GLOSSARY

PROXIMAL – closer to midline of bodyDISTAL – further from the midline of bodyLATERAL MEDIALANTERIOR – front of bodyPOSTERIOR – back of body

Isotonic contractionsCONCENTRICECCENTRIC

HOW DO THE MUSCULOSKELETAL AND CARDIORESPIRATORY SYSTEMS OF THE BODY INFLUENCE AND RESPOND TO MOVEMENT?

SKELETAL SYSTEMAXIAL SKELETON – consists of bones that form the axis (or centre) of our bodies. Its major functions are supporting and protecting the organs within the head, neck and trunk. Consists of the cranium, vertebrae, ribs, sternum and hyoid bone.Vertebral ColumnCERVICAL 7THORACIC 12LUMBAR 5SACRUM 5COCCYX 4

THE THORAXMade up of the sternum and the rib cage. The sternum serves as an attachment of most of the ribs. Twelve pairs of ribs join the thoracic vertebrae which is superior to the lumbar vertebrae. Only two pairs do not attach to the sternum, as called floating ribs

APPENDICULAR SKELETON – makes up the rest of our skeletal system. Made up of shoulder girdle, upper limbs, the pelvis and lower limbsShoulder girdle

- Clavicle- Humerus- Scapula

THE UPPER LIMBConsists of the humerus (upper arm), the radius and ulna (lower arm) and the carpals, metacarpals and phalanges.

THE PELVIS

The Lower Limb The lower limb consists of the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges.

Iliac Crest – the thick curved upper border of the Ilium, the most prominent bone on the pelvis. You can feel this by pushing your hands on your sides at your waist.Ilium - a large flaring bone in the uppermost portion of the pelvisPubis - the V shaped area at the front of the pelvis on which the bladder rests. It is above the Ischium but below the IliumIschium - forms the

Classification of bones

Classification Description Examples

Long bones Long bones have the classical bone shape, and are narrow and long. By definition they must be longer than they are wide. Long bones are often the major bones involved in movement and also function to support weight

- Clavicle- Humerous- Radius- Ulna- Metacarpals- Phalanges- Femur- Tibia- Fibula- Metatarsals

Short bones Short bones are roughly as wide as they are long and function to provide stability. They are one of the other major bones involved in movement, but only provide for limited movement.

- Carpals- Tarsals- Patella

Flat bones Late bones have a flattened surface and function to act as a shield protecting vital organs in the body. They also exist at joints, where they provide the “base” for movement to occur from.

- Cranium- Sternum- Costal – ribs- Scapula- Pelvic girdle

Irregular bones Irregular bones are classified as such because of their irregular shape, not fitting into any other category. Irregular bones are one of the types of major bones involved in movement. Often irregular bones provide very limited amounts of movement and often provide protection for vital organs.

- Mandible- Vertebrae- Sacrum

Sesamoid bones Sesamoid bones are embedded in tendons and help to protect the tendon from wear and tear.

- Patella

Structure and Function of JointsJoints are the connections between the bones. Joints provide the body with mobility. They provide movement and hold the skeleton together. The point where each joint meets is called “a joint articulation”.The structure of a joint will determine its functions. Some joints are very mobile, i.e., they fit together quite loosely, making the joint unstable. While other joints are very tight and immovable. Fibrous Non movement possible

IMMOVEABLE

Cranium/skull

Cartilaginous Permits limited movement

SOME MOVEMENT

Vertebrae

Synovial Allows maximum movement

FREELY MOVES

Knee, ankle, elbow, hip

Synovial JointsSynovial joints are responsible for most of the movement in the body. Performance in most sporting activities relies heavily on the stability and function of these joints. There are a number of important structures within a synovial joint that help provide the necessary stability and function.ARTICULAR CAPSULE – A capsule that encloses the joint cavity.ARTICULAR CARTLIDGE – A connective tissue covering the surface of articulating bones. Is also sometimes called hyaline cartilage.SYNOVIAL FLUID – A secretion that lubricates and nourishes the articular cartilage. Can generally be found in the joint cavity.BURSA – A small sac containing synovial fluid, located at friction sites between bones and tendons.TENDONS – Fibrous cords of dense connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone.LIGAMENTS – Dense connective tissue that attaches bone to bone.

