Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Organizational Behavior: Perception

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

Organizational Behavior:

Perception


Food Survey Last month, a world-wide survey was conducted by the UN. The only question asked was... : "Would you please give your honest

opinion about solutions to the food shortage in the rest of the world?"

The survey was a huge failure because...:

1. In Africa they didn't know what "food" means. 2. In Eastern Europe they didn't know what "honest"

means. 3. In Western Europe they didn't know what "shortage"

means. 4. In China they didn't know what "opinion" means. 5. In the Middle East they didn't know what "solution"

means. 6. In South America they didn't know what "please"

means. 7. In the USA they didn't know what "the rest of the world"

means



Selective AttentionSelective Attention

Emotions andEmotions andBehaviorBehavior

Organization andOrganization andInterpretationInterpretation

Perceptual Process Model

Environmental StimuliEnvironmental Stimuli

Feeling Hearing Seeing Smelling TastingFeeling Hearing Seeing Smelling Tasting


Perception: A Social Perception: A Social Information Processing ModelInformation Processing Model

Competingenvironmental

stimuli:* People* Events* Objects

Interpretationand

categorization

Stage 1Stage 1Selective Attention/

Comprehension

Stage 2Stage 2Encoding

and Simplification

A

C

F

A

B

C

D

E

F

MemoryJudgments

anddecisions

Stage 3Stage 3Storage andRetention

Stage 4Stage 4Retrieval

and Response

C


Social Information ProcessingSocial Information ProcessingModel of PerceptionModel of Perception

Stage 1: Selective Attention/ComprehensionStage 1: Selective Attention/Comprehension- Attention is the process of becoming aware of something or someone- People pay attention to salient stimuliStage 2: Encoding and SimplificationStage 2: Encoding and Simplification- Encoding is the process of interpreting environmental stimuli by using information contained in cognitive categories and schemata- The same information can be interpreted differently by people due to individual differencesStage 3: Storage and RetentionStage 3: Storage and Retention- Encoded information or stimuli is sent to long- term memory- Long-term memory is composed of three compartments containing categories of information about events, semantic materials, and peopleStage 4: Retrieval and ResponseStage 4: Retrieval and Response- Information is retrieved from memory when people make judgments and decisions


Factors That Influence PerceptionCharacteristics of the PerceiverValues and attitudesMotivesInterestsExperienceExpectations

Characteristics of the TargetStructural beautyNovelty and FamiliarityMotion and ChangeRepetitionIntensitySoundsSizeContrast and BackgroundProximity

Perceptual contextTimeWork settingSocial setting

Perception


Attribution Process

• Internal Attribution– Perception that outcomes are due to

motivation/ability rather than situation or fate

• External Attribution– Perception that outcomes are due to situation or

fate rather than the person


Kelley’s Model of AttributionKelley’s Model of Attribution

Consensus: Consensus: Involves comparing an individual’s behavior with that of his or her peers. Low consensus indicates an individual is different from peers.

Basic PremiseBasic Premise:: An attribution is based on the consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency of the observed behavior.

DistinctivenessDistinctiveness: : Involves comparing a person’s behavior or accomplishments on one task with the behavior or accomplishments from other tasks. Highly distinctive behavior or results represents a situation where the current behavior or result is significantly different from typical behavior or results on other tasks. Consistency: Consistency: Involves comparing a person’s behavior or

accomplishments on a given task over time.- High consistency implies that a person performs a certain task the same, time after time.

PredictionsPredictions: : Internal or personal attributions are made when a behavior is associated with low consensus and distinctiveness, and high consistency. - External or environmental attributions are made when a behavior is related with high consensus and distinctiveness, and low consistency.


ConsensusConsensus

PeoplePeople

Ind

ivid

ual

Ind

ivid

ual

Perf

orm

an

cePerf

orm

an

ce

A B C D EPeoplePeople

Ind

ivid

ual

Ind

ivid

ual

Perf

orm

an

cePerf

orm

an

ceA B C D E

LoLoww

HighHigh

Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission.


DistinctivenessDistinctiveness

TasksTasks

Ind

ivid

ual Perf

orm

an

ceIn

div

idu

al Perf

orm

an

ce

A B C D ETasksTasks

Ind

ivid

ual

Ind

ivid

ual

Perf

orm

an

cePerf

orm

an

ceA B C D E

LowLowHighHigh

Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission.


ConsistencyConsistency

TimeTime

Ind

ivid

ual

Ind

ivid

ual

Perf

orm

an

cePerf

orm

an

ce

TimeTimeIn

div

idu

al

Ind

ivid

ual

Perf

orm

an

cePerf

orm

an

ce

LowLow HighHigh

Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p. 56. Used with permission.


Attribution Errors

• Fundamental Attribution Error– Attributing behavior of other people to internal

factors (their motivation/ability)

• Self-Serving Bias– Attributing our successes to internal factors and our

failures to external factors


Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle

SupervisorSupervisorformsforms

expectationsexpectations

ExpectationsExpectationsaffect supervisor’saffect supervisor’s

behaviorbehavior

Supervisor’sSupervisor’sbehavior affectsbehavior affects

employeeemployee

Employee’sEmployee’sbehavior matchesbehavior matches

expectationsexpectations


Identity: Who Am I?

• Social Identity

• Organizational Identity

• Personal Identity


Perceptual Biases and Errors in Decision Making

1.1. StereotypeStereotype : A stereotype is an individual’s set of beliefs about the : A stereotype is an individual’s set of beliefs about the characteristics of a group of people.characteristics of a group of people.

