle emperor (r. 1403–24): and

southern border, 76; and northernborder, 158

Yongle Encyclopedia (Yongle da dian), 132

Yongning county: “evolution” of“non-Han” in, 196–97; floods in, 51

Yongning Zhou (Guilin): elevation ofGutian as, 125; map of, 144, 145. Seealso Gutian

Yongshun Si (Qingyuan): creationof, 95

Yongzheng emperor (r. 1723–35): andconversion of native domains, 186

Yongzhou (Song dynasty), 70you dian (strengths), 197you shou ba min . See outlaws and

loafersYu Dayou (1503–79): military

campaign, 124–25. See also Gutianyu ding (surplus men), 36Yu Ji (1272–1348), 139, 155






Glossary-Index 245

Yu Qian (1398–1457), 36n23; 139n2,159–60

yu tu (administrative geography),127–28. See also maps; Record of theOffice of the Supreme Commander atCangwu

yu yi di (“subordinating thenon-Chinese”), 162. See also Qiu Jun

Yu Zijun (1429–89), 160Yu Xiangdou (fl. 1596): Authoritative

Source for Myriad Uses (Santai wang yongzheng zong ), 169–70

Yuan dynasty (1271–1368): “alien” ruleof, 10; legacies of, 31, 34; and nativechieftaincy, 58, 61; “Zhuang” in, 155

yuan e (original size): of militarypopulation, 36

Yuan Hongdao (1568–1610),180–81

Yuan Shikai (1859–1916), 193yue : as generic “non-Chinese,” 115, 164Yue : as category, 8Yue Hesheng (b. 1569), 23, 28Yulin Zhou (Wuzhou), 54Yunnan province: as borderland, 18,

29; in comparative perspective, 10, 11;incorporation of, 8, 73; miao albums of,190; native domains in, 58; rebellions in,92; sources on, 166

Yuyue : as category, 164

zhai (“stockades”), 88, 106, 119, 128zhang . See miasmaZhang Fu , 37Zhang Hong (1577–ca. 1652): Ten

Scenes of Yue, 179–80zhang guan (squad leader; chief) and

zhang guan si (chief ’s office), 61, 95.See also native chieftains; native domains

Zhang Ji (1451–1518), 25, 111Zhang Jing (d. 1555), 124Zhang Juzheng (1525–82), 174Zhang Li , 37Zhang Mingfeng (jr. 1552): Famous

Places of Guilin (Gui sheng ), 175;Historical Notes on Guilin (Gui gu ),175

Zhang Ning (js. 1454): MiscellaneousWords (Fangzhou za yan ), 21

Zhang Qiyun : Study of the ChineseNation (Zhongguo min zu zhi ),193

Zhang Qize : Miscellanea of Wuzhouand Xunzhou (Wu Xun za pei ),175

Zhang Xuan (1417–94), 92Zhangs (Lingui, Guilin), 37–38, 46Zhao Fu (d. 1486), 52zhao fu (“summoned and soothed”),

147Zhao Fuhui , 70, 71Zhao Renshou , 70zhao tao shi (pacification

commissioner), 61. See also nativechieftains

Zhao Yangsu (1564–1629), 69,71

Zhaoping county (Pingle): creation of,31; disorders in, 135–37

Zhaos (Guangxi), 75Zhaos (Encheng Zhou), 69, 70Zhaos (Long Zhou), 77Zhe E , 71Zhejiang province: population density

of, 44Zhen Dexiu (1178–1235): Extended

Meaning of the Great Learning (Da xueyan yi ), 161

Zhen’an Fu : succession crisis in,100–101, 103; tax quota for, 72, 73

Zheng Xiao (1499–1566): Notes on thenon-Chinese of the Four Quarters of theMing Imperium (Huang Ming si yi kao

), 165Zhengtong emperor (r. 1436–49),

79–80, 93, 94; Tumu debacle, 159–60.See also Tianshun emperor

Zhong : as category, 191zhong (“race”; “species”): “white” and

“black,” 194, 195; Zhuang, 196–97zhong guo . See “central dominion”zhong lei (variety; type) and zhong lei fei

yi (“not of the same variety”), 138zhong tu (“central lands”), 8zhong yuan /zhong zhou . See

“central plains”zhong zu (“race”), 198; as term, 192Zhongguo . See “China”Zhongguo ren (Chinese people): Sun

Yat-sen on, 192Zhonghua min zu . See “Chinese”:

as nationZhongjia : as category, 141zhou (subdivision; subprefecture)Zhou dynasty (ca. 1100–256 BCE): and

concept of centrality, 8Zhou Li , 48–49Zhou Qi (js. 1481), 115–16, 123–24Zhou Qufei (js. 1163), 152n22Zhou Zhenhe , 178






246 Glossary-Index

Zhouan Zhen , 101–102, 103. Seealso native police offices

zhu (“hosts”), 18Zhu Hui , 38Zhu Xi (1130–1200), 180Zhuang : as category, 4, 19, 138, 141,

142–43, 144, 155, 188, 191, 197, 206;categories of (of Fu River; of Hubei ;of Right River; Southern ), 157;depictions of, 154–57; and gu poisoning,156, 182; of Gutian, 122–25; inHuaiyuan, 144, 145, 147, 181; natureof, 113, 116; “proliferation” of, 110;schooling of, 182; sheng and shu, 155; astaxpayers, 114–15, 182; as tenants, 114,122, 136; women, 156–57, 182, 196; inWuzhou, 134; in Yongning, 196; zhong,196. See also man yi

Zhuang : as “minority nationality,” 201Zhuang : Xu Songshi on (in Republican

period), 198

zhuang ding (“men who collide”),155

Zhuang sha Zhuang, bu gao zhuang (“whena Zhuang kills a Zhuang, an officialcomplaint would not be filed [by theZhuang]”) , 116

Zhuang zu zai xian (“Zhuangnationality online”), 204

zi zhi qu . See autonomousadministrative areas

zong du . See supreme commanderZou Yuanbiao (1551–1624), 174zu (“nation”; “nationality”), 194, 197.

See also min zuZu xun (“Ancestral Instructions”). See

under Hongwu emperorzui chun cui de Han ren (“the

purest Han people”), 198zui e (most repugnant), 181Zuo Zhou , conversion of, 31Zuo’s Tradition (Zuo zhuan ), 103