Joint Actions

Term Definition Flexion Decreasing the angle between two bonesExtension Increasing the angle between two bonesAdduction Movement of a bone away from the midline of the bodyAbduction Movement of a bone towards the midline of the bodyPronation Rotation of the forearm and hand that causes the palm to face

downwardsSupination Rotation of the forearm and hand that causes the palm to face

upwards Inversion Rotating the sole of the foot inwardsEversion Rotating the sole of the foot outwardsDorsiflexion Pulling/bending of the foot towards the shin Plantarflexion

Pointing / bending the foot away from the shin

Rotation Movement of a body part around its long axis, e.g., head or trunk

Hyperextension

Excessive extension of a body part, i.e., beyond its normal range of motion

Circumduction

MUSCULAR SYSTEMSkeletal Muscle – muscles attached to bones via tendons, and they produce all movement of body parts in relation to each other – biceps/tricepsCardiac Muscle – pumps blood flow to the heart – heartSmooth Muscle – protects organs and helps blood flow

Muscle relationshipsAgonists have a reputation for being the prime mover, that is, they are the main force that causes the desired movement. Or the muscle that shortens during the contraction.The antagonist is the muscle that opposes, relaxes or lengthens in a particular movement. QUADS HAMSTRINGRectus Femoris Semitendinosus Vastus medialis Semimembranosus Vastus laterilus Biceps Femoris Sartorius

Types of Muscle ContractionsIsotonic and Isometric Muscle ContractionsWhen muscles are in a relaxed state, they appear to be soft and loose. When they contract to produce a force, they become hard and elastic.The two main types of contractions in the muscles are:

1. Isotonic contractions – These contractions create movement, this happens when the muscle shortens as it contracts.

o Examples are flexing the bicep muscle and lifting objects above the head.

Concentric , which is where the muscle shortens Eccentric , where the muscle lengthens.

2. Isometric contractions- When a muscle contracts with no resulting movement, it is an isometric contraction. During an isometric contraction the length of the muscle stays constant.

o Examples include attempting to move an immoveable object or holding a weight at arm’s length.

RESPIRITORY SYSTEMStructure and FunctionThe function of the respiratory system is to add oxygen to the blood and remove carbon dioxide. The microscopically thin walls of the alveoli allow inhaled oxygen to move quickly and easily from the lungs to the red blood cells in the surrounding capillaries. At the same time, carbon dioxide moves from the blood in the capillaries into the alveoli.RESPIRATION:

is the release of energy from food, takes place in animal and plant cells

The primary function of the respiratory system is to supply the blood with oxygen in order for the blood to deliver oxygen to all parts of the body. The respiratory system does this through breathing. When we breathe, we inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. This exchange of gases is the respiratory system's means of getting oxygen to the blood.

BODY PART FUNCTIONLungs Main organ, responsible for inspiration and expirationNasal Cavity Warms, moistens and filters airAlveoli Gas exchange takes place through their semi-

permeable membrane walls diffusionPharynx Common passage for air to trachea, food to

oesophagusBronchus Provides passageway for airCilia Warms, moistens and filters airLarynx Passageway for air, voice productionBronchioles Passageway for oxygen to go to alveoli

Trachea Hollow tube, passageway for air

HOW DO WE BREATHE?

As the diaphragm contracts and moves down, there is more space for lungs this changes the level on concentration of gas with O2 being higher outside the body forces O2 in, allowing inhalation to occur. As the diaphragm relaxes, the space in our lungs decreases resulting in high concentration levels causing our lungs to push out the CO2 allowing exhalation to occur.Lung FunctionResponsible for

1. Inspiration (inhaling)a. More oxygen which is used to create energyb. Less carbon dioxide than exhaled airc. Inspiration occurs when the diaphragm contracts allowing oxygen to

be inhaled.2. Expiration (exhaling)

a. Carbon dioxide produced as a waste product of energyb. Less oxygen than inhaled air as it has been used in respirationc. Expirations occurs when the diaphragm relaxes moving upwards

and forces carbon dioxide out. (Gases move from high to low concentration areas.)