2.2. HaloHalo:: A rater forms an overall impression about an object and then uses the impression to bias ratings about the object.

3.3. LeniencyLeniency:: A personal characteristic that leads an individual to consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive fashion.

4.4. Central TendencyCentral Tendency:: The tendency to avoid all extreme judgments and rate people and objects as average or neutral.

5.5. Recency EffectsRecency Effects:: The tendency to remember recent information. Most recent information dominates perceptions, If the recent information is negative, the person or object is evaluated negatively.

6.6. Contrast EffectsContrast Effects:: The tendency to evaluate people or objects by comparing them with characteristics of recently observed people or objects.

7.7. PrimacyPrimacy: : First impressions

8.8. ProjectionProjection: : Believing other people are similar to you


Perceptual Biases and Errors in Decision Making

1. Overconfidence Error

2. Availability Heuristic

3. Representative Heuristic

4. Escalation of Commitment Error

5. Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic

6. Confirmation Bias

7. Randomness Bias

8. Hindsight Bias


Professors areabsent-minded

Our instructoris a professor

Our instructor isabsent-minded

The Stereotyping Process

Assign category’s traitsAssign category’s traitsto the personto the person

Assign person to categoryAssign person to categorybased on observable infobased on observable info

Develop categoriesDevelop categoriesand assign traitsand assign traits


ImprovingImprovingPerceptualPerceptualAccuracyAccuracy

DiversityDiversityInitiativesInitiatives

EmpathizeEmpathizeWith OthersWith Others

PostponePostponeImpressionImpressionFormationFormation

KnowKnowYourselfYourself

CompareComparePerceptionsPerceptionsWith OthersWith Others

Improving Perceptual Accuracy


Known to Self Unknown to Self

Knownto Others

Unknownto Others

OpenOpenAreaArea BlindBlind

AreaArea

UnknownUnknownAreaArea

HiddenHiddenAreaArea

Know Yourself (Johari Window)Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham

OpenOpenAreaArea

BlindBlindAreaArea

HiddenHiddenAreaArea

UnknownUnknownAreaArea

DisclosureDisclosure

FeedbackFeedback


Applications in OrganizationsApplications in Organizations

Employment InterviewEmployment InterviewPerformance ExpectationsPerformance ExpectationsPerformance EvaluationPerformance EvaluationOrganizational CommunicationOrganizational CommunicationEmployee EffortEmployee EffortEmployee LoyaltyEmployee Loyalty


Link Between

Perception

and

Individual Decision Making

Link Between

Perception

and

Individual Decision Making


Rational Model of Decision Making

Problem

Identify andDefine Problem

GenerateAlternatives

A1

A2

A3

A4

An

EvaluateAlternatives

+

A1 A1

A2 A2

An An

Criteria

Weightthe Criteria

T E C H

Set DecisionCriteria

Choice

Make OptimalDecision


Assumptions of the ModelAssumptions of the ModelAssumptions of the ModelAssumptions of the Model

One:One:

Problem ClarityProblem ClarityOne:One:

Problem ClarityProblem ClarityFour:Four:

Constant PreferencesConstant PreferencesFour:Four:

Constant PreferencesConstant Preferences

Five:Five:

No ConstraintsNo Constraints Five:Five:

No ConstraintsNo Constraints Two:Two:

Known OptionsKnown OptionsTwo:Two:

Known OptionsKnown Options

Three:Three:

Clear PreferencesClear PreferencesThree:Three:

Clear PreferencesClear PreferencesSix:Six:

Maximum PayoffMaximum PayoffSix:Six:

Maximum PayoffMaximum Payoff


A Model of Bounded RationalityA Model of Bounded Rationality

AscertainAscertainthe Need the Need

for a Decisionfor a Decision

SimplifySimplifythe Problemthe Problem

SetSet““Satisficing”Satisficing”

CriteriaCriteria

Identify aIdentify aLimited Set Limited Set

of Alternativesof Alternatives

CompareCompareAlternativesAlternatives

Against CriteriaAgainst Criteria

ExpandExpandSearch forSearch for

AlternativesAlternatives

Select theSelect theFirst “GoodFirst “Good

Enough” ChoiceEnough” Choice

A “Satisficing”A “Satisficing”AlternativeAlternative

ExistsExists

YesNo


The Role ofThe Role ofIntuitionIntuition

The Role ofThe Role ofIntuitionIntuition

• Uncertainty

• Limited Facts and Data

• Time

• Less Scientific Predictability


AnalyticAnalytic ConceptualConceptual

BehavioralBehavioralDirectiveDirective

Rational IntuitiveWay of Thinking

High

Low

To

lera

nce

fo

r A

mb

igu

ity

Decision-Making Decision-Making StylesStyles


OrganizationalOrganizationalConstraintsConstraints

OrganizationalOrganizationalConstraintsConstraints

PerformancPerformancee

EvaluationsEvaluations

RewardRewardSystemsSystems

HistoricalHistoricalConstraintConstraint

ss TimeTimeConstraintConstraint

ss

Formal Regulations

Formal Regulations


CulturalCulturalDifferencesDifferences

ProblemProblemIdentificationIdentification

The Value ofThe Value ofRationalityRationality

TimeTimeOrientationOrientation

Groups orGroups orIndividualsIndividuals


Decision-Making and Ethics

Utilitarian Rights

Justice

Documents

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Organizational Behavior: Perception