When you inhale intercostal muscles relax, expanding the ribcage. The diaphragm contracts, pulling downwards to increase volume of the chest. Pressure inside the chest is lowered and air is sucked into the lungs. When you exhale the intercostal muscle contract, the rib cage drops inwards and downwards and the diaphragm relaxes, moving back upwards, decreasing the volume of the chest. Pressure inside the chest increases and air is forced out.Gaseous ExchangeDiffusion is the process by which molecules spread from areas of high concentration, to areas of low concentration.Capillaries have extremely thin walls and the blood that enters them has a high level of carbon dioxide that has been picked up from the body tissues. They contains little oxygen. The carbon dioxide leaves the blood and moves through the walls of the capillaries and alveoli into the lungs. Oxygen from the air in the lungs then passes through the walls of the alveoli and blood vessels and into the blood. The blood, now rich in oxygen, leaves the lungs and travels to the heart. The heart then pumps it to cells throughout the body. The carbon dioxide is finally expelled from the lungs when we exhale.Breathing Rates – Is the number of breaths a person takes in 1 minute while at restLung CapacityTidal Volume – the amount of air moving in and out of our lungs. Vital Capacity – amount of air forced out of lungsResidual Volume – leftover air after forcibly exhaling

TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY = VITAL CAPACITY + RESIDUAL VOLUME

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEMTransports essential substances such as oxygen, nutrients and water to all cells. Heat also transported to regulate body temperature (37), hormones distributed around the body to maintain homeostasis. Removes waste products by carrying them to excretory organs, such as kidneys, skin and lungs.

Components of Blood

COMPONENT PERCENTAGE (%)

FUNCTION

Red Blood CellsErythrocytes

40% Transportation of oxygen from the lungs to the body tissuesContinually produced in bone marrow

White Blood CellsLeukocytes

1% Fight infection and diseaseRemove dead tissue

Platelets 3% Causes blood to clot, prevent blood lossPlasma 55% Liquid component that carries other RBC,

WBC and platelets90% consists of waterTransport blood cells, nutrients and waste products to the relevant areas of the body

Structure and Function of the Heart, Arteries, Veins and

Capillaries

Pulmonary Circulation – refers to the heart pumping deoxygenated blood to the lungs to get oxygen and return to the heart. Systemic circulation – is the process of carrying oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body, and returning deoxygenated blood to the heart.

Valves prevent blood from flowing backwards.

HEART IS THE ONLY CARDIAC MUSCLE

The HeartDeoxygenated blood is pumped from the body into the right atrium and ventricle. It is then pumped to the lungs to receive oxygen. From there, blood moves into the left atrium and ventricle, and through the aorta to be delivered all over the body.ArteriesMain blood vessels that transport blood away from the heart. Thick muscular walls that help pump blood from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygen rich blood away from the body except the pulmonary artery which transports deoxygenated blood to lungs to receive oxygen. Divide into smaller vessels called arterioles.CapillariesSmallest blood vessel, but important in gas exchange due to their thin walls. The walls allow nutrients from the blood to move into the body tissue cells, and take waste products such as carbon dioxide out of the cells and back into the blood for removal.Receive oxygen rich blood from arterioles and transport waste rich blood to venules (smaller veins)VeinsVessels that carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Except the pulmonary vein which carries oxygenated blood from lungs back to the heart. Walls thinner than artery walls, and have less muscle and elasticity.Veins transport blood long distances against gravity. The flow is assisted by the contractions of the skeletal muscle, and one way valves, stopping blood flow from reversing.

HypertensionIf blood vessels become thin or blocked, blood pressure will increase (high blood pressure). Only considered high when Blood pressure is considered to be high when the systolic value is consistently greater than 140 and diastolic is consistently above 90. Hypertension may lead to health problems such as stroke, heart attack or kidney disease

Blood PressureThe pressure the heart needs to push the blood into the aorta and around the body. Pressure of arteries.If blood pressure is too low, your heart will have trouble pumping the blood to all the body parts that need oxygen. High blood pressure, or hypertension, is associated with coronary artery disease, stroke, heart attack, and can damage

vital organs such as the brain and kidneys. High BP (hypertension) is often caused by lifestyle factors.

Heart RateThe rate at which the heart beats, measured in beats per minute (BPM)When we exercise our HR increases to push blood around our bodies quicker.Basal Heart Rate – minimal heart rate – when sleeping

Effects of exercise on the heart

Immediate Long term Heart rate increases, increasing

flow rate of blood and the speed of delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the working muscles

Hypertrophy (growth of heart muscle) allows for faster oxygen delivery to the working muscles

The resting heart rate decreases due to a more efficient circulatory system

Arterial walls become more elasticised which allows for greater tolerance of changed blood pressure

Reduced inflammation on arteries (resulting in lower risk of heart disease)

The influence of the circulatory system on movement efficiency and performanceWhen we exercise, our bodies need more oxygen than when at rest. The higher the intensity of exercise, the more oxygen needed! The reason we need more oxygen is that it is used to break down glucose into energy.

0xygen breaks down glucose = ENERGY!Stroke volume – is the amount of blood pumped through the ventricles in each contraction of the heart. The average stroke volume is about 0.07 litres of blood per beat. Cardiac output – is the amount of blood pumped from the heart in one minute. It is measured in litres per minute (L/min). Cardiac output can be calculated using the following formula:

Cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate

Structure FunctionHypertension Also known as high blood pressure, often caused by

lifestyle factors such as lack of exercise, poor diet and use of tobacco and alcohol.

Systolic blood pressure The first and highest blood pressure measurement, taken as the ventricles contract

Systemic circulation Is the process of carrying oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body, and returning deoxygenated blood to the heart

Aorta Is the main cardiac artery and transports oxygenated blood from the heart to the body

Sphygmomanometer An instrument used to measure blood pressurePulmonary circulation Is the process of the heart pumping deoxygenated

blood to the lungs to get oxygen and return to the heart

Heart Rate The rate at which our heart beats, measured in beats per minute (bpm)

Valves These are found in some cardiac vessels, and work as little flaps to prevent blood from flowing backwards.

Diastolic blood pressure The second and lowest blood pressure measurement, taken as the ventricles relax

WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL FITNESS, TRAINING AND MOVEMENT EFFICIENCY?Movement Efficiency – the more an individual trains, the easier the activity becomesHealth Related components refers to our health status:

- Cardio-respiratory endurance- Muscular strength- Muscular endurance- Flexibility- Body composition

The more efficiently your heart, blood vessels and lungs work together → the better your cardio-respiratory endurance → the less you fatigue during exercise. Main Points – Cardiorespiratory endurance

- Involves the heart, blood vessels and lungs- Allows the body to endure low intensity, high duration exercise- Prevents fatigue, therefore is important in distance events eg. Marathons

How do we improve our Cardio-respiratory endurance?By increasing your exercise intensity and also by increasing the length of your training sessions Target Heart Rate

1. Maximum Heart Rate (MHR) = 220 – age 2. Lower Target Heart Rate (THR) = 70% x MHR3. Upper Target Heart Rate (THR) = 85% x MHR

Muscular StrengthDefinition – the ability of a muscle to produce a force against a resistance. Muscular strength helps to improve posture and prevent muscle injuries. Muscular Strength can be categorised into 2 types.

1. Absolute strength – this is the maximum force a muscle is capable of producing. This is normally only possible in one contraction due to the onset of fatigue.

Cardio-respiratory Endurance

Muscular

Strength

Flexibility

Muscular enduranc

e

Body Composition

2. Relative strength – this is the absolute strength of an individual that takes into account a person’s body weight.

Muscular EnduranceThe ability of a muscle to work against a resistance or load, repeatedly delaying fatigue. It enables an athlete to continually perform without getting tired.

Improve Muscular Strength and Endurance

To improve muscular strength To improve muscular endurance

Heavy weights Low repetitions (8-12) High rest period between sets

(1-1.5 minutes) 3-4 sets

Light weights High repetitions (15-20) Low rest period between sets

(30 seconds) 3-5 sets

Flexibility Flexibility – refers to the amount of movement that the body will allow around a joint. This is also known as the range of movement. The elasticity of the soft tissue (particularly ligaments, tendons and muscles) as well as the shape of the bone extremities, determines the degree of flexibility around a joint.

Static Flexibility – flexibility in a static or still position Dynamic Flexibility – quick movement around a joint

Static Flexibility – Is the range of movement in a joint when the body is in a static (still) position, holding it for a long period of time. An example of static flexibility is when a dancer does the splits on the floor. Dynamic Flexibility – Is the ability to move a joint quickly, with little resistance to movement. Dynamic flexibility is limited by a muscular reflex defence mechanism which prevents tearing of muscles. It stops your muscles from moving too far around the joint. An example of dynamic flexibility is a split leap in the air.STRETCHINGWhy? to reduce muscle tension

to prevent muscle and tendon injuries to increase flexibility

How? hold each stretch for 10-20 seconds – DON’T BOUNCE! repeat each stretch 2-3 times stretch gently and slowly, maintaining deep breathing

techniques stretch to a point of tension – NOT PAIN

select the major muscle groups used in your sport or activity and stretch them through your full range of movement.

Body Composition It is the ratio of lean body mass (muscle, bone and organs) and body fat mass (essential fat and storage fat). Essential fat is required for normal physiological functioning. This fat surrounds vital organs such as the kidneys, heart, muscle, liver and nerves. Fat in these regions is essential as it helps to protect, insulate and absorb shock to these organs. Storage fat is the fuel used at times of rest and sleep. It is also used in periods of extended exercise of more than an hour or so, when the body’s supplies of blood glucose have been depleted. Having too much or too little storage fat can significantly affect health and physical performance. BODY TYPESEndomorphs (people that tend to have a higher body fat percentage) are generally valuable in sports such as Rugby League (in the front row position) and shot put. Mesomorphs (people that tend to have a high muscle percentage) are often good at sports such as weightlifting and swimming. Ectomorphs (people with low percentage body fat) are generally better at endurance events such as marathons.

SKILL RELATED COMPONENTS OF FITNESS- SUNNY BILL CANT PLAY RUGBY ANYMORE- Power

o Combination of speed and strength and speed. Explosive action, for example; release of a shot put

- Speedo How quickly we can perform a movement, for example, sprinting.

- Agilityo Ability to change direction quickly while maintaining balance, for

example; moving quickly around a squash court - Coordination

o How well you use several parts of the body together in a controlled way, requires interaction between brain and muscles. For example; hand-eye or foot-eye to hit or kick a ball

- Balance o Ability of an individual to maintain the muscular system in a static

position or to control it in a specific posture whilst the body is moving

- Reaction Timeo How quickly you can react to a stimulus. It is the time it takes to

react to a starters gun or intercept a pass.

The health related components of physical fitness are:

The skill related components of physical fitness are:

THE FITT PRINCIPLE AND IMMEDIATE PHYSCHOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO TRAINING

Frequency – refers to how often you will exerciseIntensity – refers to the amount of effort that must be invested in a specific workoutTime – how long each individual session should lastType – what type of exercise you will be doingFrequencyFrequency refers to how often the subject should participate in exercise. In order to improve cardio-vascular efficiency, it is important to participate in regular aerobic activity. The more often one exercises, the higher their aerobic fitness will be. Research shows that an above-average level of fitness may be maintained with regular aerobic exercise 3-4 times per week. More frequent exercise will result in a higher level of fitness. Regularity of exercise is also a pivotal factor. After just two weeks of inactivity, there will be a significant reduction in fitness. It is therefore important to continue exercising at the same frequency each week in order to maintain any gains that have been achieved by following the program. In order to improve outcomes, the frequency of activity should be increased.

IntensityIntensity refers to how “hard” one works when exercising. This is often measured with heart rate, as heart rate is raised with increased effort. Research has shown that working within 70-85% of your Maximum Heart Rate (MHR) is ideal. This is also referred to as your Target Heart Rate Zone (THR). Specificity: When training for different sports, the training intensity would need to be specific to the sport. TimeTime refers to the duration of the training session. For significant improvement in aerobic fitness, the recommended minimum length of a session is 20-60 minutes. The longer the session, the more significant the improvements, however beyond an hour, the benefits start to become less. For a beginner, the ideal length of a training session is 15-20 minutes at less than 60% intensity. TypeThe type of exercise used in a training session has a considerable impact on the outcomes of the session. The best type of activities to improve cardiovascular endurance use more than 50% of the body’s muscle mass and can be carried out continuously at a sustained rate. Some examples include; running, walking, swimming, dancing, cycling, aerobics classes, circuit training and cycling

Aerobic and Anaerobic TrainingAerobic – with oxygenAnaerobic – absence of oxygenAerobic Aim – to improve the oxygen systemRefers to the use of oxygen in the body's energy-generating process. Aerobic exercise is performed at moderate levels of intensity for extended periods of time, once 90 seconds reached that is when muscles require oxygen.Improver aerobic:

Engage in activities that are continuous and are longer than 20 minutes Use the FITT principle to provide direction and enable us to design a

program that suits our needs Anaerobic Involves an intense burst of energy over a short duration of time. In general, any activity that lasts for less than 2 minutes is classified as anaerobic as it requires no oxygen to create energy.Improve anaerobic:

Work on specific anaerobic movements such as weightlifting Practice required movements close to competition Use appropriate training methods such as interval training Utilize resistance training Aim to decrease recovery time after short periods of intense exercise

Immediate Physiological Responses to Training

Physiological responses impact these areas:- Heart rate- Ventilation rate- Lactate levels- Cardiac output- Stroke volume

Heart Rate

Refers to the number of times the heart beats per minuteWhat occurs before, during and after exercise:

1. Heart rate increases quickly when exercise begins and then plateaus once a constant effort is maintained. Heart rate may also increase before exercise actually commences in anticipation of the exercise.

2. Heart rate will increase or decrease from this plateau if the intensity of the exercise is variable (e.g. sprinting then jogging then sprinting again).

3. Once the athlete stops exercising heart rate will decrease steadily as the body replenishes oxygen supplies and removes waste products. The length of time it takes for the heart rate to return to normal will depend on the intensity and length of the exercise and the fitness of the athlete. (A fitter athlete is better able to replenish oxygen and remove waste products so heart rate will return to normal faster than an untrained athlete).

Ventilation Rate

Ventilation rate is affected by 2 factors.1. The number of breaths taken per minute.2. The depth of each breath.

During exercise both of these variables will increase and as a result the total volume of air inhaled into the lungs per minute increases also.It can be established by multiplying the number of breaths per minute by the volume of air taken in and out during each breath. This is measured in litres per minute.

VENTILATION RATE = Number of breaths per minute x Volume of air per breath (L/min)

Stroke Volume

Refers to the amount of blood pumped from the left ventricle of the heart in one contractionMeasured in mL. During exercise out SV increases as the heart pumps more blood out to the body. The force of the contraction generally increases in line with the heart rate of the individual until a threshold point is reached and the heart is pumping as hard as it can. This threshold will occur before maximum heart rate is reached.SUBJECT SV at rest (mL) Maximum SV (mL)

Untrained 50-70 80-110Trained 70-90 110-150Elite Athlete 90-110 150-220

Cardiac Output

Refers to the amount of blood ejected from the heart in 1 minute.During exercise cardiac output increases to supply the muscles with oxygen and remove waste products.

Cardiac Output = Heart Rate x Stroke Volume

REMEMBER THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CARDIAN OUTPUT AND STROKE VOLUME

Blood pumped each minute = cardiac output

Blood pumped each contraction = stroke volume

Lactate Levels

Refers to the amount of lactic acid in the bloodstreamDuring exercise lactate levels will increase as the body produces lactic acid in creating energy for the muscles.  The amount will vary depending on the intensity of the exercise. (High intensity exercise will mean higher lactate levels).

HOW DO BIOMECHANICAL PRINCIPLES INFLUENCE MOVEMENT?MotionIn biomechanics, the term motion is used to describe movement and the path that an object follows – whether it is straight, curved or angular. Objects that move may be animate (living) or inanimate (non living). An example of an animate object would be a footballer running and an example of an inanimate object would be the football after it has been passed.Motion is classified by the path of the moving object. There are three basic ways to classify motion:

1. Linear Motion2. Angular Motion3. General Motion

Linear MotionLinear motion, (also known as “straight line motion”) is when all parts of a body move the same distance, in the same direction at the same time, for example; an ice skater, gliding along a flat surface. An example of linear motion of an inanimate object is throwing a ball straight up in the air and it falling back down again.

Two types of linear motion1. Rectilinear Motion – motion that occurs in a straight line e.g. sprinting 100

metres2. Curvilinear Motion – motion that occurs in a curved line e.g. a back flip

Speed and VelocitySpeed and velocity describe the rate at which a body moves from one location to another. These two terms are often used interchangeably, however this is incorrect. Speed – explains only how quickly the body is moving. Velocity – is used when the object or person does not travel in a straight line, for example a runner in a cross country race.

Speed = distance travelled in metres ÷ time (seconds)Velocity= displacement ÷ time (seconds)

AccelerationAcceleration – is when we are able to increase our speed quickly. It is defined as the rate of change of velocity over time, in other words, how quickly the velocity changes. For example a powerful sprinter at the starting blocks of a 100metre sprint can accelerate at about 2m/second over the first 60 metres.

Acceleration = change in velocity ÷ timeOR

a = V2 – V1 ÷ t

a= acceleration V1 = initial velocity V2 = final velocity t = time

MomentumMomentum – is the quantity of motion possessed by a body. The greater an objects momentum, the less it will be affected by some other force acting on it. An example of the importance of momentum is in rugby league. As the players mass is constant and cannot be changed – the one variable is speed. A greater speed will make them harder to stop or tackle.

Momentum (M) = mass (m) x velocity (v).M = mv

Balance and StabilityBalance – ability of an individual to maintain the muscular system in a static position or to control it in a specific posture whilst the body is movingTwo types of balance

1. Static Balance2. Dynamic Balance

Static Balance – refers to the ability to maintain a position of stability over a period of time.Dynamic Balance – refers to balance while in motion and performing a skill

Stability relates to the degree to which a body resists being moved. The major factors that affect a person's stability are:

a. the area of the base of support b. the relation of the line of gravity to the edge of the base c. the height of the centre of gravity and d. the mass of the person.

Centre of GravityThe centre of gravity of an object is the point in which all the weight is evenly distributed and about which the object is balance.Base of SupportMaintaining the balance of all individuals, affects our stability or our ability to control balanceLine of GravityImaginary line passing through the centre of gravity; it represents the direction that gravity acts on the body – it is a straight line perpendicular to the earth’s surface through the body at the centre of gravity*insert image*

Fluid MechanicsThe study of forces that develop when an object moves through a fluid (liquids or gases)Bouyancy – associated with how well a body floats or how high it sits in fluidFlotation – the state of floating, or being afloat in a fluidFluid Resistance – the resistance to motion of a body in fluid. Fluid resistance is closely related to drag, lift and buoyancyDrag – a force that resists the motion of a body moving through a fluid

- Cross-section area (form drag)o The cross sectional area of a moving object is the area facing

forward into the direction of movement- Surface smoothness (surface drag)

*insert image from booklet*